(
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
, singular; plural: ) is a modern term used primarily for the Germanic
border
Borders are usually defined as geographical boundaries, imposed either by features such as oceans and terrain, or by political entities such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other subnational entities. Political borders c ...
defence or delimiting system of
Ancient Rome
In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC ...
marking the
borders of the Roman Empire
The borders of the Roman Empire, which fluctuated throughout the empire's history, were realised as a combination of military roads and linked forts, natural frontiers (most notably the Rhine and Danube rivers) and man-made fortifications whic ...
, but it was not used by the Romans for that purpose. The term has been extended to refer to the frontier defences in other parts of the empire, such as in the east and in Africa.
The ''līmes'' is often associated with Roman
forts, but the concept could apply to any adjoining area the Romans exercised loose control with military forces.
Overview
The Roman frontier stretched for more than from the Atlantic coast of northern
Britain
Britain most often refers to:
* The United Kingdom, a sovereign state in Europe comprising the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands
* Great Britain, the largest island in the United King ...
, through Europe to the
Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Rom ...
, and from there to the
Red Sea
The Red Sea ( ar, البحر الأحمر - بحر القلزم, translit=Modern: al-Baḥr al-ʾAḥmar, Medieval: Baḥr al-Qulzum; or ; Coptic: ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϩⲁϩ ''Phiom Enhah'' or ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϣⲁⲣⲓ ''Phiom ǹšari''; ...
and across North Africa to the Atlantic coast. The remains of the ''limites'' today consist of vestiges of walls, ditches, forts, fortresses, and civilian settlements. Certain elements of the frontier have been excavated, some reconstructed, and a few destroyed. The two sections of ''limes'' in Germany cover a length of from the north-west of the country to the
Danube
The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , p ...
in the south-east. The 118 km long
Hadrian's Wall was built on the orders of the Emperor
Hadrian c. AD 122 at the northernmost limits of the Roman province of
Britannia
Britannia () is the national personification of Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield. An image first used in classical antiquity, the Latin ''Britannia'' was the name variously applied to the British Isles, Great ...
. It is a striking example of the organization of a military zone and illustrates the defensive techniques and geopolitical strategies of ancient Rome. The
Antonine Wall, a 60 km-long fortification in Scotland, was started by Emperor
Antoninus Pius
Antoninus Pius ( Latin: ''Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius''; 19 September 86 – 7 March 161) was Roman emperor from 138 to 161. He was the fourth of the Five Good Emperors from the Nerva–Antonine dynasty.
Born into a senatori ...
in AD 142 as a defense against the "Barbarians" of the north. It constitutes the northwesternmost portion of the Roman ''Limes''.
The soldiers at a ''līmes'' were referred to as ''
līmitāneī''. Compared to the regular Roman military, they tended to be more likely to be of local descent (rather than Italians), be paid less, and be overall less prestigious. However, they were not expected to win large-scale wars, but rather to deter small-to-medium-sized raiders.
Notable examples of Roman frontiers include:
*
Hadrian's Wall – ''
Limes Britannicus
The frontier of the Roman Empire in Britain is sometimes styled Limes Britannicus ("British Limes") by authors for the boundaries, including fortifications and defensive ramparts, that were built to protect Roman Britain (th ...
'' (
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
World Heritage ''ID 430bis–001'')
*
Antonine Wall – in Scotland (UNESCO
World Heritage Site
A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...
)
*
Saxon Shore, late Roman limes in South-East England
*''
Limes Germanicus
The (Latin for ''Germanic frontier'') is the name given in modern times to a line of frontier () fortifications that bounded the ancient Roman provinces of Germania Inferior, Germania Superior and Raetia, dividing the Roman Empire and the unsubd ...
'', with the
Upper Germanic & Rhaetian Limes
The (Latin for ''Germanic frontier'') is the name given in modern times to a line of frontier () fortifications that bounded the ancient Roman provinces of Germania Inferior, Germania Superior and Raetia, dividing the Roman Empire and the unsubd ...
(UNESCO
World Heritage ''ID 430bis–002'')
*''
Limes Arabicus'', the frontier of the Roman province of
Arabia Petraea
Arabia Petraea or Petrea, also known as Rome's Arabian Province ( la, Provincia Arabia; ar, العربية البترائية; grc, Ἐπαρχία Πετραίας Ἀραβίας) or simply Arabia, was a frontier province of the Roman Emp ...
facing the desert
*''
Limes Tripolitanus
The ''Limes Tripolitanus'' was a frontier zone of defence of the Roman Empire, built in the south of what is now Tunisia and the northwest of Libya. It was primarily intended as a protection for the tripolitanian cities of Leptis Magna, Sabratha ...
'', the frontier in modern Libya facing the Sahara
*''
Limes Alutanus
The ''Limes Alutanus'' was a fortified line consisting of a vallum, built in the North-South direction, on the eastern side of the Olt river (Latin ''Alutus'') and seven Roman castra, as is remembered by Tabula Peutingeriana. Limes Alutanus wa ...
'', the eastern border of the Roman province of
Dacia
Dacia (, ; ) was the land inhabited by the Dacians, its core in Transylvania, stretching to the Danube in the south, the Black Sea in the east, and the Tisza in the west. The Carpathian Mountains were located in the middle of Dacia. It ...
*''
Limes Transalutanus
''Limes Transalutanus''Technological challenges on the Limes Transalutanus,
Eugen S. Teodor, Dan Ştefan, https://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/teodor342 is the modern name given to a fortified frontier system of the Roman Empire, built on the west ...
'', the frontier in the lower Danube
*''
Limes Moesiae
The Moesian Limes ( la, Limes Moesiae) is the modern term given to a collection of Roman fortifications between the Black Sea shore and Pannonia, present-day Hungary, consisting primarily of forts along the Danube (so-called Danubian Limes) to ...
'', the frontier of the Roman province
Moesia, from
Singidunum
Singidunum ( sr, Сингидунум/''Singidunum'') was an ancient city which later evolved into modern Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. The name is of Celtic origin, going back to the time when Celtic tribe Scordisci settled the area in the 3r ...
Serbia along the Danube to Moldavia.
*''
Limes Norici'', the frontier of the Roman province
Noricum
Noricum () is the Latin name for the Celtic kingdom or federation of tribes that included most of modern Austria and part of Slovenia. In the first century AD, it became a province of the Roman Empire. Its borders were the Danube to the north, ...
, from the River
Inn
Inns are generally establishments or buildings where travelers can seek lodging, and usually, food and drink. Inns are typically located in the country or along a highway; before the advent of motorized transportation they also provided accommo ...
along the Danube to Cannabiaca (
Zeiselmauer-Wolfpassing
Zeiselmauer-Wolfpassing is a community located in the district of Tulln in the Austrian federal state of Lower Austria.
Geography
Zeiselmauer-Wolfpassing is located in the Tulln Basin which is a basin surrounding the city of Tulln. The municipalit ...
) in Austria.
*''
Limes Pannonicus'', the frontier of the Roman province
Pannonia, along the Danube from
Klosterneuburg
Klosterneuburg (; frequently abbreviated as Kloburg by locals) is a town in Tulln District in the Austrian state of Lower Austria. It has a population of about 27,500. The Klosterneuburg Monastery, which was established in 1114 and soon after gi ...
Austria to
Taurunum in Serbia.
*''
Fossatum Africae
''Fossatum Africae'' ("African ditch") is one or more linear defensive structures (sometimes called ''limes'') claimed to extend over or more in northern Africa constructed during the Roman Empire to defend and control the southern borders of th ...
'', the southern frontier of the Roman Empire, extending south of the
Roman province of Africa in
North-Africa.
Etymology
The stem of ''limes'', ''limit''-, which can be seen in the genitive case, ''limitis'', marks it as the ancestor of an entire group of words in many languages related to Latin; for example, English ''
limit'' or French ''
limite''. The
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
noun ''līmes'' (; Latin ') had a number of different meanings: a path or balk delimiting
fields
Fields may refer to:
Music
* Fields (band), an indie rock band formed in 2006
* Fields (progressive rock band), a progressive rock band formed in 1971
* ''Fields'' (album), an LP by Swedish-based indie rock band Junip (2010)
* "Fields", a song b ...
; a boundary line or marker; any road or path; any channel, such as a stream channel; or any distinction or difference. The term was also commonly used after the 3rd century AD to denote a military district under the command of a ''dux limitis''.
An etymology by
Julius Pokorny in ''Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch'' says that ''limes'' comes from
Indo-European
The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Dutc ...
br>
''el-'', ''elei-'', ''lei-'' "to bow", "to bend", "elbow". According to Pokorny, Latin ''limen'', "threshold", is related to ''limes'', being the stone over which one enters or leaves the house. Some scholars have viewed the frontier as
The Merriam–Webster dictionaries take this view, as does J. B. Hofmann in ''Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Griechischen'' under ''leimon''. ''The White Latin Dictionary'' denies any connection, deriving ''limen'' from *''ligmen'', as in ''lien'' fro
"tie". In this sense, the threshold ties together the doorway. W. Gebert also wrote an article discussing the term.
Some experts suggested that the Germanic ''limes'' may have been called ''Munimentum Traiani'' (Trajan's Bulwark) by contemporaries, referring to a passage by
Ammianus Marcellinus
Ammianus Marcellinus (occasionally anglicised as Ammian) (born , died 400) was a Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from antiquity (preceding Procopius). His work, known as the ''Res Gestae ...
, according to which emperor
Julian had reoccupied this fortification in 360 AD.
In Europe
Britain and Gaul
![Roman](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Roman.Britain.north.155.jpg)
This section of ''limes'' existed from the 1st to the 5th century AD and ran through the provinces of:
* ''Britannia Inferior''
* ''Britannia Superior''
The ''limes'' in Britain (''
Limes Britannicus
The frontier of the Roman Empire in Britain is sometimes styled Limes Britannicus ("British Limes") by authors for the boundaries, including fortifications and defensive ramparts, that were built to protect Roman Britain (th ...
'') is on the territory of the present-day
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the European mainland, continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
in England, Scotland and Wales. From the 1st to the 2nd century, the
Gask Ridge
The Gask Ridge is the modern name given to an early series of fortifications, built by the Romans in Scotland, close to the Highland Line. Modern excavation and interpretation has been pioneered by the Roman Gask Project, with Birgitta Hoffmann ...
and the Stanegate, with their chains of Roman camps and watchtowers, marked the northern boundary of
Britannia
Britannia () is the national personification of Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield. An image first used in classical antiquity, the Latin ''Britannia'' was the name variously applied to the British Isles, Great ...
. Later the isthmuses in the north between the
Firth of Forth and
Firth of Clyde
The Firth of Clyde is the mouth of the River Clyde. It is located on the west coast of Scotland and constitutes the deepest coastal waters in the British Isles (it is 164 metres deep at its deepest). The firth is sheltered from the Atlantic ...
were guarded by the defences of the
Antonine Wall and the line between the mouth of the Tyne and
Solway Firth
The Solway Firth ( gd, Tràchd Romhra) is a firth that forms part of the border between England and Scotland, between Cumbria (including the Solway Plain) and Dumfries and Galloway. It stretches from St Bees Head, just south of Whitehaven ...
by
Hadrian's Wall. The perimeter defence of Hadrian's Wall was achieved through the construction of camps (''
castella
is a kind of ''wagashi'' (a Japanese traditional confectionery) originally developed in Japan based on the "Nanban confectionery" (confectionery imported from abroad to Japan during the Azuchi–Momoyama period). The batter is poured into larg ...
'') on the lowlands, which were built along the most important roads in the north. Security and monitoring on the coasts in the west and southeast was achieved by camps and by chains of watchtowers or signal towers, both along the coastline and along main roads in the interior.
The occupying forces, ''Exercitus Britannicus'', consisted mostly of
cohorts of
auxilia. The strategic reserve comprised three
legions based in
Eburacum (York),
Isca Silurum
Isca, variously specified as Isca Augusta or Isca Silurum, was the site of a Roman legionary fortress and settlement or ''vicus'', the remains of which lie beneath parts of the present-day suburban village of Caerleon in the north of the city of ...
and
Deva. The observation and surveillance of the waters around the British Isles was the responsibility of the ''
Classis Britannica'', whose headquarters was in ''
Rutupiae
Richborough Castle is a Roman Saxon Shore fort better known as Richborough Roman Fort. It is situated in Richborough near Sandwich, Kent. Substantial remains of the massive fort walls still stand to a height of several metres.
It is p ...
'' (Richborough). Legions auxilia cohorts and the fleet were commanded by the provincial governors. From the 3rd century, units of ''
comitatenses
The comitatenses and later the palatini were the units of the field armies of the late Roman Empire. They were the soldiers that replaced the legionaries, who had formed the backbone of the Roman military since the Marian reforms.
Organizati ...
,
limitanei
The ''līmitāneī'' (Latin, also called ''rīpēnsēs''), meaning respectively "the soldiers in frontier districts" (from the Latin phrase līmēs, meaning a military district of a frontier province) or "the soldiers on the riverbank" (from the ...
'' and ''
liburnaria'' (marines) came under the command of two generals:
* ''
Comes Britanniarum
The (Latin for "Count of the Britains") was a military post in Roman Britain with command over the mobile field army from the mid-4th century onwards. It is listed in the List of Offices as being one of the three commands in Britain, along wit ...
''
* ''
Dux Britanniarum
''Dux Britanniarum'' was a military post in Roman Britain, probably created by Emperor Diocletian or Constantine I during the late third or early fourth century. The ''Dux'' (literally, "(military) leader" was a senior officer in the late Roma ...
''
Saxon Shore
![Litus Saxonicum](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Litus_Saxonicum.png)
This section of the ''limes'' existed from the 3rd to 5th centuries AD and covered the provinces of:
* ''Britannia Inferior''
* ''Belgica''
* ''
Lugdunensis''
* ''
Aquitania''
This ''limes'' of the
Late Antiquity
Late antiquity is the time of transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages, generally spanning the 3rd–7th century in Europe and adjacent areas bordering the Mediterranean Basin. The popularization of this periodization in English ha ...
ran through the territory of the present-day
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the European mainland, continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
and
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
. In the 3rd century, a separate military district, the ''Litus Saxonicum'', was established on the British side of the
English Channel
The English Channel, "The Sleeve"; nrf, la Maunche, "The Sleeve" (Cotentinais) or ( Jèrriais), (Guernésiais), "The Channel"; br, Mor Breizh, "Sea of Brittany"; cy, Môr Udd, "Lord's Sea"; kw, Mor Bretannek, "British Sea"; nl, Het Kana ...
between the estuaries of
the Wash
The Wash is a rectangular bay and multiple estuary at the north-west corner of East Anglia on the East coast of England, where Norfolk meets Lincolnshire and both border the North Sea. One of Britain's broadest estuaries, it is fed by the riv ...
and the
Solent
The Solent ( ) is a strait between the Isle of Wight and Great Britain. It is about long and varies in width between , although the Hurst Spit which projects into the Solent narrows the sea crossing between Hurst Castle and Colwell Bay t ...
, to repel
Saxon pirates and plunderers. The Gallic side of the English Channel and Atlantic coast were included therein. Monitoring and coastal surveillance were carried out by a chain of watchtowers or signal towers, camps and fortified ports (Gaul). Most of the Saxon Shore camps probably served as naval bases.
The garrisons of the camps were composed of infantry and several cavalry regiments. Monitoring and surveillance of the Channel were the responsibility of the ''
Classis Britannica'' and ''Classis Sambrica'', whose headquarters were in ''Locus Quartensis'' (Port d'Etaple), guarding the mouth of the
River Somme. The units of ''
comitatenses
The comitatenses and later the palatini were the units of the field armies of the late Roman Empire. They were the soldiers that replaced the legionaries, who had formed the backbone of the Roman military since the Marian reforms.
Organizati ...
,
limitanei
The ''līmitāneī'' (Latin, also called ''rīpēnsēs''), meaning respectively "the soldiers in frontier districts" (from the Latin phrase līmēs, meaning a military district of a frontier province) or "the soldiers on the riverbank" (from the ...
'' and ''liburnaria'' in this area came under the command of three generals:
* ''
Comes litoris Saxonici per Britanniam'' (Count of the Saxon Shore)
* ''
Dux Belgicae secundae
The ''Dux Belgicae secundae'' ("commander of the second Belgic province") was a senior officer in the army of the Late Roman Empire who was the commander of the '' limitanei'' (frontier troops) and of a naval squadron on the so-called Saxon Sho ...
''
* ''
Dux tractus Armoricani et Nervicani''
Lower Germania
![Limes1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Limes1.png)
This section of ''limes'' existed from the 1st to the 5th century AD and ran through the province of Lower Germania (''Germania Inferior'').
It lies on the territory of today's
Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
and
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
. This ''limes'' was a river border (''limes ripa'') on the
Rhine
), Surselva, Graubünden, Switzerland
, source1_coordinates=
, source1_elevation =
, source2 = Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein
, source2_location = Paradies Glacier, Graubünden, Switzerland
, source2_coordinates=
, so ...
, defended by a chain of
camps, that ran from the North Sea (Katwijk-Brittenburg camp) to Vinxtbach (opposite
Rheinbrohl fort on the
Upper Germanic Limes
The Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes (german: Obergermanisch-Raetischer Limes), or ORL, is a 550-kilometre-long section of the former external frontier of the Roman Empire between the rivers Rhine and Danube. It runs from Rheinbrohl to Eining on the ...
), forming the border between the Roman provinces of ''
Germania Inferior
Germania Inferior ("Lower Germania") was a Roman province from AD 85 until the province was renamed Germania Secunda in the fourth century, on the west bank of the Rhine bordering the North Sea. The capital of the province was Colonia Agripp ...
'' and ''
Germania Superior''. By contrast with the
Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes
The Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes (german: Obergermanisch-Raetischer Limes), or ORL, is a 550-kilometre-long section of the former external frontier of the Roman Empire between the rivers Rhine and Danube. It runs from Rheinbrohl to Eining on th ...
, it was not marked by a solid palisade or wall. Neither can any
defensive ditch or
rampart
Rampart may refer to:
* Rampart (fortification), a defensive wall or bank around a castle, fort or settlement
Rampart may also refer to:
* "O'er the Ramparts We Watched" is a key line from "The Star-Spangled Banner", the national anthem of the ...
be identified. The guards were stationed in nearby ''castra'' and watchtowers usually built immediately on the Rhine. The ''limes'' was served by a well-developed military road. Each camp had its own river port or landing stage and a storage area, because the Rhine not only formed the border but was also the most important transport and trade route in the region. In the first section, between the camps of ''
Rigomagus'' (Remagen) and ''
Bonna'' (Bonn), there were only a few camps. In the second, middle, section between ''Bonna'' and ''
Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum'' (Nijmegen), there were considerably more. Here there were also larger legion camps; with one exception, all were cavalry barracks. The landscape of the third section between ''Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum'' and ''Mare Germanicum'' (the North Sea) was characterised by numerous small streams and boggy marshland. Consequently, in this area there was only one cavalry camp. Border security here consisted mainly of tightly packed, relatively small cohort forts.
The occupying troops, ''Exercitus Germaniae Inferioris'', consisted mostly of auxilia cohorts. From the 2nd century, the strategic reserve comprised three legions stationed in ''
Bonna/''Bonn, ''
Novaesium
Neuss (; spelled ''Neuß'' until 1968; li, Nüss ; la, Novaesium) is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located on the west bank of the Rhine opposite Düsseldorf. Neuss is the largest city within the Rhein-Kreis Neuss district. It ...
/''Neuss, ''
Vetera/''Xanten and ''
Noviomagus/''Nijmegen. The control and surveillance of the waters of the North Sea, the Rhine estuary and the Lower Rhine was the responsibility of the ''
Classis Germanica'' whose headquarters was in ''
Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium
Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium was the Roman colony in the Rhineland from which the city of Cologne, now in Germany, developed.
It was usually called ''Colonia'' (colony) and was the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior and t ...
''/Cologne. Legions, auxilia and fleet units were commanded by the respective provincial governor. From the 3rd century the ''
ripenses'' (river guards), ''
comitatenses
The comitatenses and later the palatini were the units of the field armies of the late Roman Empire. They were the soldiers that replaced the legionaries, who had formed the backbone of the Roman military since the Marian reforms.
Organizati ...
'', and ''liburnaria'' were under the command of the ''
Dux Belgicae secundae
The ''Dux Belgicae secundae'' ("commander of the second Belgic province") was a senior officer in the army of the Late Roman Empire who was the commander of the '' limitanei'' (frontier troops) and of a naval squadron on the so-called Saxon Sho ...
''.
Upper Germania and Rhaetia
![Limes2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Limes2.png)
This ''limes'' existed from the 1st to 5th centuries AD and guarded the provinces of:
* ''
Germania Superior''
* ''
Rhaetia''
It lay on the territory of the present German states of
Rhineland-Palatinate
Rhineland-Palatinate ( , ; german: link=no, Rheinland-Pfalz ; lb, Rheinland-Pfalz ; pfl, Rhoilond-Palz) is a western state of Germany. It covers and has about 4.05 million residents. It is the ninth largest and sixth most populous of the ...
,
Hesse
Hesse (, , ) or Hessia (, ; german: Hessen ), officially the State of Hessen (german: links=no, Land Hessen), is a state in Germany. Its capital city is Wiesbaden, and the largest urban area is Frankfurt. Two other major historic cities are Dar ...
,
Baden-Württemberg
Baden-Württemberg (; ), commonly shortened to BW or BaWü, is a German state () in Southwest Germany, east of the Rhine, which forms the southern part of Germany's western border with France. With more than 11.07 million inhabitants across a ...
and
Bavaria
Bavaria ( ; ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (german: Freistaat Bayern, link=no ), is a state in the south-east of Germany. With an area of , Bavaria is the largest German state by land area, comprising roughly a fifth of the total lan ...
. To the north, it bordered those parts of the Roman province of ''
Rhaetia'' that lay north of the
Danube
The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , p ...
and guarded the eastern border of that part of ''
Germania Superior'' that lay east of the Rhine. In Upper Germania the border defences initially consisted only of a post road. From about 162/63 AD, the Romans constructed a defensive barrier with watchtowers and signal towers,
palisades, ditches and earthworks. On one short section of the Rhaetian Limes, a solid stone wall was erected. In its final stages, the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes was about 550 kilometres long and ran from
Rheinbrohl
Rheinbrohl is a municipality in the district of Neuwied, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after ...
, in the county of
Neuwied
Neuwied () is a town in the north of the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate, capital of the District of Neuwied. Neuwied lies on the east bank of the Rhine, 12 km northwest of Koblenz, on the railway from Frankfurt am Main to Cologne. Th ...
in northern Rhineland-Palatinate, as far as
Hienheim on the Danube. Between the villages of
Osterburken
Osterburken () is a town in the Neckar-Odenwald district, in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is situated 28 km southwest of Tauberbischofsheim, 50 km northeast of Heilbronn, 90 km east of Heidelberg, 60 km southwest of Wür ...
and
Welzheim
Welzheim is a town in the Rems-Murr district, in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is located 35 km east of Stuttgart, and 15 km northwest of Schwäbisch Gmünd.
Welzheim has 11,239 (2005) inhabitants and is located in the 'Welzheimer Wa ...
, the ''limes'' ran for 81 kilometres almost in a straight line southwards.
[M.J.T. Lewis: ''Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome'', Cambridge University Press, 2001, , pp. 242 245.] In the scholarly literature, this unusual section is considered as evidence that this type of boundary wall had never been used for defensive purposes.
The land of ''
Agri Decumates
The ''Agri Decumates'' or ''Decumates Agri'' ("Decumatian Fields") were a region of the Roman Empire's provinces of Germania Superior and Raetia, covering the Black Forest, Swabian Jura, and Franconian Jura areas between the Rhine, Main, and Da ...
'' that was guarded by this ''limes'' had to be vacated by the Romans in 260-285 AD. They moved their bases back to the banks of the Rhine and Danube, which were much easier to defend militarily. The exact route of the ''limes'' along the border between Upper Germania and Raetia has not been fully explored. In the late 4th and early 5th centuries, the Rhaetian Limes was reorganized and divided into three sections. The northern border of ''Rhaetia'' formed the ''pars superior'' (upper part), the western border was the ''pars media'' (central part) with the fortified town of
Cambodunum and bases from ''
Vemania'' (
Isny im Allgäu
Isny im Allgäu ( Low Alemannic: ''Isny im Allgai'') is a town in south-eastern Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is part of the district of Ravensburg, in the western, Württembergish part of the Allgäu region.
Isny was a Free Imperial City (' ...
) to ''Cassilacum'' (
Memmingen
Memmingen (; Swabian: ''Memmenge'') is a town in Swabia, Bavaria, Germany. It is the economic, educational and administrative centre of the Danube-Iller region. To the west the town is flanked by the Iller, the river that marks the Baden-W ...
); the ''pars inferior'' (lower part) was the section between ''Castra Regina'' (
Regensburg) and ''Batavis'' (
Passau).
The defending troops, ''Exercitus Germaniae superioris'' and ''Exercitus Raeticus'', consisted mostly of auxilia cohorts. From the 2nd century, the strategic reserve was formed from three legions stationed in ''
Mogontiacum
Mainz () is the capital and largest city of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.
Mainz is on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite to the place that the Main joins the Rhine. Downstream of the confluence, the Rhine flows to the north-west, with Main ...
/''Mainz, ''
Argentorate/''Strasbourg and ''
Castra Regina''/Regensburg. The monitoring of the Upper Rhine was the responsibility of the ''
Classis Germanica''; that of the Rhaetic Danube came under the ''
Classis Pannonia'', whose headquarters was in ''
Aquincum
Aquincum (, ) was an ancient city, situated on the northeastern borders of the province of Pannonia within the Roman Empire. The ruins of the city can be found today in Budapest, the capital city of Hungary. It is believed that Marcus Aurelius w ...
''/Budapest. Legions and auxilia cohorts were under the command of the governor. From the 3rd century the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian border troops (''comitatenses,
repenses'', and ''liburnaria''), were commanded by three generals:
* ''
Dux Raetiae''
* ''
Dux Mogontiacensis''
* ''
Comes tractus Argentoratensis''
Danube-Iller-Rhine Limes (DIRL)
![Historische Karte CH Rome 1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Historische_Karte_CH_Rome_1.png)
This ''limes'' existed from the 3rd to the 5th centuries AD and guarded the provinces of:
* ''
Germania Superior''
* ''
Rhaetia''
It lies on the territory of present-day Germany,
Austria
Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...
,
Switzerland and
Liechtenstein
Liechtenstein (), officially the Principality of Liechtenstein (german: link=no, Fürstentum Liechtenstein), is a German-speaking microstate located in the Alps between Austria and Switzerland. Liechtenstein is a semi-constitutional monarch ...
. As early as the period 15 BC to about 70 AD, the border between Rome and Germania ran mostly along the line of the late antique Danube-Iller-Rhine Limes (DIRL) before the Romans advanced further north into the ''
Agri decumates
The ''Agri Decumates'' or ''Decumates Agri'' ("Decumatian Fields") were a region of the Roman Empire's provinces of Germania Superior and Raetia, covering the Black Forest, Swabian Jura, and Franconian Jura areas between the Rhine, Main, and Da ...
''. Because of troop withdrawals and massive barbarian invasions, the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes were abandoned in the late 3rd century and the Roman forces pulled the border back to the banks of the three rivers. Especially around the year 300, the Emperor
Diocletian had new fortifications built directly on the river banks or on major roads in the hinterland here. Around 370 AD, the line of fortifications was considerably strengthened under the Emperor
Valentinian I
Valentinian I ( la, Valentinianus; 32117 November 375), sometimes called Valentinian the Great, was Roman emperor from 364 to 375. Upon becoming emperor, he made his brother Valens his co-emperor, giving him rule of the eastern provinces. Val ...
to counter the
Alemanni, who were steadily advancing southwards. By contrast with the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes, the DIRL primarily fulfilled defensive purposes; its camps had much stronger and higher walls than their High Imperial predecessors. Furthermore, they had in most cases been built to conform to the local topography. This meant that they could not be built in the classical 'pack of cards' shape. Between them a dense chain of watchtowers and signal towers was constructed to provide an additional security measure (''
burgi'').
Flotillas of patrol boats were stationed on the large lakes in this region.
*
Lake Constance: ''Numerus Barcariorum'' (HQ at ''Brigantium''/Bregenz)
*
Lake Neuchâtel
Lake Neuchâtel (french: Lac de Neuchâtel ; frp, Lèc de Nôchâtél; german: Neuenburgersee) is a lake primarily in Romandy, in the French-speaking part of Switzerland. The lake lies mainly in the canton of Neuchâtel, but is also shared by t ...
: ''Classis Barcariorum'' (HQ at ''Eburodunum''/
Yverdon
Yverdon-les-Bains () (called Eburodunum and Ebredunum during the Roman era) is a municipality in the district of Jura-Nord vaudois of the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. It is the seat of the district. The population of Yverdon-les-Bains, , was ...
).
''Comitatenses'', ''ripenses'', and ''liburnaria'' in this section of the limes were under the command of four generals:
* ''
Dux Raetiae''
* ''
Dux provinciae Sequanicae''
* ''
Comes tractus Argentoratensis''
* ''
Dux Germaniae primae''
Noricum
![Limes3](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Limes3.png)
This section of the ''limes'' existed from the 1st to the 5th century AD and guarded part of the Roman province of ''
Noricum
Noricum () is the Latin name for the Celtic kingdom or federation of tribes that included most of modern Austria and part of Slovenia. In the first century AD, it became a province of the Roman Empire. Its borders were the Danube to the north, ...
''.
It is on the soil of the present-day Austrian states of
Upper and
Lower Austria
Lower Austria (german: Niederösterreich; Austro-Bavarian: ''Niedaöstareich'', ''Niedaestareich'') is one of the nine states of Austria, located in the northeastern corner of the country. Since 1986, the capital of Lower Austria has been Sankt P ...
. It ran along the
Danube
The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , p ...
from Passau/''Boiodurum'' to Zeiselmauer/''Cannabiaca''. This is also a ''ripa'' (river border), which was guarded by a loose chain of cohort forts. The main road on the Norican Limes was the
''via iuxta amnem Danuvium''. The initially simple wood and earth structures were systematically converted under Emperor
Hadrian into stone encampments. During the 4th century, they were brought once more up to date and massively reinforced. Between the camps, in strategic places or good points of observation, were watchtowers or signal towers and, in the Late Antiquity,
''burgi''. In the middle section, between the camps of ''
Favianis'' and ''
Melk
Melk (; older spelling: ) is a city of Austria, in the federal state of Lower Austria, next to the Wachau valley along the Danube. Melk has a population of 5,257 (as of 2012). It is best known as the site of a massive baroque Benedictine monastery ...
'', watchtowers were built only sporadically. Here the narrow valley of the
Wachau
The Wachau () is an Austrian valley with a picturesque landscape formed by the Danube river. It is one of the most prominent tourist destinations of Lower Austria, located midway between the towns of Melk and Krems that also attracts "connois ...
, with its densely forested escarpments, made access to the riverbank more difficult, providing some defensive function. Every camp had its own river port or landing stage and a storage area because the Danube was not only border zone, but also the most important transport and trade route in the region. Over time civilian settlements or ''
vici'' were established immediately next to the camps. In the immediate hinterland of the ''limes'', walled towns or ''
municipia
In ancient Rome, the Latin term (pl. ) referred to a town or city. Etymologically, the was a social contract among ("duty holders"), or citizens of the town. The duties () were a communal obligation assumed by the in exchange for the privil ...
'' were founded - for example, ''
Aelium Cetium'' or ''
Ovilava
Wels (; Central Bavarian: ''Wös'') is a city in Upper Austria, on the Traun River near Linz. It is the county seat of Wels-Land, and with a population of approximately 60,000, the eighth largest city in Austria.
Geography
Wels is in the H ...
'' (Wels). They were the administrative or commercial centres of the region. In late antiquity, the Norican area was divided into two parts (''pars inferior'' and ''pars superior'').
[ND occ.: XXXIV] It is probable that a second, defensive line was created to the rear (''Castrum
Locus Felicis'').
The occupying troops, ''Exercitus Noricus'', consisted mostly of auxilia cohorts and a legion stationed in ''
Lauriacum
Map of the Danubeian Limes. Reconstruction of the camp and adjoining oppidium.Lauriacum was an important legionary Roman town on the Danube Limes in Austria.
History Roman Era
Where only a small Roman settlement was located at a ford over the ...
/''Enns acted as the strategic reserve. The surveillance and security of the Danube and its tributaries were the responsibility of the ''
Classis Pannonia''. Units of the legions, naval and auxiliary forces were commanded by the respective governors. In late antiquity - according to ''
Notitia Dignitatum'' - four newly established flotillas undertook this task. From the 3rd century, the Norian ''comitatenses'', ''ripenses'' and ''liburnari'' were under the command of two generals:
* ''
Comes Illyrici''
* ''
Dux Pannoniae Primae et Norici Ripensis''
Pannonia
![Limes4](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Limes4.png)
This stretch of ''limes'' was in use from the 1st to the 5th centuries AD and helped to guard the provinces of:
* ''Pannonia inferior''
* ''Pannonia''
The
Pannonian Limes
The Pannonian Limes ( lat, Limes Pannonicus, german: Pannonischer Limes) is that part of the old Roman fortified frontier known as the Danubian Limes that runs for approximately from the Roman camp of Klosterneuburg in the Vienna Basin in Austria ...
is situated on the territory of present-day Austria,
Slovakia
Slovakia (; sk, Slovensko ), officially the Slovak Republic ( sk, Slovenská republika, links=no ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the s ...
and
Hungary
Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Pannonian Basin, Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the ...
. Although this section of the frontier was relatively well protected by the Danube river border or ''Ripa'', the Roman military presence here was always exceptionally strong (three military camps in Pannonia, but only one in Lower Pannonia) because especially after the abandonment of ''
Roman Dacia'' in the late 3rd century, the pressure of migrant peoples from the east on this section of the ''limes'' intensified. The tributaries emptying into the Danube offered cheap transport routes, but also made good approach routes for invaders and raiders. The military camps were therefore built by the most important fords or confluences and road termini. The legion- and auxilia camps were mainly located in the immediate vicinity of the riverbank. The initial wood and earth structures, were systematically converted under Emperor
Hadrian into stone barracks and, in the 4th century, redesigned and massively strengthened in order to match new strategic requirements. The gaps between the camps were closed by a chain of watchtowers or signal towers. In late Roman times huge
inland camps were built and towns in the hinterland were fortified to create a second line of defence. In addition, at vulnerable points, units of the Danube fleet were stationed. In the time of Emperor
Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Latin: áːɾkus̠ auɾέːli.us̠ antɔ́ːni.us̠ English: ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good ...
the first mention is made in Pannonia of stone watchtowers (''
burgi'', panelled towers and fortlets (''praesidia''). In late antiquity, the Pannonian military district was divided into two parts (''pars inferior'' and ''pars superior'').
Advance defences were provided by bridgehead camps (e.g. ''Castra
Contra Aquincum'' or ''
Celemantia'') and military stations on main transport routes in the ''
Barbaricum'' (e.g. near Musov).
Lower Danube
In Africa
![Septimius Severus' African conquests1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Septimius_Severus%27_African_conquests1.jpg)
At the greatest extent of the Roman Empire, the southern border lay along the deserts of Arabia in the Middle East (see
Romans in Arabia) and the Sahara in
North Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
, which represented a natural barrier against expansion. The Empire controlled the Mediterranean shores and the mountain ranges further inland. The Romans attempted twice to occupy the
Siwa Oasis and finally used Siwa as a place of banishment. However Romans controlled the
Nile
The Nile, , Bohairic , lg, Kiira , Nobiin: Áman Dawū is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa and has historically been considered the longest ...
many miles into Africa up to the modern border between Egypt and Sudan.
In Africa Romans controlled the area north of the Sahara, from the Atlantic Ocean to Egypt, with many sections of limes (
Limes Tripolitanus
The ''Limes Tripolitanus'' was a frontier zone of defence of the Roman Empire, built in the south of what is now Tunisia and the northwest of Libya. It was primarily intended as a protection for the tripolitanian cities of Leptis Magna, Sabratha ...
, Limes Numidiae, etc.).
The ''Fossatum Africae'' ("African ditch") of at least 750 km controlled the southern borders of the Empire and had many similarities of construction to
Hadrian's Wall.
There are similar, but shorter, ''fossatae'' in other parts of North Africa. Between the Matmata and Tabaga ranges in modern
Tunisia
)
, image_map = Tunisia location (orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption = Location of Tunisia in northern Africa
, image_map2 =
, capital = Tunis
, largest_city = capital
, ...
there is a ''fossatum'' which was duplicated during World War II. There also appears to be a 20-km. ''fossatum'' at
Bou Regreg in
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria t ...
although this would not have been within the scope of the proclamation of the ''
Codex Theodosianus'' because at that time the province was not in Africa, administratively speaking.
In the south of
Mauritania Tingitana the frontier in the third century lay just north of
Casablanca near Sala and stretched to
Volubilis
Volubilis (; ar, وليلي, walīlī; ber, ⵡⵍⵉⵍⵉ, wlili) is a partly excavated Berber-Roman city in Morocco situated near the city of Meknes, and may have been the capital of the kingdom of Mauretania, at least from the time of Kin ...
.
Septimius Severus
Lucius Septimius Severus (; 11 April 145 – 4 February 211) was Roman emperor from 193 to 211. He was born in Leptis Magna (present-day Al-Khums, Libya) in the Roman province of Africa. As a young man he advanced through the customary suc ...
expanded the "Limes Tripolitanus" dramatically, even briefly holding a military presence in the Garamantian capital Garama in 203 AD. Much of the initial campaigning success was achieved by
Quintus Anicius Faustus
Quintus Anicius Faustus (fl. late 2nd century – early 3rd century AD) was a Roman military officer and senator who was appointed suffect consul in AD 198.
Biography
Born either in Uzappa in the province of Numidia, or in Praeneste in Ita ...
, the legate of
Legio III Augusta
("Third Augustan Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. Its origin may have been the Republican 3rd Legion which served the general Pompey during his civil war against Gaius Julius Caesar (49–45 BC). It supported the general Oct ...
.
Following his African conquests, the Roman Empire may have reached its greatest extent during the reign of
Septimius Severus
Lucius Septimius Severus (; 11 April 145 – 4 February 211) was Roman emperor from 193 to 211. He was born in Leptis Magna (present-day Al-Khums, Libya) in the Roman province of Africa. As a young man he advanced through the customary suc ...
,
[ David L. Kennedy, Derrick Riley (2012)]
''Rome's Desert Frontiers'', page 13
Routledge
Routledge () is a British multinational publisher. It was founded in 1836 by George Routledge, and specialises in providing academic books, journals and online resources in the fields of the humanities, behavioural science, education, law ...
R.J. van der Spek Robartus Johannes (Bert) van der Spek (born 18 September 1949 in Zoetermeer) is a Dutch ancient historian, specializing in the Seleucid Empire. He was a full professor in Ancient Studies at VU University Amsterdam from 1993 to his retirement in 2014 ...
, Lukas De Blois (2008)
''An Introduction to the Ancient World'', page 272
Routledge
Routledge () is a British multinational publisher. It was founded in 1836 by George Routledge, and specialises in providing academic books, journals and online resources in the fields of the humanities, behavioural science, education, law ...
under whom the empire encompassed an area of 2 million square miles
( million
square kilometer
Square kilometre ( International spelling as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures) or square kilometer (American spelling), symbol km2, is a multiple of the square metre, the SI unit of area or surface area.
1 km2 is ...
s).
Fossatum Africae
![Fossatum](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Fossatum.png)
''Fossatum Africae'' ("African ditch") is a linear defensive structure (''limes'') that extended over 750 km or more in
northern Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in t ...
constructed during the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post- Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediter ...
to defend and control the southern borders of the Empire in the
Roman province of Africa. It is considered to have many similarities of construction to
Hadrian's Wall at the northern border of the Empire in Britain.
Generally the Fossatum consists of a ditch and earth embankments on either side using the material from the ditch. Sometimes the embankments are supplemented by dry stone walls on one or both sides; rarely, there are stone walls without a ditch. The width of the Fossatum is generally 3–6 m but in exceptional cases may be as much as 20 m. Wherever possible, it or its highest wall is constructed on the
counterscarp
A scarp and a counterscarp are the inner and outer sides, respectively, of a ditch or moat used in fortifications. Attackers (if they have not bridged the ditch) must descend the counterscarp and ascend the scarp. In permanent fortifications th ...
.
Excavations near
Gemellae
Gemellae was a Roman fort and associated camp on the fringe of the Sahara Desert in what is today part of Algeria. It is now an archaeological site, 25 km south and 19 km west of Biskra, and 5 km southwest of the present-day village ...
showed the depth there to be 2–3 m, with a width of 1 m at the bottom widening to 2–3 m at the top.
The Fossatum is accompanied by many small watchtowers and numerous forts, often built within sight of one another.
In Asia
The Limes Arabicus was the frontier of the Roman province of
Arabia Petraea
Arabia Petraea or Petrea, also known as Rome's Arabian Province ( la, Provincia Arabia; ar, العربية البترائية; grc, Ἐπαρχία Πετραίας Ἀραβίας) or simply Arabia, was a frontier province of the Roman Emp ...
, facing the desert. It runs from the
Gulf of Aqaba
The Gulf of Aqaba ( ar, خَلِيجُ ٱلْعَقَبَةِ, Khalīj al-ʿAqabah) or Gulf of Eilat ( he, מפרץ אילת, Mifrátz Eilát) is a large gulf at the northern tip of the Red Sea, east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian ...
to northern Syria, for about 1,500 kilometers (930 mi) at its greatest extent
Post-Roman ''limites''
The ''
Limes Saxoniae
The Limes Saxoniae (Latin for "Limit of Saxony"), also known as the Limes Saxonicus or Sachsenwall ("Saxon Dyke"), was an unfortified limes or border between the Saxons and the Slavic Obotrites, established about 810 in present-day Schleswig ...
'' in
Holstein
Holstein (; nds, label=Northern Low Saxon, Holsteen; da, Holsten; Latin and historical en, Holsatia, italic=yes) is the region between the rivers Elbe and Eider. It is the southern half of Schleswig-Holstein, the northernmost state of German ...
was established in 810 AD, long after the
fall of the Western Roman Empire
The fall of the Western Roman Empire (also called the fall of the Roman Empire or the fall of Rome) was the loss of central political control in the Western Roman Empire, a process in which the Empire failed to enforce its rule, and its vas ...
.
Charlemagne
Charlemagne ( , ) or Charles the Great ( la, Carolus Magnus; german: Karl der Große; 2 April 747 – 28 January 814), a member of the Carolingian dynasty, was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and the first ...
considered his empire (later called the
Carolingian Empire
The Carolingian Empire (800–888) was a large Frankish-dominated empire in western and central Europe during the Early Middle Ages. It was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty, which had ruled as kings of the Franks since 751 and as kings of the ...
) as the true successor to the Roman Empire and called himself "Emperor of the Romans". Official edicts were issued in Latin, which affected the naming of the Empire's frontier as well.
In fiction
*The novel series ''Romanike'' is set at the ''Limes Germanicus'' in the decades until the first assault of Germanic peoples in 161 AD.
*''Roman Wall: A Novel'', by Winifred Bryher is set in 265 during the Limesfall.
• The Antonine Romans Novellas by Andrew Boyce is set in AD144, with The Antonine Wall location, Caledonia, modern day Scotland.
Gallery
File:Ostkastell Welzheim.jpg, Reconstructed east gate of the fort at Welzheim
Welzheim is a town in the Rems-Murr district, in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is located 35 km east of Stuttgart, and 15 km northwest of Schwäbisch Gmünd.
Welzheim has 11,239 (2005) inhabitants and is located in the 'Welzheimer Wa ...
, Germany
File:Holzwachturm am rätischen Limes (Rekonstruktion) - Wp12 77.jpg, Reconstructed wooden tower nearby Rainau, Germany
See also
*
Roman military frontiers and fortifications
Roman military borders and fortifications were part of a grand strategy of territorial defense in the Roman Empire, although this is a matter of debate. By the early 2nd century, the Roman Empire had reached the peak of its territorial expan ...
*
Great Wall
The Great Wall of China (, literally "ten thousand ''li'' wall") is a series of fortifications that were built across the historical northern borders of ancient Chinese states and Imperial China as protection against various nomadic groups ...
, structures of similar scale and function, built by various dynasties in China
*
Sasanian defense lines
The defense lines (or ''"limes"'') of the Sasanians were part of their military strategy and tactics. They were networks of fortifications, walls, and/or ditches built opposite the territory of the enemies. These defense lines are known from tra ...
, the borders of the Neo-Persian Empire
*
Limitanei
The ''līmitāneī'' (Latin, also called ''rīpēnsēs''), meaning respectively "the soldiers in frontier districts" (from the Latin phrase līmēs, meaning a military district of a frontier province) or "the soldiers on the riverbank" (from the ...
, soldiers on the late Roman and early Byzantine ''limites''
*
March (territorial entity)
In medieval Europe, a march or mark was, in broad terms, any kind of borderland, as opposed to a national "heartland". More specifically, a march was a border between realms or a neutral buffer zone under joint control of two states in which diff ...
, medieval European borderlands
*
The Pale
The Pale (Irish: ''An Pháil'') or the English Pale (' or ') was the part of Ireland directly under the control of the English government in the Late Middle Ages. It had been reduced by the late 15th century to an area along the east coast st ...
, the English-controlled strip of Ireland
References
External links
Frontiers of the Roman Empire: UNESCO Official WebsiteOfficial website of the ''Verein Deutsche Limes-Straße'' (in German)(in German), German antiquarian site with maps
Vici.orgInteractive map with the ''limes'' and other Roman castles and sites
(German)
Derlimes.at Official website of the Limes group in Austria) (in German, Serbian, Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin)Limes, Italian Review of Geopolitics(Italian)
{{Coord, 54.9926, N, 2.6010, W, source:wikidata, display=title
Roman frontiers
Roman fortifications