A libertine is a person questioning and challenging most moral principles, such as responsibility or sexual restraints, and will often declare these traits as unnecessary or undesirable. A libertine is especially someone who ignores or even spurns accepted morals and forms of behaviour observed by the larger society. The values and practices of libertines are known collectively as libertinism or ''libertinage'' and are described as an extreme form of

hedonism Hedonism refers to a family of theories, all of which have in common that pleasure plays a central role in them. ''Psychological'' or ''motivational hedonism'' claims that human behavior is determined by desires to increase pleasure and to decr ...

. Libertines put value on physical pleasures, meaning those experienced through the senses. As a philosophy, libertinism gained new-found adherents in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, particularly in France and Great Britain. Notable among these were John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, and the

Marquis de Sade Donatien Alphonse François, Marquis de Sade (; 2 June 1740 – 2 December 1814), was a French nobleman, revolutionary politician, philosopher and writer famous for his literary depictions of a libertine sexuality as well as numerous accusat ...

History of the term

The word ''libertine'' was originally coined by

John Calvin John Calvin (; frm, Jehan Cauvin; french: link=no, Jean Calvin ; 10 July 150927 May 1564) was a French theologian, pastor and reformer in Geneva during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system ...

to negatively describe opponents of his policies in Geneva, Switzerland. The group, led by

Ami Perrin Ami Perrin (c. 1500 – 1561) was a Genevan leader of the "Libertins" party and one of the most powerful figures in Geneva in the 16th century as chief opponent of religious reformer John Calvin's rule of the city. Perrin's father was a dealer i ...

, argued against Calvin's "insistence that church discipline should be enforced uniformly against all members of Genevan society". Perrin and his allies were elected to the town council in 1548, and "broadened their support base in Geneva by stirring up resentment among the older inhabitants against the increasing number of religious refugees who were fleeing France in even greater numbers". By 1555, Calvinists were firmly in place on the Genevan town council, so the Libertines, led by Perrin, responded with an "attempted coup against the government and called for the massacre of the French. This was the last great political challenge Calvin had to face in Geneva". In England, a few Lollards held libertine views such as that adultery and fornication were not sin, or that "whoever died in faith would be saved irrespective of his way of life". During the 18th and 19th centuries, the term became more associated with debauchery. Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand wrote that Joseph Bonaparte "sought only life's pleasures and easy access to libertinism" while on the throne of Naples.

Literature

'' Les Liaisons dangereuses'' (''Dangerous Liaisons'', 1782), an epistolary novel by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, is a trenchant description of sexual libertinism.

Wayland Young Wayland Hilton Young, 2nd Baron Kennet (2 August 1923 – 7 May 2009) was a British writer and politician, notably concerned with planning and conservation. As a Labour minister, he was responsible for setting up the Department of the Environmen ...

argues: "... the mere analysis of libertinism ... carried out by a novelist with such a prodigious command of his medium ... was enough to condemn it and play a large part in its destruction." Jacob Huysmans - Portrait of John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester 1

Jacob Huysmans - Portrait of John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester 1

Agreeable to Calvin's emphasis on the need for uniformity of discipline in Geneva,

Samuel Rutherford Samuel Rutherford (also Rutherfurd or Rutherfoord; – 29 March 1661) was a Scottish Presbyterian pastor and theologian who wrote widely read letters, sermons, devotional and scholastic works. As a political theorist, he is known for "L ...

(Professor of Divinity in the University of St. Andrews, and Christian minister in 17th-century Scotland) offered a rigorous treatment of "Libertinism" in his polemical work "A Free Disputation Against Pretended Liberty of Conscience" (1649). ''

A Satyr Against Reason and Mankind "A Satyr Against Reason and Mankind" is a satirical poem by the English Restoration literature, Restoration poet John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester. Interpretation "A Satyr Against Reason and Mankind" addresses the question of the proper use of rea ...

'' is a poem by John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester which addresses the question of the proper use of reason, and is generally assumed to be a Hobbesian critique of rationalism. The narrator subordinates reason to sense. It is based to some extent on Boileau's version of Juvenal's eighth or fifteenth satire, and is also indebted to Hobbes,

Montaigne Michel Eyquem, Sieur de Montaigne ( ; ; 28 February 1533 – 13 September 1592), also known as the Lord of Montaigne, was one of the most significant philosophers of the French Renaissance. He is known for popularizing the essay as a liter ...

, Lucretius, and

Epicurus Epicurus (; grc-gre, Ἐπίκουρος ; 341–270 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and sage who founded Epicureanism, a highly influential school of philosophy. He was born on the Greek island of Samos to Athenian parents. Influenced ...

, as well as the general libertine tradition. Confusion has arisen in its interpretation as it is ambiguous as to whether the speaker is Rochester himself, or a satirised persona. It criticises the vanities and corruptions of the statesmen and politicians of the court of Charles II. The

libertine novel The libertine novel was an 18th-century literary genre of which the roots lay in the European but mainly French libertine tradition. The genre effectively ended with the French Revolution. Themes of libertine novels were anti-clericalism, anti-e ...

was a primarily 18th-century literary genre of which the roots lay in the European but mainly French libertine tradition. The genre effectively ended with the French Revolution. Themes of libertine novels were

anti-clericalism Anti-clericalism is opposition to religious authority, typically in social or political matters. Historical anti-clericalism has mainly been opposed to the influence of Roman Catholicism. Anti-clericalism is related to secularism, which seeks to ...

, anti-establishment and eroticism. Marquis de sade

Authors include

Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon (13 February 1707 – 12 April 1777), called "Crébillon fils" (to distinguish him from his father), was a French novelist. Born in Paris, he was the son of a famous tragedian, Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon. H ...

('' Les Égarements du cœur et de l'esprit'', 1736; ''

Le Sopha, conte moral ''The Sofa: A Moral Tale'' (french: Le Sopha, conte moral) is a 1742 libertine novel by Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon. It was first translated into English in the spring of 1742 in an edition published by John Nourse and Thomas Cooper. This ...

'', 1742), Denis Diderot (''

Les bijoux indiscrets ''The Indiscreet Jewels'' (or ''The Indiscreet Toys'', or ''The Talking Jewels''; french: Les Bijoux indiscrets) is the first novel by Denis Diderot, published anonymously in 1748. It is an allegory that portrays Louis XV of France as Mangogul, S ...

'', 1748),

(''

L'Histoire de Juliette ''Juliette'' is a novel written by the Marquis de Sade and published 1797 in literature, 1797–1801 in literature, 1801, accompanying Sade's 1797 version of his novel ''Justine (Sade), Justine''. While Justine, Juliette's sister, was a virtue, ...

'', 1797–1801),

Choderlos de Laclos Pierre Ambroise François Choderlos de Laclos (; 18 October 1741 – 5 September 1803) was a French novelist, official, Freemason and army general, best known for writing the epistolary novel ''Les Liaisons dangereuses'' (''Dangerous Liaisons'' ...

('' Les Liaisons dangereuses'', 1782), and

John Wilmot John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester (1 April 1647 – 26 July 1680) was an English poet and courtier of King Charles II's Restoration court. The Restoration reacted against the "spiritual authoritarianism" of the Puritan era. Rochester embodie ...

('' Sodom, or the Quintessence of Debauchery'', 1684). Other famous titles are ''

Histoire de Dom Bougre, Portier des Chartreux ''Histoire de Dom Bougre, Portier des Chartreux'' is a French novel from 1741. Allegedly the anonymous author was Jean-Charles Gervaise de Latouche. ''Histoire de Dom Bougre'' is one of the most celebrated French erotic novels of the 18th centur ...

'' (1741) and ''

Thérèse Philosophe Therese or Thérèse is a variant of the feminine given name Teresa. It may refer to: Persons Therese *Duchess Therese of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1773–1839), member of the House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and a Duchess of Mecklenburg *Therese of Br ...

'' (1748). Precursors to the libertine writers were

Théophile de Viau Théophile de Viau (159025 September 1626) was a French Baroque poet and dramatist. Life Born at Clairac, near Agen in the Lot-et-Garonne and raised as a Huguenot, Théophile de Viau participated in the Huguenot rebellions in Guyenne from 1615� ...

(1590–1626) and

Charles de Saint-Evremond Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English and French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''*karilaz'' (in Latin alphabet), whose meaning was " ...

(1610–1703), who were inspired by

and the publication of

Petronius Gaius Petronius Arbiter"Gaius Petronius Arbiter"
Robert Darnton is a cultural historian who has covered this genre extensively. A three-part essay in '' The Book Collector'' by David Foxen explores libertine literature in England, 1660-1745. Critics have been divided as to the literary merits of William Hazlitt's ''Liber Amoris'', a deeply personal account of frustrated love that is quite unlike anything else Hazlitt ever wrote. Wardle suggests that it was compelling but marred by sickly sentimentality, and also proposes that Hazlitt might even have been anticipating some of the experiments in chronology made by later novelists. One or two positive reviews appeared, such as the one in the ''Globe'', 7 June 1823: "The ''Liber Amoris'' is unique in the English language; and as, possibly, the first book in its fervour, its vehemency, and its careless exposure of passion and weakness—of sentiments and sensations which the common race of mankind seek most studiously to mystify or conceal—that exhibits a portion of the most distinguishing characteristics of Rousseau, it ought to be generally praised". Dan Cruickshank in his book ''London's Sinful Secret'' summarized Hazlitt's infatuation stating: "Decades after her death Batsy (Careless) still haunted the imagination of the essayist William Hazlitt, a man who lodged near Covent Garden during the 1820s, where he became unpleasantly intimate with the social consequences of unconventional sexual obsession that he revealed in his ''Liber Amoris'' of 1823, in which he candidly confessed to his infatuation with his landlord's young daughter."

Philosophy

During the Baroque era in France, there existed a freethinking circle of philosophers and intellectuals who were collectively known as ''libertinage érudit'' and which included Gabriel Naudé,

Élie Diodati Élie Diodati (Elia, Elias) (1576–1661) was a Genevan lawyer and jurist from a leading Calvinist family in Geneva, who had moved there from Lucca. He is now known as a supporter of Galileo: they started their correspondence in 1620 and met in Fl ...

and

François de La Mothe Le Vayer François de La Mothe Le Vayer (, August 15889 May 1672), was a French writer who was known to use the pseudonym Orosius Tubero. He was admitted to the Académie française in 1639, and was the tutor of Louis XIV. Early years Le Vayer was born a ...

. The critic

Vivian de Sola Pinto Vivian de Sola Pinto (9 December 1895 – 27 July 1969) was a British poet, literary critic and historian. He was a leading scholarly authority on D. H. Lawrence, and appeared for the defence (Penguin Books) in the 1960 ''Lady Chatterley's Love ...

linked John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester's libertinism to Hobbesian

materialism Materialism is a form of philosophical monism which holds matter to be the fundamental substance in nature, and all things, including mental states and consciousness, are results of material interactions. According to philosophical materiali ...

Notable libertines

Some notable libertines include:

Rulers and political figures

* Al-Amin, the sixth Abbasid ruler *

Caligula Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), better known by his nickname Caligula (), was the third Roman emperor, ruling from 37 until his assassination in 41. He was the son of the popular Roman general Germanicu ...

, third Emperor of Rome *

Edward VII of Great Britain Edward VII (Albert Edward; 9 November 1841 – 6 May 1910) was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and Emperor of India, from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910. The second child and eldest son of Queen Victoria and ...

* Elagabalus *

George IV of the United Kingdom George IV (George Augustus Frederick; 12 August 1762 – 26 June 1830) was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and King of Hanover from the death of his father, King George III, on 29 January 1820, until his own death ten y ...

* Henry IV of France * Louis XV of France,

King of France France was ruled by monarchs from the establishment of the Kingdom of West Francia in 843 until the end of the Second French Empire in 1870, with several interruptions. Classical French historiography usually regards Clovis I () as the first ...

from 1715 to 1774 * Sir Charles Sedley, 5th Baronet, English noble * Dominique Strauss-Kahn, French economist and politician * John Wilkes

Religious leaders

* Aleister Crowley, creator of Thelema * Anton Szandor LaVey, founder of the Church of Satan and creator of LaVeyan Satanism *

Pope Alexander VI Pope Alexander VI ( it, Alessandro VI, va, Alexandre VI, es, Alejandro VI; born Rodrigo de Borja; ca-valencia, Roderic Llançol i de Borja ; es, Rodrigo Lanzol y de Borja, lang ; 1431 – 18 August 1503) was head of the Catholic Churc ...

, Pope of the Catholic Church from 1492 to 1503

Actors

* Tallulah Bankhead, American actress * Charlie Sheen, American actor

Musicians

* Lorenzo Da Ponte, Italian librettist *

Marilyn Manson Brian Hugh Warner (born January 5, 1969), known professionally as Marilyn Manson, is an American rock musician. He came to prominence as the lead singer of the band which shares his name, of which he remains the only constant member since it ...

, American industrial rock/ metal musician who plays with his band of the same name * Jim Morrison, musician best known as the singer and primary songwriter of The Doors

Writers

* Abu Nuwas al-Salami, a classical Arabic poet *

, French novelist, after whom the term " sadism" is named * Ivan Barkov, Russian poet *

Charles Baudelaire Charles Pierre Baudelaire (, ; ; 9 April 1821 – 31 August 1867) was a French poetry, French poet who also produced notable work as an essayist and art critic. His poems exhibit mastery in the handling of rhyme and rhythm, contain an exoticis ...

, French poet *

Aphra Behn Aphra Behn (; bapt. 14 December 1640 – 16 April 1689) was an English playwright, poet, prose writer and translator from the Restoration era. As one of the first English women to earn her living by her writing, she broke cultural barrie ...

, English playwright * Cyrano de Bergerac, French novelist *

Bussy-Rabutin Roger de Rabutin, comte de Bussy (13 April 1618 – 9 April 1693), commonly known as Bussy-Rabutin, was a French memoirist. He was the cousin and frequent correspondent of Madame de Sévigné. Born at Epiry, near Autun, he represented a fami ...

, cousin of

Madame de Sévigné Madame may refer to: * Madam, civility title or form of address for women, derived from the French * Madam (prostitution), a term for a woman who is engaged in the business of procuring prostitutes, usually the manager of a brothel * ''Madame'' ( ...

, and author of ''Histoire Amoureuse des Gaules'' (chronicling the love affairs of the court of Louis XIV). * Lord Byron, English poet * Arthur Rimbaud, French poet

Others

* Giacomo Casanova, Italian adventurer * Don Juan, legendary character known for his machismo and sexuality

References

{{Authority control Morality History of human sexuality Pejorative terms for people