Li Jing ( zh, 李璟, later changed to ; 916
['']Old History of the Five Dynasties
The ''Old History of the Five Dynasties'' (''Jiù Wǔdài Shǐ'') was an official history mainly focus on Five Dynasties era (907–960), which controlled much of northern China. And it also includes some history of other south states during the ...
'', vol. 134. – August 12, 961
['']Xu Zizhi Tongjian
''Xu Zizhi Tongjian'' (續資治通鑑; "Continuation to ''Zizhi Tongjian''") was a book chronicling Chinese history of the Song dynasty between 960 and 1279 and the Yuan dynasty between 1279 and 1370. Credited to Bi Yuan (畢沅; 1730–1797), a ...
'', vol. 2.Academia Sinica
Academia Sinica (AS, la, 1=Academia Sinica, 3=Chinese Academy; ), headquartered in Nangang, Taipei, is the national academy of Taiwan. Founded in Nanking, the academy supports research activities in a wide variety of disciplines, ranging from ...
br>Chinese-Western Calendar Converter
), originally Xu Jingtong (), briefly Xu Jing () in 937–939,
courtesy name
A courtesy name (), also known as a style name, is a name bestowed upon one at adulthood in addition to one's given name. This practice is a tradition in the East Asian cultural sphere, including China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.Ulrich Theob ...
Boyu (), also known by his
temple name
Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship. The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dyna ...
Yuanzong (), was the second ruler (sometimes called Zhongzhu, , ) of imperial China's
Southern Tang
Southern Tang () was a state in Southern China that existed during Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, which proclaimed itself to be the successor of the former Tang dynasty. The capital was located at Nanjing in present-day Jiangsu Province ...
state during the
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century Imperial China. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain, and more than a dozen conc ...
. He reigned his state from 943 until his death.
During Li Jing's earlier reign, he expanded Southern Tang's borders by extinguishing smaller neighboring states:
Min
Min or MIN may refer to:
Places
* Fujian, also called Mǐn, a province of China
** Min Kingdom (909–945), a state in Fujian
* Min County, a county of Dingxi, Gansu province, China
* Min River (Fujian)
* Min River (Sichuan)
* Mineola (Am ...
in 945 and
Chu in 951. However, the warfare also exhausted the wealth of the country, leaving it ill-prepared to resist the
Later Zhou
Zhou, known as the Later Zhou (; ) in historiography, was a short-lived Chinese imperial dynasty and the last of the Five Dynasties that controlled most of northern China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Founded by Guo Wei ( ...
invasion in 956. Forced to cede all
prefectures
A prefecture (from the Latin ''Praefectura'') is an administrative jurisdiction traditionally governed by an appointed prefect. This can be a regional or local government subdivision in various countries, or a subdivision in certain international ...
north of the
Yangtze River
The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ; ) is the longest list of rivers of Asia, river in Asia, the list of rivers by length, third-longest in the world, and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in th ...
, he also had to relinquish his title as an
emperor
An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
and accept Later Zhou's overlordship in 958, and later
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
's overlordship after 960 when Song succeeded Later Zhou.
Family
Parents
*Father:
Li Bian
Li Bian (7 January 889 – 30 March 943, courtesy name Zhenglun), known as Xu Gao between 937 and 939 and Xu Zhigao before 937, and possibly Li Pengnu during his childhood, also known posthumously by his temple name Liezu, was the founder and fi ...
*Mother:
Empress Yuanjing, of the Song clan (元敬皇后 宋氏), personal name Song Fujin (宋福金)
Wives
*
Empress Guangmu
Empress Zhong (鍾氏; given name unknown) (died 965), posthumously named Empress Guangmu (光穆皇后), was an empress consort and empress dowager of imperial China's short-lived Southern Tang Dynasty during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdo ...
(光穆皇后; d.965) of the Zhong clan (鍾氏)
** Li Hongji, Crown Prince Wenxian (文獻太子 李弘冀, d. 959), first son
**
Li Yu, King of Tang (唐國主 李煜, 937 – 15 August 978), fifth son
** Li Congqian, Duke of E (鄂國公 李從謙), ninth son
*Lady Ling, of the Ling clan (凌氏)
**Li Congshan, Duke of Nanchu (南楚國公 李從善, 940 – 987), seventh son
*Unknown:
**Li Hongmao, Prince of Qing (慶王 李弘茂), second son
**''Third son''
**''Li Congqin, Duke of Zhaoping (昭平郡公 李從慶), fourth son''
**Li Liangzuo (李良佐) sixth son
**Li Congyi, Duke of Jiang (江國公 李從鎰), eight son
**Li Congxin, Duke of Wenyang (文陽郡公 李從信), tenth son
**Li Congfu (李從甫), eleventh son
**Princess Taining (太寧公主), third daughter
***married Liu Jie (劉節), a son of Liu Chongjun (劉崇俊)
**Princess Yongjia (永嘉公主), fourth daughter
**Princess Li
***married a man surnamed Sun (孫)
***married
Shengzong of Liao and had issue (a daughter)
Background
Li Jing, then named Xu Jingtong, was born in 916.
[ His father Xu Zhigao was then Wu's prefect of Sheng Prefecture (昇州, in modern ]Nanjing
Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu province of the People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and the second largest city in the East China region. T ...
, Jiangsu
Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its ca ...
), under his adoptive father (Xu Jingtong's grandfather) Xu Wen
Xu Wen () (862''New History of the Five Dynasties'', vol. 61. – November 20, 927''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 276.Academia Sinicabr>Chinese-Western Calendar Converter), courtesy name Dunmei (), formally Prince Zhongwu of Qi (), later further ...
, who was then Wu's regent.['']Zizhi Tongjian
''Zizhi Tongjian'' () is a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084 AD during the Northern Song (960–1127), Northern Song dynasty in the form of a chronicle recording Chinese history from 403 BC to 959&n ...
'', vol. 269. He was Xu Zhigao's oldest son.['']Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms
The ''Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms'', also known by its Chinese title ''Shiguo Chunqiu'' (), is a history of the Ten Kingdoms that existed in southern China after the fall of the Tang Dynasty and before the reunification of China ...
'', vol. 16. His mother was Xu Zhigao's second wife Song Fujin Song Fujin (宋福金) (died 945), formally Empress Yuanjing (元敬皇后, "the discerning and alert empress"), was the empress and second wife of Li Bian (Xu Zhigao), the founding emperor of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period stat ...
,[''Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms'', vol. 18.] who would later give birth to three more sons, Xu Jingqian
Xu Jingqian (徐景遷) (919-937''Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms'', vol. 19.), also known in some historical records as Li Jingqian (李景遷) (because his family would, after his death, change the surname to Li), posthumously hono ...
, Xu Jingsui, and Xu Jingda.[''Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms'', vol. 19.]
During Wu
In 923, by which time Xu Zhigao was the junior regent under Xu Wen, there was an incident where the general Zhong Taizhang (), who had assisted in Xu Wen's coming to power, was under investigation for corruption. Xu Zhigao advocated punishing Zhong, but Xu Wen, pointing out Zhong's contributions, declined, and instead ordered Xu Zhigao to take one of Zhong's daughters
A daughter is a female offspring; a girl or a woman in relation to her parents. Daughterhood is the state of being someone's daughter. The male counterpart is a son. Analogously the name is used in several areas to show relations between groups ...
as wife for Xu Jingtong, although it is not clear whether the marriage took place that year or later.[''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 272.] In 925, Xu Jingtong, then age nine, was given the office of ''Jiabu Langzhong'' (), a supervisory official at the ministry of defense (兵部, ''Bingbu''). He later was given the title of an imperial guard general.[ In 930, by which point Xu Zhigao had succeeded Xu Wen as regent, Xu Zhigao planned to leave the Wu capital Jiangdu (江都, in modern ]Yangzhou
Yangzhou, postal romanization Yangchow, is a prefecture-level city in central Jiangsu Province (Suzhong), East China. Sitting on the north bank of the Yangtze, it borders the provincial capital Nanjing to the southwest, Huai'an to the north ...
, Jiangsu
Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its ca ...
) and take up his headquarters at Jinling
Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu province of the People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and the second largest city in the East China region. T ...
(i.e., the former Sheng Prefecture), he started the preparations of leaving Xu Jingtong at Jiangdu as junior regent by having him given the titles of minister of defense (兵部尚書, ''Bingbu Shangshu'') and acting chancellor (參政事, ''Can Zhengshi''). In 931, when Xu Zhigao's chief advisor Song Qiqiu
Song Qiqiu (887–959), courtesy name Zisong, formally Duke Chouliao of Chu (), was the chief strategist of Emperor Liezu of Southern Tang (Xu Zhigao/Li Bian), the founding emperor of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period state Sout ...
suddenly claimed to want to retire, it was Xu Jingtong that Xu Zhigao sent to Song's retirement mansion to urge Song to return to the government. Later in the year, Xu Zhigao left Jiangdu and took up headquarters at Jinling, leaving Xu Jingtong at Jiangdu to oversee the government, assisted by Song and Wang Lingmou Wang Lingmou () (died October 10, 937''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 281. Academia Sinicabr>Chinese-Western Calendar Converter) was a close associate of Xu Zhigao (later known as Li Bian), the regent of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period ...
. Xu Jingtong received the titles of ''Situ'' (司徒, one of the Three Excellencies
The Three Ducal Ministers (), also translated as the Three Dukes, Three Excellencies, or the Three Lords, was the collective name for the three highest officials in Ancient China and Imperial China. These posts were abolished by Cao Cao in 208 AD a ...
), chancellor (同中書門下平章事, ''Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi''), and acting director of military matters (知中外左右諸軍事, ''Zhi Zhongwai Zuoyou Zhujunshi'').[''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 277.]
In late 934, Xu Zhigao summoned Xu Jingtong from Jiangdu to Jinling, to serve as his deputy at Jinling, with the titles of deputy military governor of Zhenhai (鎮海, headquartered in modern Zhenjiang
Zhenjiang, alternately romanized as Chinkiang, is a prefecture-level city in Jiangsu Province, China. It lies on the southern bank of the Yangtze River near its intersection with the Grand Canal. It is opposite Yangzhou (to its north) and ...
, Jiangsu
Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its ca ...
) and Ningguo (寧國, headquartered in modern Xuancheng
Xuancheng () is a city in the southeast of Anhui province. Archeological digs suggest that the city has been settled for over 4,000 years, and has been under formal administration since the Qin dynasty. Located in the lower Yangtze River drainage ...
, Anhui
Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
) Circuits, deputy commander of the armies of all circuits (諸道副都統, ''Zhudao Fu Dutong''), and acting overseer of military matters (判中外諸軍事, ''Pan Zhongwai Zhujunshi''). His younger brother Xu Jingqian was made junior regent at Jiangdu in his place.[''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 279.]
In late 935, as part of the prelude of taking over the Wu throne, Xu Zhigao had Wu's emperor Yang Pu
Yang Pu ( zh, 楊溥; 900 – January 21, 939), formally Emperor Rui of Wu (), was the last ruler of Wu, and the only one that claimed the title of emperor. During his reign, the state was in effective control of the regents Xu Wen and Xu Wen' ...
bestow on him the titles of Prince of Qi and Generalissimo (大元帥, ''Da Yuanshuai'').[ In early 936, as he began to create a Generalissimo headquarters with six ministries, he made Xu Jingtong the deputy generalissimo and ''Taiwei'' (太尉, one of the Three Excellencies).][''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 280.] In 937, he created Xu Jingtong the crown prince
A crown prince or hereditary prince is the heir apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The female form of the title is crown princess, which may refer either to an heiress apparent or, especially in earlier times, to the wi ...
of the Principality of Qi, but Xu Jingtong declined.[''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 281.]
During Li Bian's reign as emperor
In winter 937, Xu Zhigao had Yang Pu yield the throne to him, ending Wu, and starting a new state later known as Southern Tang
Southern Tang () was a state in Southern China that existed during Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, which proclaimed itself to be the successor of the former Tang dynasty. The capital was located at Nanjing in present-day Jiangsu Province ...
[ (although it was likely known as Qi at this point).][''Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms'', vol. 15.] Sometimes around the transition, Xu Jingtong was apparently given the titles of commander of all circuits (諸道都統, ''Zhudao Dutong'') and acting generalissimo, and shortly after the transition, he was given the titles of deputy generalissimo, overseer of the imperial guards, ''Taiwei'', ''Shangshu Ling'' (), and Prince of Wu. Shortly after, his name was changed from Jingtong to Jing. In 938, his princely title was changed to Prince of Qi.[
In 939, Xu Zhigao changed his surname from the adoptive Xu to the birth Li and took a new personal name of Bian][''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 282.] (and likely changed the name of the state to Tang at that point).[ Xu Jing, and the rest of the imperial family (other than the lines from Xu Wen's biological sons) changed their names to Li at that time as well. Li Bian decreed that all the matters of state be submitted to Li Jing for decision, except that he himself would still oversee military matters. Later in the year, Li Bian wanted to create him to be the crown prince, but he declined, and so Li Bian gave him a number of additional titles—Generalissimo, acting commander of the imperial guards, acting ''Taiwei'', director of the executive bureau of government (錄尚書事, ''Lu Shangshu Shi''), and grand prefect of Sheng and Yang Prefectures (i.e., Jinling and Jiangdu). In fall 940, Li Bian created him crown prince, while having him continue to retain the titles of Generalissimo and ''Lu Shangshu Shi'', but he again declined, and so Li Bian allowed him to but ordered that the entire realm honor him as if he were crown prince. In late 940, there was an occasion when the fortuneteller Sun Zhiyong () claimed, due to planet alignments, that Li Bian should visit Jiangdu. Li Bian agreed, and left Li Jing in charge of the state as regent at Jinling, while he headed for Jiangdu. He considered taking up residence there for some time, but because supplying Jiangdu at that time was difficult due to freezing conditions, he soon thereafter returned to Jinling.][
In 942, when Song Qiqiu complained that he was not given sufficient authority, Li Bian put Song in charge of overseeing the executive bureau (尚書省, ''Shangshu Sheng''), while having Li Jing's younger brother Li Jingsui oversee the two other bureaus of government—the legislative (中書省, ''Zhongshu Sheng'') and examination (門下省, ''Menxia Sheng''), with Li Jing in charge of reviewing Song's and Li Jingsui's decisions. (However, this arrangement did not last long, as, later in the year, Song's associate Xia Changtu () was accused of corruption, but Song refused to execute him. Li Bian, in anger, directly ordered Xia's execution, and after this incident, Song requested retirement and was allowed to retire.)][''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 283.]
In any case, though, over the years, Song had often praised the abilities of Li Jing's younger brother Li Jingda, whom Li Bian himself considered resolute and magnanimous and therefore considered making his heir. While it did not actually occur, as Li Jing was older, Li Jing was resentful to Song for making the suggestion. Once, however, when Li Bian visited Li Jing's palace, he happened to see Li Jing playing instruments—which Li Bian considered frivolous, and therefore rebuked Li Jing for several straight days. Li Bian's favorite concubine Consort Zhong, who had given birth to Li Bian's youngest son Li Jingti (), took this opportunity to try to persuade Li Bian to divert succession from Li Jing to Li Jingti—which, however, angered Li Bian, who stated, "When a son has faults, the father rebukes him. This is normal. How can a woman interfere with important matters of state?" He sent her away and gave her in marriage to someone else. Meanwhile, Li Jing's staff members Chen Jue and Feng Yanji Feng Yanji () (per the ''Zizhi Tongjian'Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 283. and the '' History of Song' History of Song'', vol. 478.) or Feng Yansi () (per the ''New History of the Five Dynasties'New History of the Five Dynasties'', vol. 62. and ...
were in alliance with Song and finding ways to expel people who were not cooperating with them. Both Chang Mengxi () and Xiao Yan () submitted petitions to Li Bian accusing Chen of abuse of power, and it was said that while Li Bian understood some of the accusations to be true, he did not get a chance to act on them, before he fell deathly ill in spring 943 from poisoning due to pills given him by alchemists.[ On March 30,][ he summoned Li Jing to his deathbed, and, after entrusting the state to him, died. Li Jing did not immediately announce his death, but instead issued an edict in his name naming Li Jing regent and announcing a general pardon. Meanwhile, the official Sun Sheng, trying to stop the influence by Chen and the others on the incoming emperor, considered trying to announce that Li Bian's will named Empress Song regent for Li Jing, but when the official Li Yiye () pointed out that Li Bian often spoke against women's influence on governments and stated that he would publicly tear up the will if it were announced, Sun relented. Shortly after, Li Jing announced Li Bian's death, and then took the throne.][
]
Reign
Early reign
Upon taking the throne, Li Jing honored his mother Empress Song as empress dowager, and created his wife Princess Zhong empress. As he considered Song Qiqiu and Zhou Zong to be the most respected senior officials of the land, he made them his leading chancellors (as ''Zhongshu Ling'' () and ''Shizhong'' (), respectively), but decided the main decisions himself. He gave greater princely titles to his brothers Li Jingsui (from Prince of Shou to Prince of Yan) and Li Jingda (from Prince of Xuancheng to Prince of E). It was said after he took the throne, he entrusted much responsibility to Chen Jue, and a group of his associates thus emerged from this association—Chen, Feng Yanji, Feng Yanji's brother Feng Yanlu (), Wei Cen (), and Cha Wenhui ()—who became influential at his court, influencing him to benefit themselves, such that they became known as the "Five Ghosts." However, soon thereafter, when Chen left governmental service for some time to observe a mourning period for his mother, the alliance fractured, as Wei took the opportunity to defame Chen. With Chen gone, and with Li Jing unhappy with Song Qiqiu's repeated attempt to defame Zhou, Li Jing sent Song outside Jinling to serve as the military governor of Zhenhai, and then, when Song submitted a retirement request in anger, approved it.[
Later in the year, believing that it was Li Bian's wish that he pass the throne to his brothers eventually, Li Jing made Li Jingsui Generalissimo and Prince of Qi, and had him move into the eastern palace—i.e., the palace of the Crown Prince—and created Li Jingda the Prince of Yan. He publicly declared that he intended to pass the throne to the two of them, in order, despite their attempts to decline their greater titles. Li Jingsui thereafter took, as his courtesy name, "Tuishen" (退身, "withdrawing body"), to show that he had no intent to occupy the position. Li Jing also created his oldest son ]Li Hongji
Li, li, or LI may refer to:
Businesses and organizations
* Landscape Institute, a British professional body for landscape architects
* Leadership Institute, a non-profit organization located in Arlington, Virginia, US, that teaches "political te ...
the Prince of Nanchang, and youngest brother Li Jingti the Prince of Baoning. It was said that because Empress Dowager Song resented Consort Zhong for attempt to try to displace Li Jing with Li Jingti, she considered killing Li Jingti, but Li Jingti survived with Li Jing's protection.[
In winter 943, with the agrarian rebel leader Zhang Yuxian—who had earlier plagued Southern Tang's southern neighbor ]Southern Han
Southern Han (; 917–971), officially Han (), originally Yue (), was one of the ten kingdoms that existed during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It was located on China's southern coast, controlling modern Guangdong and Guangxi. The ...
—now inside his realm, Li Jing sent the officer Yan En () to attack Zhang, with the official Bian Hao
Bian Hao (邊鎬), nickname Kangle (康樂), was a general of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period state Southern Tang. Early in his career, he distinguished himself in campaigns against the agrarian army leader Zhang Yuxian and aga ...
serving as Yan's army monitor. Bian, using one Bai Changyu () as his chief strategist, attacked Zhang and defeated him. Zhang was then arrested and surrendered by his own subordinate Li Tai (), and was taken to Jinling and executed there.[
In spring 944, Feng Yanji, Wei, and Cha were trying to monopolize access to the emperor, and they took advance of Li Jing's desire to pass the throne to Li Jingsui and Li Jingda to persuade him to issue an edict that stated, "Li Jingsui the Prince of Qi should oversee all matters. Among the officials, only the deputy chiefs of staff Wei Cen and Cha Wenhui may come to us to present matters; otherwise, they can only see us by our summons." This greatly shocked the state, and Xiao Yan's petition to reverse this decision was ignored. However, the imperial guard commander Jia Chong () went to the palace door and knelt, requesting an audience, and when Li Jing saw him, pointed out that this was ill-advised and would cut off the rest of the government from him, causing Li Jing to withdraw this policy.][
Later in the year, with Southern Tang's southeastern neighbor ]Min
Min or MIN may refer to:
Places
* Fujian, also called Mǐn, a province of China
** Min Kingdom (909–945), a state in Fujian
* Min County, a county of Dingxi, Gansu province, China
* Min River (Fujian)
* Min River (Sichuan)
* Mineola (Am ...
embroiled in a civil war between its emperor Wang Xi and Wang Xi's brother Wang Yanzheng
Wang Yanzheng () (died 951?), known as Tiande Emperor () after his Chinese era name, era name of Tiande, formally Prince Gongyi of Fu (), also known during Min as the Prince of Fusha (), was the last ruler of the History of China, Chinese Five Dyn ...
, who had declared himself emperor of a new state of Yin
Yin may refer to:
*the dark force in the yin and yang from traditional Chinese philosophy and medicine
*Yīn (surname) (), a Chinese surname
*Yǐn (surname) (), a Chinese surname
*Shang dynasty, also known as the Yin dynasty
**Yinxu or Yin, the S ...
, Li Jing sent them letters, rebuking them for a fraternal civil war and urging them to make peace. Neither listened: Wang Xi wrote back and invoked the precedents of the Duke of Zhou
Dan, Duke Wen of Zhou (), commonly known as the Duke of Zhou (), was a member of the royal family of the early Zhou dynasty who played a major role in consolidating the kingdom established by his elder brother King Wu. He was renowned for acting ...
executing his rebellious brothers Lord Guan and Lord Cai, and Emperor Taizong of Tang
Emperor Taizong of Tang (28January 59810July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder of the dynasty ...
killing his brothers Li Jiancheng
Li Jiancheng (; 589 – July 2, 626, formally Crown Prince Yin (, literally, "the hidden crown prince"), nickname Vaishravana (; Sanskrit: Vaiśravaṇa), was the first crown prince of the Chinese Tang Dynasty. He was the oldest son of the foun ...
and Li Yuanji
Li Yuanji (李元吉) (603 – 2 July 626The date of the incident at Xuanwu Gate was the fourth day of the sixth month of the ''Wude'' era, which translates to July 2, 626, according to the Academia Sinicabr>), formally Prince La of Chao (巢剌 ...
, while Wang Yanzheng wrote back and rebuked Li Jing (and his father Li Bian) for usurping the Wu throne. In anger, Li Jing cut off diplomatic relations with Yin.[ In summer 944, after Wang Xi was assassinated by his general ]Zhu Wenjin
Zhu Wenjin () (died February 14, 945) was a general of, and later a claimant of the throne of, the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period state Min. In 944, he assassinated the emperor Wang Yanxi (also known as Wang Xi, Emperor Jingzong) ...
, who then claimed the Min throne, Zhu sent emissaries to Southern Tang, hoping to establish relations. Li Jing arrested Zhu's emissaries and considered attacking him, but as there were hot weather and plagues at the time, Southern Tang did not actually attack.[''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 284.]
In late 944, Cha made a proposal to attack Yin's capital Jian Prefecture (建州, in modern Nanping
Nanping (), historically known as Yanping (), is a third-tier prefecture-level city in northwestern Fujian Province, People's Republic of China. It borders Ningde to the east, Sanming to the south, and the provinces of Zhejiang and Jiangxi to ...
, Fujian
Fujian (; alternately romanized as Fukien or Hokkien) is a province on the southeastern coast of China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its cap ...
), and, despite much opposition, Li sent him to oversee the borders with Yin to see if such a plan were feasible. When Cha reached Xin Prefecture (信州, in modern Shangrao
Shangrao () is a medium-sized prefecture-level city located in the northeast of Jiangxi province, People's Republic of China. The city borders the province of Anhui to the north, the province of Zhejiang to the east, and the province of Fujian to t ...
, Jiangxi
Jiangxi (; ; formerly romanized as Kiangsi or Chianghsi) is a landlocked province in the east of the People's Republic of China. Its major cities include Nanchang and Jiujiang. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze river in the north int ...
), near the Yin border, he submitted a report indicating his belief that an attack would be successful. Li thereafter sent Bian to command an army to rendezvous with Cha. However, their initial attacks were unsuccessful. The Yin general Wu Chengyi (), who was then attacking the Min capital Changle (長樂, in modern Fuzhou, Fujian
Fujian (; alternately romanized as Fukien or Hokkien) is a province on the southeastern coast of China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its cap ...
), decided to use this opportunity to falsely claim to the people of Changle that Southern Tang was ''aiding'' Yin in the military efforts against Zhu, causing much alarm in Changle. The Min official Lin Renhan () used this opportunity to rise against Zhu, first killing Zhu's confederate Lian Chongyu, and then Zhu, and then opened the city to welcome Wu in. Shortly after, Wang Yanzheng claimed the Min throne, but kept his capital at Jian rather than moving it back to Changle. Soon thereafter, the Southern Tang general Zu Quan'en (), whom Li sent to reinforce Cha, crushed the Min army commanded by Wang Yanzheng's chancellor Yang Sigong, and then put Jian under siege.[ In fall 945, Jian fell, and Wang Yanzheng surrendered to Southern Tang, ending Min's existence as a state. However, the pillages of the Southern Tang army of Jian disappointed the Min people, who had welcomed Southern Tang forces as liberators from the oppressive Min regime, but Li chose not to pursue charges against the officers responsible due to the great accomplishment of destroying Min.][''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 285.]
Initially, the Min territory, after Jian's fall, pledged allegiance to Southern Tang. This included Fu Prefecture (福州, i.e., Changle),[ which had been under the control of ]Li Renda
Li Renda () (died 947), also known by the names of Li Hongyi () (945–946), Li Hongda () (946), Li Da () (946–947), and Li Ruyun () (947), was a warlord of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. He was initially an officer for the ...
, who seized control of the prefecture when Jian was under Southern Tang attack, and whom Li Jing had, in response, given him a new hame of Hongyi and adopted him into the Southern Tang imperial clan.[ After Jian's fall, however, Fu remained out of effective control by Southern Tang. Chen Jue, who was then Li Jing's chief of staff ('']Shumishi
Shumishi (), or shumi, was an official title in history of China, imperial China important in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, the Liao dynasty, the Song dynasty and the Jin dynasty (1115–1234). ''Shumishi'' managed the Bureau of Mili ...
''), volunteered to go to meet Li Hongyi, promising that he would be able to persuade Li Hongyi to give up his semi-independence and go to Jinling to pay homage to Li Jing. When Chen reached Fu, however, Li Hongyi took a defiant stance and treated Chen with disrespect. Chen did not dare to speak of having him come to Jinling, but, when he reached Jian Prefecture (劍州, in modern Nanping) on the way back to Jinling, Chen felt humiliated, and issued an order in Li Jing's name, without authorization, claiming for himself the acting authority to oversee Fu, conscripting the militia soldiers in the region to head toward Fu, and ordering Li Hongyi to report to Jinling. When Li Hongyi resisted, battles began. Li Jing was incensed by Chen's issuing of orders without authority, but by that point, Southern Tang officials became supportive of Chen's endeavor, and so Li Jing sent reinforcements. Southern Tang forces put Fu under siege, but even though the general Wang Chongwen () was in command of the entire operations, Chen, Feng Yanlu, and Wei Cen were all interfering with his authority, while the generals Wang Jianfeng () and Liu Congxiao Liu Congxiao (; 906-962), formally the Prince of Jinjiang (), was a general of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period state Min. After Min's fall, he initially submitted to Southern Tang (which had conquered Min), but eventually, takin ...
were also resistant, causing the siege to lose focus and unable to succeed, so the siege wore on.[
In spring 947, Li Jing formally created Li Jingsui his crown prince. He also created Li Jingda the Prince of Qi, and Li Hongji the Prince of Yan, with Li Jingda also serving as Generalissimo and Li Hongji his deputy. As the Khitan ]Liao dynasty
The Liao dynasty (; Khitan language, Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that exi ...
had recently destroyed Southern Tang's northern neighbor Later Jin Later Jin may refer to two states in imperial China:
* Later Jin (Five Dynasties) (後晉; 936–947), one of the Five Dynasties
* Later Jin (1616–1636) (後金; 1616–1636), precursor to the Qing dynasty
See also
* Jin (disambiguation)
Jin ...
and taken over central China, Li Jing sent emissaries to congratulate Liao's Emperor Taizong, and also, as Li Bian claimed ancestry from Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...
emperors, requested permission to send soldiers to repair the tombs of the Tang emperors. The Liao emperor refused, but still sent emissaries to Southern Tang in return. At this time, a number of Later Jin officials who did not want to submit to Liao fled to Southern Tang, and the agrarian rebels north of the Huai River
The Huai River (), formerly romanized as the Hwai, is a major river in China. It is located about midway between the Yellow River and Yangtze, the two longest rivers and largest drainage basins in China, and like them runs from west to ea ...
(which formed the border between Southern Tang and Later Jin) were also pledging allegiance to Southern Tang. The official Han Xizai Han Xizai () (902 – August 31, 970''Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms''vol. 28[Acade ...]
suggested that Southern Tang take an aggressive military stance to contest the central Chinese territories, but as the army was occupied with sieging Fu, such a campaign could not be carried out at the time, causing Li Jing much regret.[''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 286.]
By late spring 947, forces from Wuyue, which Li Hongyi (who now carried the name of Li Da) had sought aid from, had arrived at Fu. The Southern Tang forces allowed the Wuyue forces to land, hoping to defeat them and then take the city. However, Wuyue forces, once they landed, attacked and defeated the Southern Tang forces, lifting the siege on Fu. Subsequently, Liu returned to his stronghold Quan Prefecture (泉州, in modern Quanzhou, Fujian
Fujian (; alternately romanized as Fukien or Hokkien) is a province on the southeastern coast of China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its cap ...
) and forced the Southern Tang forces there to leave—thus, while he remained formally a Southern Tang subject, the modern southern Fujian region, which he controlled, was in effect semi-independent from that point on. (Thus, the only part of the former Min territory that Southern Tang had effective control of was the northwestern portion, centered around Jian Prefecture.) Li Jing, angry over the defeat, considered executing Chen and Feng Yanlu, but eventually, at the intercession of Song Qiqiu and Feng Yanji, only exiled them.[ When Li Jing subsequently heard that Liao abandoned the former Later Jin capital Daliang, he considered a campaign north, with the general ]Li Jinquan
Li Jinquan (died circa 950) was a military general during the Five Dynasties period, serving successively the Jin–Later Tang, Later Jin, and Southern Tang dynasties. He was of Tuyuhun ethnicity.
Li is best known for his 940 revolt against th ...
in command. However, he soon heard that the Later Jin general Liu Zhiyuan
Liu Zhiyuan () (March 4, 895 – March 10, 948), later changed to Liu Gao (), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Gaozu of Later Han (), was the founding emperor of the Shatuo-led Later Han dynasty, the fourth of the Five Dynasties du ...
had entered Daliang and claimed imperial title (as founder of a new state of Later Han, and therefore, not daring to confront Liu, cancelled those plans.[''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 287.]
After Liu Zhiyuan's death in early 948 and succession by his son Liu Chengyou
Liu Chengyou () (28 March 931Academia Sinicabr>Chinese-Western Calendar Converter – 2 January 951), also known by his posthumous name Emperor Yin (), was the second and last emperor of imperial China's short-lived Later Han dynasty, during t ...
,[ the Later Han general ]Li Shouzhen
Li Shouzhen (; died August 17, 949''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 288. Academia Sinicabr>Chinese-Western Calendar Converter) was a Chinese military general, monarch, and politician of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period states Later Jin ...
rebelled at Hezhong (河中, in modern Yuncheng
Yuncheng is the southernmost prefecture-level city in Shanxi province, People's Republic of China. It borders Linfen and Jincheng municipalities to the north and east, and Henan (Luoyang and Jiyuan to the east, Sanmenxia to the south) and Shaan ...
, Shanxi), and sought aid from Southern Tang. Li Jing sent Li Jinquan to attack north. Li Jinquan's army entered Later Han territory and reached Yi Prefecture (沂州, in modern Linyi
Linyi () is a prefecture-level city in the south of Shandong province, China. As of 2011, Linyi is the largest prefecture-level city in Shandong, both by area and population, Linyi borders Rizhao to the east, Weifang to the northeast, Zibo t ...
, Shandong), but with Hezhong being far away, across Later Han territory and with the Southern Tang soldiers having low morale, Li Jinquan soon thereafter withdrew back to Southern Tang territory. Li Jing subsequently wrote Liu Chengyou, apologizing for the incursion, asking for him to pardon Li Shouzhen, and requesting resumption of trade relations between Southern Tang and Later Han. Liu did not respond. Soon, Li Shouzhen was defeated by the Later Han general Guo Wei
Guo Wei () (10 September 904 – 22 February 954According to Guo Wei's biography in "Old Histories of the Five Dynasties", he died between 9am and 11 am on the ''renchen'' day of the 1st month of the 1st year of the ''Xiande'' era of his reign ...
and committed suicide.[''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 288.]
Middle reign
In 950, Cha Wenhui, then the acting military governor of Yong'an Circuit (永安, headquartered at Jian Prefecture), received false reports that Wuyue had abandoned Fu Prefecture, and decided to head for Fu to take control of it. When he approached, though, he fell into an ambush set by Wuyue's acting military governor of Weiwu Circuit (威武, headquartered at Fu), and was defeated and captured. Wuyue's king Qian Hongchu
Qian Chu (September 29, 929 – October 7, 988, courtesy name Wende), known as Qian Hongchu before 960, was the last king of Wuyue, reigning from 947 until 978 when he surrendered his kingdom to the Song dynasty.
Life
Qian Chu came to power aft ...
subsequently returned Cha, and, in return, Southern Tang returned a number of Wuyue officers that it had previously captured to Wuyue. (Southern Tang would not subsequently make another attempt at capturing the former Min capital.)[''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 289.]
Meanwhile, Southern Tang's southwestern neighbor Chu had fallen into a civil war, as its then prince Ma Xiguang's older brother Ma Xi'e, upset that he was bypassed by their older brother Ma Xifan when Ma Xifan was choosing an heir, rebelled against Ma Xiguang in 949 and effectively made Wuping Circuit (武平, headquartered in modern Changde
Changde ( ) is a prefecture-level city in the northwest of Hunan province, People's Republic of China. In addition to the urban districts, Changde also administers the county-level city of Jinshi and six counties. Changde is adjacent to Dongt ...
, Hunan
Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to ...
), independent of the main Chu state.[ In spring 950, Ma Xi'e, after unable to get the Later Han emperor Liu Chengyou, to which Chu was a vassal of, to recognize him as an independent vassal, instead pledged fealty to Li Jing. Later in the year, he captured Chu's capital Tan Prefecture (潭州, in modern ]Changsha
Changsha (; ; ; Changshanese pronunciation: (), Standard Chinese, Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is the Capital city, capital and the largest city of Hunan Province of China. Changsha is the 17th most populous city in China with a popul ...
, Hunan
Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to ...
), executed Ma Xiguang, and claimed the princely title for himself.[ He continued to be Southern Tang's vassal, and sent his secretary Liu Guangfu () to pay tribute to Li. Li, in return, sent the officials Sun Sheng and Yao Feng () to Tan to formally bestow the Prince of Chu title on Ma Xi'e. However, Liu secretly informed Li that the Chu realm was not secure, and so Li stationed Bian Hao at Yuan Prefecture (袁州, in modern Yichun, ]Jiangxi
Jiangxi (; ; formerly romanized as Kiangsi or Chianghsi) is a landlocked province in the east of the People's Republic of China. Its major cities include Nanchang and Jiujiang. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze river in the north int ...
), in anticipation of a strike against Chu. Shortly after this, the Wuping officers Wang Kui and Zhou Xingfeng, upset that Ma Xi'e had driven the soldiers under them into hard labor and not properly rewarded them, escaped from Tan back to Wuping's capital Lang Prefecture () and seized it, deposing Ma Xi'e's son Ma Guangzan () as acting military governor, and replacing him, first with Ma Xi'e's nephew Ma Guanghui, but in fact having a group of officers exercise joint leadership. When Ma Xi'e reported this to Li, Li sent emissaries to Wuping with gifts, hoping that these officers would acknowledge him as overlord, but Wang and the others received the gifts and sent the emissaries back to Li without answering him. Wang and the other officers subsequently supported the general Liu Yan to be Wuping's military governor, and Liu sent an emissary requesting that Southern Tang commission him as military governor. When Li did not respond, he submitted to Later Han's successor state Later Zhou
Zhou, known as the Later Zhou (; ) in historiography, was a short-lived Chinese imperial dynasty and the last of the Five Dynasties that controlled most of northern China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Founded by Guo Wei ( ...
, founded and ruled by Guo Wei.[''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 290.]
After taking Tan over, Ma Xi'e governed the Chu state with violence and incompetence, spending his days and nights feasting. In fall 950, a coup happened at Tan, overthrowing him. Ma Xi'e's younger brother Ma Xichong, who had been one of the conspirators against him, became the ruler of the regime. Ma Xichong exiled Ma Xi'e to Hengshan (衡山, in modern Hengyang
Hengyang (; ) is the second largest city of Hunan Province, China. It straddles the Xiang River about south of the provincial capital of Changsha. As of the 2020 Chinese census, Its total population was 6,645,243 inhabitants, whom 1,290,715 l ...
, Hunan
Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to ...
), hoping that the non-Han
Han may refer to:
Ethnic groups
* Han Chinese, or Han People (): the name for the largest ethnic group in China, which also constitutes the world's largest ethnic group.
** Han Taiwanese (): the name for the ethnic group of the Taiwanese p ...
chieftain Peng Shigao (), who had supported Ma Xiguang previously and therefore Ma Xi'e punished, and who was in control of the Hengshan region, would kill Ma Xi'e for him, but Peng instead supported Ma Xi'e to be the leader in resisting Ma Xichong. Upon hearing of the coup, Liu Yan took his troops and headed toward Tan, and Ma Xichong was apprehensive. At Liu's demand, Ma Xichong executed a number of officers close to Ma Xi'e, but that did not stop Liu's advance. With threats from Liu and Peng, Ma Xichong's fellow conspirators considered assassinating him. In fear, Ma Xichong sent his general Fan Shoumu () to the Southern Tang court, requesting to submit his state to Southern Tang. Li sent Bian to Tan to accept the surrender, ending Chu as a state under the Ma family's rule. With the Chu realm suffering from famine due to the wars, Bian distributed the food that the Ma family had stored up, initially greatly pleasing the Chu people. Thereafter, when Ma Xi'e requested to be restored to be position of military governor of Wu'an Circuit (武安, headquartered at Tan), the people of Tan, hating Ma Xi'e for his previous misrule, requested that Bian remain as their military governor, and Li agreed. Li subsequently continued to allow Ma Xi'e to carry the title of Prince of Chu, but moved him to Zhennan Circuit (鎮南, headquartered in modern Nanchang
Nanchang (, ; ) is the capital of Jiangxi Province, People's Republic of China. Located in the north-central part of the province and in the hinterland of Poyang Lake Plain, it is bounded on the west by the Jiuling Mountains, and on the east ...
, Jiangxi
Jiangxi (; ; formerly romanized as Kiangsi or Chianghsi) is a landlocked province in the east of the People's Republic of China. Its major cities include Nanchang and Jiujiang. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze river in the north int ...
). He gave lesser offices to Ma Xichong and the other former Chu officials, moving them away from the former Chu lands. In light of Chu's fall, the Southern Tang officials, in a celebrating mode, became arrogant, believing that Southern Tang would soon be destroying other states, while some secretly harbored reservations about how the campaigns were draining the state.[
In early 952, the Later Zhou general ]Murong Yanchao Murong Yanchao () (died June 15, 952'' Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 290.Academia Sinicabr>Chinese-Western Calendar Converter), known at one point as Yan Kunlun (), was a Chinese general of the Later Tang, Later Jin, and Later Han dynasties. As a half-br ...
(Liu Zhiyuan's half-brother) rebelled against Later Zhou, and sought aid from Southern Tang. However, the Southern Tang relief army that Li Jing sent was repelled, and Murong subsequently was defeated. Guo returned the Southern Tang general Yan Jingquan (), and in return, Li returned Southern Tang's captives from the central Chinese regimes.[
Meanwhile, it was said that Li Jing favored literary talent, and that at the time, Southern Tang had the most literary talents of the states of China. However, it did not hold ]imperial examination
The imperial examination (; lit. "subject recommendation") refers to a civil-service examination system in Imperial China, administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by ...
s. In 952, Li reinstitute the imperial examinations and put the official Jiang Wenwei () in charge of them. When Li asked how the examinations compared to those of Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...
, which Southern Tang claimed to be the successor to, Jiang responded, "In the past dynasty, half of those who passed imperial examinations were properly passed based on their public performance, and half passed based on private favors. I, your subject, only base them on public performance." Li was pleased, but when the official Zhang Wei (), who was a Tang examination, heard this, he became resentful of Jiang and began to speak against the imperial examinations. Further, the other high-level officials were also not imperial examinees, and therefore did not like the idea of them. Soon, the imperial examinations were abolished again.[
Southern Tang's entrance of the Chu capital Tan Prefecture did not mean that Southern Tang possessed all of Chu lands—as while its forces controlled Wu'an, Wuping remained in Liu Yan's hands, and Chu's third main circuit, Jingjiang (靜江, headquartered in modern ]Guilin
Guilin (Standard Zhuang: ''Gveilinz''; alternatively romanized as Kweilin) is a prefecture-level city in the northeast of China's Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. It is situated on the west bank of the Li River and borders Hunan to the nort ...
, Guangxi), fell into Southern Han's hands. Li contemplated campaigns to capture Wu'an and Jingjiang, but by summer 952 was contemplating giving up the campaign to capture Jingjiang and simply to issue a commission to Liu without taking actual control. When he consulted Sun Sheng and Feng Yanji, whom he had earlier made chancellors, Sun agreed, but Feng dissuaded him, suggesting that that would mean that the seizure of Chu was an empty one. However, an attack on Jingjiang's capital Gui Prefecture () was repelled by Southern Han at heavy losses to Southern Tang.[ Meanwhile, Bian, while known for kindness, was not governing Wu'an properly, as he was indecisive and allowed many of his subordinate to interfere with his decisions. In winter 952, Liu sent Wang Kui to launch a surprise attack on Tan. Bian, after trying to defend Tan briefly, abandoned it and fled back to Southern Tang proper. The other Southern Tang prefects assigned to former Chu prefectures, hearing of Tan's fall, also abandoned their prefectures, allowing Liu's army to recover nearly all of Chu's territory north of the ]Nanling Mountains
The Nanling (), also known as the Wuling (), is a major mountain range in Southern China that separates the Pearl River Basin from the Yangtze Valley and serves as the dividing line between south and central subtropical zones. The main rang ...
(i.e., except Jingjiang). Southern Tang, in effect, gained nothing from the Chu adventure. Sun and Feng resigned their chancellorships, and Li stated that he would never launch another army.[''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 291.] Still, in 955, when Later Shu
Shu (referred to as Later Shu () to differentiate it from Former Shu, other states named Shu in Chinese history), also known as Meng Shu (), was one of the Ten Kingdoms during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period in China. It was located ...
's emperor Meng Chang
Meng Chang (孟昶) (919–965), originally Meng Renzan (孟仁贊), courtesy name Baoyuan (保元), formally Prince Gongxiao of Chu (楚恭孝王) (as posthumously honored by Emperor Taizu of Song), was the second emperor of Later Shu during i ...
sent emissaries to him and to Northern Han's emperor Liu Jun, with proposal to have a three-state alliance against Later Zhou, he agreed, although no real joint attack occurred.[''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 292.]
Late reign
War with Later Zhou
Earlier in Southern Tang's history, it had been standard procedure for the Southern Tang army to carefully guard the southern bank of the Huai River when the water level were low. However, at some point in or before 955, Wu Tingshao (), the army monitor, thought it was unlikely that there would be war with Later Zhou, and proposed that this procedure be cancelled, to save costs. Wu's proposal was approved, despite vehement opposition by Liu Renzhan () the military governor of Qinghuai Circuit (清淮, headquartered in modern Lu'an
Lu'an (), is a prefecture-level city in western Anhui province, People's Republic of China, bordering Henan to the northwest and Hubei to the southwest. As of the 2020 census, it had a total population of 4,393,699 inhabitants whom 1,752,537 liv ...
, Anhui
Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
). Thus, when, in late 955, Later Zhou launched a major attack against Southern Tang, commanded by its chancellor Li Gu, assisted by the general Wang Yanchao (), Southern Tang was caught unprepared. Li Jing sent the general Liu Yanzhen () to try to aid Liu Renzhan, whose capital Shou Prefecture () was the apparent initial target of the Later Zhou attack, and summoned Song Qiqiu, who was then the military governor of Zhennan, back to Jinling, to help him make military decisions.[
Li Gu did, in fact, put Shou under siege, but could not capture it. When Liu Yanzhen's army arrived in Shou's vicinity, he decided to withdraw rather than confront Liu Yanzhen immediately. Liu Yanzhen's subordinate Xian Shilang () advocated chasing after Li Gu and attacking his army, and Liu Yanzhen decided to do so, despite Liu Renzhan's advice against it. When Liu Yanzhen reached Zhengyang (正陽, in modern ]Zhumadian
Zhumadian (; postal: Chumatien) is a prefecture-level city in southern Henan province, China. It borders Xinyang to the south, Nanyang to the west, Pingdingshan to the northwest, Luohe to the north, Zhoukou to the northeast, and the province of An ...
, Henan
Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is al ...
), Li Gu counterattacked, defeating and killing him in battle while capturing Xian and many other of his officers. Over 10,000 Southern Tang soldiers were killed. Subsequently, the Later Zhou emperor Guo Rong
Chai Rong () (27 October 921 – 27 July 959), later known as Guo Rong (), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, was the second emperor of the Later Zhou dynasty of China, during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ...
(Guo Wei's adoptive son) arrived at Shou and again put it under siege, while replacing Li Gu as commander of the army with his cousin Li Chongjin. Li Jing subsequently wrote a letter to Guo, stating, "The Emperor of Tang respectfully addresses the Emperor of the Great Zhou. We request that you quiet your army and restore peace. We are willing to serve you as if you were an older brother, and willing to contribute goods toward your army costs." Guo did not respond. Worried about what might come next at his state's detriment, Li then sent his officials Zhong Mo () and Li Deming (), both of whom known for their speaking skills, to submit tributes of imperial clothing, tea, traditional medicine, gold, silver, silk, cattle, and wine, at the Zhou army's then camp outside Shou. When Zhong and Li Deming arrived there, however, Guo rebuked them and refused their overture of peace, demanding that Li Jing himself come to beg forgiveness instead. Li Jing's emissary to Liao to ask Liao to attack Later Zhou from the north was intercepted by Later Zhou and never reached Liao. Meanwhile, concerned about the possibility that the Wu imperial Yang clan, whose members were then housed at Tai Prefecture (泰州, in modern Taizhou, Jiangsu
Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its ca ...
), would be taken and used by the Later Zhou army, Li Jing sent the official Yin Yanfan () to Tai to move them south of the Yangtze to Zhenhai's capital Run Prefecture (). However, Yin, believing that the road is difficult and concerned that the Yangs would rebel, slaughtered them. Li Jing, shocked at this result, executed Yin.[
In spring 956, after continuous Later Zhou victories, including capturing Jiangdu in a surprise attack,][ Li Jing made another peace overture, sending Sun Sheng and Wang Chongzhi () to again pay tributes of gold, silver, and silk to Guo, and this time submitting a submissive petition (i.e., as a subject, rather than on equal terms):][''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 293.]
Subsequently, through Li Deming and Sun, Li Jing further offered to give up his imperial title; give annual tributes of gold and silk; and cede six prefectures—Shou, Hao (濠州, in modern Chuzhou, Anhui
Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
), Si (泗州, in modern Shuzhou, Anhui
Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
), Chu (楚州, in modern Huai'an
Huai'an (), formerly called Huaiyin () until 2001, is a prefecture-level city in the central part of Jiangsu province in East China, Eastern China. Huai'an is situated almost directly south of Lianyungang, southeast of Suqian, northwest of Yan ...
, Jiangsu
Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its ca ...
), Guang (光州, in modern Xinyang
Xinyang (; postal: Sinyang) is a prefecture-level city in southeastern Henan province, People's Republic of China, the southernmost administrative division in the province. Its total population was 6,234,401 according to the 2020 census. As of t ...
, Henan
Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is al ...
), and Hai (海州, in modern Lianyungang
Lianyungang () is a prefecture-level city in northeastern Jiangsu province, China. It borders Yancheng to its southeast, Huai'an and Suqian to its south, Xuzhou to its southwest, and the province of Shandong to its north. Its name derives f ...
, Jiangsu
Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its ca ...
)—to Later Zhou. However, Guo, with his confidence bolstered by the Later Zhou victories, believed that he would be able to conquer all of Southern Tang's territories north of the Yangtze, refused. Li Deming and Sun convinced Guo to allow Li Deming and Wang to return to the Southern Tang court to relay the Later Zhou emperor's demands, and Guo himself issued letters addressed at Li Jing and the high-level Southern Tang officials, offering peace, but only at Later Zhou's stated terms. Li Jing again submitted a petition thanking Guo. When Li Deming arrived at Jinling, pointed out the Later Zhou military strength, and argued for ceding all of the territory north of the Yangtze for peace, however, Li Jing was displeased at his report, and Song argued that ceding land had no benefit to the state. Further, Chen Jue, who was then Li Jing's chief of staff, and Chen's deputy Li Zhenggu both had hated both Li Deming and Sun, and therefore enticed Wang into making different assessments than Li Deming about the Later Zhou strength. They then stated to Li Jing, "Li Deming has sold out the empire for his own benefit." In anger, Li Jing executed Li Deming—thus ending hopes of peace at that point.[
While facing the Later Zhou invasion, Southern Tang was also facing the threat of Wuyue's invasion from the southeast. Li Jing, concerned that Wuyue would attack Run from Chang Prefecture (常州, in modern ]Changzhou
Changzhou ( Changzhounese: ''Zaon Tsei'', ) is a prefecture-level city in southern Jiangsu province, China. It was previously known as Yanling, Lanling and Jinling. Located on the southern bank of the Yangtze River, Changzhou borders the provin ...
, Jiangsu
Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its ca ...
), decided to recall Li Hongji, who was then the commandant at Run, to Jinling, as he saw Li Hongji as too young to oversee the defense. Li Hongji, however, listened to his subordinate Zhao Duo () and decided that if he left Run, it would throw the city and the surrounding region into panic, and declined the recall and instead prepared to defend. He also gave full support to the general Chai Kehong () in Chai's efforts of resisting Wuyue forces. Chai subsequently crushed Wuyue forces under Wu Cheng, ending Wuyue's campaign against Southern Tang.[
With the faltering of the peace efforts, Li Jing commissioned Li Jingda to head an army to counterattack and to try to lift the siege on Shou, but made Chen the army monitor, in actual control of the army. He also commissioned the official Zhu Yuan (), whom he considered to be militarily talented, to lead an army in trying to recover the prefectures that Later Zhou had captured. Zhu was able to quickly recapture Shu (舒州, in modern Anqing, ]Anhui
Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
) and He (和州, in modern Ma'anshan
Ma'anshan (), also colloquially written as Maanshan, is a prefecture-level city in the eastern part of Anhui province in Eastern China. An industrial city stretching across the Yangtze River, Ma'anshan borders Hefei to the west, Wuhu to the sout ...
, Anhui
Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
) Prefectures, while Li Ping () recaptured Qi Prefecture (蘄州, in modern Huanggang
Huanggang is a prefecture-level city in easternmost Hubei Province, China. It is situated to the north of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and is bounded in the north by the Dabie Mountains and is named after Mount Huanggang. It border ...
, Hubei
Hubei (; ; alternately Hupeh) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, and is part of the Central China region. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Dongting Lake. The ...
). With these losses and with Li Jingda's army approaching Shou, Guo decided to withdraw from Jiangdu, concentrating his forces on capturing Shou. Li Jingda's army set up camp near Shou, but did not dare to engage the Later Zhou siege army.[
In winter 956, Li Jing, hearing of discord between the Later Zhou generals Zhang Yongde (張永德, Guo Rong's brother-in-law) and Li Chongjin, Li Jing wrote a secret letter to Li Chongjin, apparently trying to entice him to turn against Guo, in which he made many disparaging remarks about Guo. Li Chongjin, however, presented the letter to Guo, who had at that point returned to the Later Zhou capital Daliang. Upon seeing the letter, Guo, incensed, summoned Sun (whom he had taken back to Daliang with him, along with Zhong), and confronted him about how, unlike what he had previously stated about Li Jing (that Li Jing wanted to become a vassal), Li Jing was trying to entice Li Chongjin to rebel. He also ordered Sun to tell him Southern Tang state secrets. Sun refused and asked for death. Guo thereafter executed Sun and exiled Zhong, but soon thereafter regretted executing the faithful Sun, and therefore recalled Zhong back to his court. Meanwhile, Li Jing sent another emissary, Chen Chuyao (), over the seas to go to the Liao court to request aid from ]Emperor Muzong of Liao
Emperor Muzong of Liao (19 September 931 – 12 March 969), personal name Yelü Jing, infant name Shulü, was the fourth emperor of the Khitan-led Liao dynasty of China. He was the eldest son of the second Liao emperor, Emperor Taizong. He succ ...
. Liao did not launch an army to aid Southern Tang, and detained Chen at the Liao court.[
Because of Zhu's battlefield achievements, he became arrogant and often resisted orders issued by Li Jingda (but actually by Chen). In spring 957, Chen submitted a petition to Li Jing, arguing that Zhu could not be trusted, and Li Jing sent the general Yang Shouzhong () to replace Zhu. Zhu, in anger and fear, initially considered committing suicide, but instead decided to surrender to Later Zhou, with more than 10,000 soldiers. The Later Zhou forces sieging Shou took this opportunity to attack and crush Li Jingda's army. Yang, Xu Wenzhen (), and Bian Hao were captured. Li Jingda and Chen fled back to Jinling. With Liu Renzhan deathly ill, the Shou garrison surrendered. When Liu died shortly after, Li Jing, in remembrance of his faithfulness in defending the city for so long, bestowed posthumous honors on him. After capturing Shou, Guo Rong, now again personally commanding the Later Zhou army, approached Jiangdu. Southern Tang forces burned the city and abandoned it, as Later Zhou forces continue to capture city after city north of the Yangtze.][ As of spring 958, Guo's army had arrived at the Yangtze and was inflicting losses on the Southern Tang fleet, posturing to cross the Yangtze. At this point, Southern Tang only retained four prefectures north of the Yangtze—Lu (廬州, in modern Hefei, ]Anhui
Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
), Shu, Qi, and Huang (黃州, in modern Huanggang).[''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 294.]
At this time, Li Jingsui, who had continuously offered to yield the crown prince title, again did so and argued that Li Hongji, due to his contributions during the campaign against Wuyue, should become crown prince. Li Jingda also offered to yield the title of generalissimo of all circuits. Li Jing agreed, creating Li Jingsui the Prince of Jin and making him the commandant at Hong Prefecture (洪州, in modern Nanchang
Nanchang (, ; ) is the capital of Jiangxi Province, People's Republic of China. Located in the north-central part of the province and in the hinterland of Poyang Lake Plain, it is bounded on the west by the Jiuling Mountains, and on the east ...
, Jiangxi
Jiangxi (; ; formerly romanized as Kiangsi or Chianghsi) is a landlocked province in the east of the People's Republic of China. Its major cities include Nanchang and Jiujiang. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze river in the north int ...
) as well as the generalissimo of Jiangnan West Circuit (i.e., Zhennan), and making Li Jingda the commandant at Fu Prefecture (撫州, in modern Fuzhou, Jiangxi
Jiangxi (; ; formerly romanized as Kiangsi or Chianghsi) is a landlocked province in the east of the People's Republic of China. Its major cities include Nanchang and Jiujiang. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze river in the north int ...
). He created Li Hongji crown prince.[
With the Later Zhou forces at the Yangtze, Li Jing finally decided to capitulate, but felt ashamed of personally becoming a vassal to Guo, and therefore sent Chen as an emissary to Guo, offering to pass the throne to Li Hongji and have Li Hongji submit as a vassal. Chen, upon arriving at Guo's camp, saw the impressiveness of the Later Zhou army, and therefore spoke humbly to Guo, requesting that he be allowed to send his subordinate Liu Chengyu () back to Jinling to obtain a petition from Li Jing, offering to cede Lu, Shu, Qi, and Huang to Later Zhou, so that the Yangtze would form the new border. Guo agreed, and authored a letter in which he addressed Li Jing, "The respectful greeting of the Emperor to the Lord of Jiangnan." When Liu arrived at Jinling to report, Li Jing agreed, and, in a petition in which he referred to himself as "The Lord of Tang," offered submit the four prefectures and annual tributes. Guo agreed to the terms, and ordered cessation of hostilities. He also had Chen inform Li Jing that it was unnecessary to pass the throne to Li Hongji. Pursuant to his submission to Later Zhou, Li Jing stopped using his own ]era name
A regnal year is a year of the reign of a sovereign, from the Latin ''regnum'' meaning kingdom, rule. Regnal years considered the date as an ordinal, not a cardinal number. For example, a monarch could have a first year of rule, a second year of ...
s and adopted Later Zhou's, to show submission. He stopped referring to himself as "emperor" but only as "lord," and stopped using imperial ceremonies. He also changed his own name from the character 璟 to 景, to observe naming taboo
A naming taboo is a cultural taboo against speaking or writing the given names of exalted persons, notably in China and within the Chinese cultural sphere. It was enforced by several laws throughout Imperial China, but its cultural and possibly r ...
,[ as Guo Wei's great-great-grandfather was named Guo Jing with the character of 璟.][''History of the Five Dynasties'', vol. 110.]
After losses to Later Zhou
In summer 958, Li Hongji, fearful that Li Jing would restore Li Jingsui to crown prince status, poisoned Li Jingsui to death. Subsequently, Li Jing again proposed to Guo that he pass the throne to Li Hongji, and Guo again declined to approve. Guo did return Feng Yanlu (who had previously been captured), Zhong Mo, Xu Wenzhen, Bian Hao, and Zhou Tinggou () to Southern Tang. Li Jing, viewing Xu and Bian to be defeated generals, never commissioned them again with army commands.[
At this point, Li Jing was depressed over the military disasters. Li Zhenggu suggested that he go into seclusion and entrust the state to Song Qiqiu to govern. Zhong, who was friendly with Li Deming and who wanted to avenge Li Deming, used this opportunity to accuse Song, Li Zhenggu, and Chen Jue of collaborating to have Song usurp the throne. Further, at this time, Chen had also forged an order from Guo that the Southern Tang chancellor Yan Xu be put to death. These events convinced Li Jing that the Song faction was up to no good. In winter 958, Li Jing thus acted, exiling Chen, executing Li Zhenggu, and ordering Song back into retirement, albeit with his titles still intact. After Song reached his retirement place at ]Mount Jiuhua
Mount Jiuhua () located in Chizhou, Anhui Province in China is an important Buddhist site and natural scenic spot. It is one of the four famous Buddhist mountains in China, one of the first batch of 5A level scenic spots in China, one of the fi ...
in spring 959, Li Jing had his mansion securely guarded, only allowing food to be passed through a hole in the wall. Song lamented and believed that this was divine retribution for his suggestion to have Yang Pu's family put under secure guard, and thereafter hanged himself. Subsequently, at Guo's encouragement, Li Jing began to rebuild some of his defenses. (Li Jing had previously feared that that would be viewed by Guo as provocation, but Guo, who was ill at that point, pointed out that what might lie in the future was uncertain, and that Li Jing had to watch out for his own state's own good. Guo would, in fact, die in summer 959, and be succeeded by his six-year-old son Guo Chongxun.) Meanwhile, with Jinling just across the Yangtze from Later Zhou territory, Li Jing began to consider moving the capital to Hong Prefecture, and put the deputy chief of staff Tang Hao (), who was the only high-level official in favor of the idea, in charge of building up Hong to serve as the capital.[
By this point, the Southern Tang economy had been greatly damaged by the wars with Later Zhou and the subsequent crippling annual tributes agreed to, particularly given that the supply of coins remaining from Tang times was dwindling and the inflation of prices of goods that the state was confronted with. At Zhong's suggestion, Li Jing ordered that large coins be minted and be deemed the worth of 50 Tang coins.][
In fall 959, Li Hongji died. Zhong, who had long been honored by both Li Jing and Guo Rong and therefore had been highly influential at the Southern Tang court, but whose arrogance was beginning to cause Li Jing to be displeased, spoke against having Li Jing's next oldest son Li Congjia the Prince of Zheng succeed Li Hongji as crown prince, instead recommending a younger son, Li Congshan () the Duke of Ji, arguing that Li Congjia was timid and overly devout in Buddhism, while Li Congshan was resolute. This greatly displeased Li Jing, who viewed him as overreaching. Soon, he exiled, and then executed Zhong and his ally Zhang Luan (), and cancelled the large coins that Zhong had advocated. He created Li Congjia the Prince of Wu and had him move into the Eastern Palace.][
In 960, the major Later Zhou general ]Zhao Kuangyin
Emperor Taizu of Song (21 March 927 – 14 November 976), personal name Zhao Kuangyin, courtesy name Yuanlang, was the founder and first emperor of the Song dynasty of China. He reigned from 960 until his death in 976. Formerly a distinguish ...
carried out a coup, overthrowing Guo Chongxun and claiming the throne himself as the emperor of a new state of Song
A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetit ...
(as its Emperor Taizu). When he subsequently sent an edict to Li Jing, Li Jing accepted it (thus accepting Song overlordship), and in fact then sent an emissary to congratulate the Song emperor's ascension. When, in fall 960, Li Chongjin rose against the Song emperor at Yang Prefecture (揚州, i.e., Jiangdu), where he was serving as the military governor of Huainan Circuit (), he sought an alliance with Southern Tang, but Li Jing rejected his overtures. The Song emperor shortly after defeated him, and he committed suicide. When the Song emperor subsequently reviewed the Song fleet on the Yangtze, Li Jing became very fearful, but was calmed some what when two minor Southern Tang officials, Du Zhuo () and Xue Liang () tried to defect to Song, but the Song emperor, despising their treachery, executed Du and exiled Xue. Still, he became more resolute on moving the capital.[''Xu Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 1.]
In spring 961, Li Jing ordered that the capital be moved to Hong, now upgraded to Nanchang Municipality. He created Li Congjia crown prince, to remain at Jinling and oversee the affairs of state during the capital move. When he reached Nanchang, however, he discovered that the city was too small to house his government, such that there was only office space for about 10-20% of his officials, and that it was not easily expandable. The officials longed for Jinling, and Li Jing himself often looked north (toward Jinling) in sadness, such that his imperial scholar Qin Chengyu (), in order to alleviate his sadness, often blocked his view with a screen. He considered executing those who advocated the move, such that Tang Hao died in anxiety.[
Li Jing himself died in summer 961. He left directions that he be buried in the mountains west of Nanchang. However, instead, his casket was returned to Jinling, where Li Congjia took the throne (and thereafter kept the capital at). Subsequently, at Li Congjia's request, Li Jing was allowed to be against posthumously referred to as "emperor" and have his tomb considered an imperial tomb. The '']Xu Zizhi Tongjian
''Xu Zizhi Tongjian'' (續資治通鑑; "Continuation to ''Zizhi Tongjian''") was a book chronicling Chinese history of the Song dynasty between 960 and 1279 and the Yuan dynasty between 1279 and 1370. Credited to Bi Yuan (畢沅; 1730–1797), a ...
'' commented about Li Jing:[
]
References
Sources
*
*
* ''Old History of the Five Dynasties
The ''Old History of the Five Dynasties'' (''Jiù Wǔdài Shǐ'') was an official history mainly focus on Five Dynasties era (907–960), which controlled much of northern China. And it also includes some history of other south states during the ...
'', vol. 134.
* ''New History of the Five Dynasties
The ''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' (''Wudai Shiji'') is a Chinese history book on the Five Dynasties period (907–960), written by the Song dynasty official Ouyang Xiu in private. It was drafted during Ouyang's exile from 1036 to ...
'', vol. 62.
* '' History of Song'', vol. 478.
* ''Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms
The ''Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms'', also known by its Chinese title ''Shiguo Chunqiu'' (), is a history of the Ten Kingdoms that existed in southern China after the fall of the Tang Dynasty and before the reunification of China ...
'', vol. 16.
* ''Zizhi Tongjian
''Zizhi Tongjian'' () is a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084 AD during the Northern Song (960–1127), Northern Song dynasty in the form of a chronicle recording Chinese history from 403 BC to 959&n ...
'', vols. 272, 277
__NOTOC__
Year 277 ( CCLXXVII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Probus and Paulinus (or, less frequently, year 1030 ''A ...
, 279, 280
__NOTOC__
Year 280 ( CCLXXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Messalla and Gratus (or, less frequently, year 1033 '' ...
, 281, 282, 283
Year 283 ( CCLXXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Carus and Carinus (or, less frequently, year 1036 ''Ab urbe cond ...
, 284, 285, 286, 287
Year 287 (Roman numerals, CCLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Diocletian and Maximian (or, less frequ ...
, 288
Year 288 ( CCLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Maximian and Ianuarianus (or, less frequently, year 1041 ...
, 289, 290, 291, 292
__NOTOC__
Year 292 ( CCXCII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Hannibalianus and Asclepiodotus (or, less frequently, year ...
, 293, 294.
* ''Xu Zizhi Tongjian
''Xu Zizhi Tongjian'' (續資治通鑑; "Continuation to ''Zizhi Tongjian''") was a book chronicling Chinese history of the Song dynasty between 960 and 1279 and the Yuan dynasty between 1279 and 1370. Credited to Bi Yuan (畢沅; 1730–1797), a ...
'', vols. 1, 2.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Li, Jing
910s births
961 deaths
Southern Tang calligraphers
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