Lexical Functions

A lexical function (LF) is a tool developed within Meaning-Text Theory for the description and systematization of semantic relationships, specifically collocations and lexical derivation, between particular lexical units (LUs) of a language.Fontenelle, Thierry. (2008) Using a bilingual dictionary to create semantic networks. In Thierry Fontenelle (ed.), Practical Lexicography: A reader, 175–185. Oxford: Oxford University Press. LFs are also used in the construction of technical lexica ( Explanatory Combinatorial Dictionaries) and as abstract nodes in certain types of syntactic representation. Basically, an LF is a function ƒ( ) representing a correspondence ƒ that associates a set ƒ(L) of lexical expressions with an LU L; in f(L), L is the keyword of ƒ, and ƒ(L) = is ƒ’s value. Detailed discussions of Lexical Functions are found in Žolkovskij & Mel’čuk 1967, Mel’čuk 1974, 1996, 1998, 2003, 2007, and Wanner (ed.) 1996; analysis of the most frequent type of lexical functions—verb-noun collocations—can be found in Gelbukh & Kolesnikova 2013.

Standard Lexical Functions

Standard LFs form a proper subset of normal LFs. A normal LF ƒ is called Standard if and only if it satisfies both following conditions:

1. Broadness of the domain of ƒ: ƒ is defined for a relatively large number of keywords;

2. Diversity of the range of ƒ: ƒ has a relatively large number of expressions as elements of its possible values and these expressions are more or less equitably distributed between different keywords.

Normal LFs that do not satisfy both Conditions 1 and 2, on the one hand, and degenerate LFs, on the other, are called Non-Standard.
An example of a Non-Standard LF is the meaning ‘without addition of dairy product’. It has two expressions in English, a phraseological one—BLACK (with COFFEE: black coffee), and a free one—WITHOUT MILK (tea without milk is not *''black tea''). This meaning fails Condition 1: it is too specific and applicable only to one beverage. It thus corresponds to a Non-Standard LF.

Simple Standard LFs

1. Syn at. ''synonymum''= synonym.

Syn(''helicopter'') = ''copter, chopper''

Syn(''telephone''_V) = ''phone''_V
2. Anti at. ''antonymum''= antonym.

3. Conv_ijk at. ''conversivum''= conversive.

:This LF returns for L an LU L´ with the same meaning as L but with its Deep Syntactic Actants (roughly, syntactic arguments) i, j and k permuted —for example, the DSyntAs k, i and j of L are permuted in L´ such that →k, j→i, and k→j
Conv₂₁(''include'') = ''belong''

Conv₂₃₁⊃(''opinion'') = ''reputation''

Conv₂₁(''behind'') = ''in front of''

Conv₂₁(''precede'') = ''follow''
4. Gener at. ''genus''= the closest generic concept for L.
:The value of this LF must appear in one of the following two constructions:
::1) ‘Gener(L)−ATTR→DER(L)’ = ‘L’ here DER is any DSynt-derivative, see 6–9 below or
::2) ''L, X₁, X₂, ..., X_n and other (kinds of)'' Gener(L).
Gener(''republic'') = ''state'' 'republican state = republic''br/>
Gener(''liquid''_N) = ''substance'' 'liquid''_A ''substance'' = ''liquid''_Nbr/>
Gener(''arrest''_N) = ''reprisals'' 'arrests and other (kinds of) reprisals''5. Figur at. ''figuraliter'' ‘figuratively’= standard received metaphor for L.
Figur(''fog'') = ''wall'' 'wall of fog ≈ fog''br/>
Figur(''rain'') = ''curtain'' 'curtain of rain ≈ rain''br/>
Figur(''remorse'') = ''pangs'' 'pangs of remorse ≈ remorse''6. S₀ = Substantival, output N having a congruent meaning to L (which can be of any part of speech except N):
S₀(''analyze'') = ''analysis''
7. A₀ = Adjectival, output A having a congruent meaning to L (which can be of any part of speech except A):
A₀(''city'') = ''urban''
8. V₀ = Verbal, output V having a congruent meaning to L (which can be of any part of speech except V):
V₀(''analysis'') = ''analyze''
9. Adv₀ = Adverbial, output Adv having a congruent meaning to L (which can be of any part of speech except Adv):
Adv₀(''follow_V'' = ''after'' 10. S_i = standard name of the ''i''-th (Deep-Syntactic) actant of L.
:For the verb TEACH: ‘Person X₁ teaches subject Y₂ to people Z₃’
S₁(''teach'') = ''teacher''

S₂(''teach'') = ''subject''/''matter'' 'in high school''br/>
S₃(''teach'') = ''pupil''
:For the noun LETTER: ‘Letter by person X to person Y about Z’
S₁(''letter'') = ''author, sender'' 'of the letter''br/>
S₂(''letter'') = ''addressee'' 'of the letter''br/>
S₃(''letter'') = ''contents'' 'of the letter''11. S_instr = standard name of the instrument used in the situation denoted by L.

S_instr⊃(''shoot'') = ''firearm''
S_instr(''murder''_V,N) = ''murder weapon''
12. S_med = standard name of the means used to bring about the situation denoted by L.

S_med⊃(''shoot'') = ''ammunition''
13. S_mod = standard name of the mode through which the situation denoted by L is realized.

S_mod(''consider'' 'an issue'' = ''approach'' 'I consider this issue ...'' ~'' My approach to this issue ...''14. S_loc = standard name of the location where the situation denoted by L is realized.

S_loc(''fight''_V 'two armies'' = ''battlefield''
S_loc(''war'') = ''theater'' (''of war'')
15. S_res = standard name of the result of the situation denoted by L.
S_res⊃(''learn'') = ''knowledge, skills''
S_res⊃(explosion) = ''shockwave''
S_res⊃(''copy''_V) = ''copy''_N, ''reproduction''
16. Able_i at. ''habilis'' ‘able, manageable’= determining property of the ''i''-th potential DSyntA of L (‘such that it can L easily’/‘such that it can be L-ed easily’):
Able₁(''cry''_V) = ''tearful''
Able₁(''vary'') = ''variable''
Able₂(''prove'') = ''provable''
Able₂(''trust''_V) = ''trustworthy''
17. Qual_i at. ''qualitas''= determining property of the ''i''-th probable DSynt-actant of L (‘such that it is predisposed to L’/‘such that it is predisposed to be L-ed’):
Qual₁(''cry''_V/N) = ''sad''
Qual₁(''laugh''_V/N) = ''cheerful''
Qual₂(''doubt''_V/N) = ''implausible''
Qual₂(''laugh''_V/N) = ''awkward, absurd''
18. A_i = determining property of the ''i''-th DSyntA of L from the viewpoint of its role in the situation ‘L’.
:A₁ is semantically roughly equivalent to an active participle (≈ ‘which is L-ing’), and A₂ to a passive participle (≈ ‘which is being L-ed’):
A₁(''anger'') = ''in'' 'anger''//''angry''
A₁(''speed'') = ''with'' 'a speed of ...''
A₂(''analyze'') = //''under analysis''
A₂(''conduct'' 'an orchestra''= //''under the baton'' 'of'' N19. Adv_i = the determining property of the action by the ''i''-th DSyntA of L from the viewpoint of the role of the DSyntA_i of L in the situation denoted by L.
:Adv₁ is semantically roughly equivalent to an active verbal adverb (≈ ‘while L-ing’), and Adv₂, to a passive verbal adverb (≈ ‘while being L-ed’):
Adv₁(''anger'') = ''with'' //''angrily''
Adv₁(''decrease''_N,V) = //''down'' ��'' a decrease of 2.7%'' = ... ''down 2.7%''.
Adv₂(''applause'') = ''to'' 'the'' ~
Adv₂(''bombard'') = //''under bombardment'' 'They came under heavy bombardment.''20. Imper at. ''imperāre'' ‘[tocommand’">o.html" ;"title="at. ''imperāre'' ‘[to">at. ''imperāre'' ‘[tocommand’= imperative expression meaning ‘do L!’
Imper(''shoot'') = ''Fire!''
Imper(''speak low'') = ''Shhh!''
Imper(''stop'' [to a horse]) = ''Whoa!''
21. Result [Lat. ''resultāre'' ‘ oresult’] = ‘ obe the expected result of L’:
Result(''buy''_V) = ''own''_V
Result(''lie down'') = ''be lying''
Result(''have learnt'') = ''know'' 'how'' ''have the necessary skills''
22. Centr at. ''centrum'' ‘center’=‘the center/culmination of L’
:Syntactically, Centr(L) is a noun that takes the name of L as its DSyntA II: Centr−II→L, etc.
Centr(''forest'') = ''the thick'' 'of th''e ~ Centr(''crisis'') = ''the height'' 'of the'' ~ Centr(''glory'') = ''summit'' 'of'' ~ Centr(''life'') = ''prime'' 'of'' ~23. Magn at. ''magnus'' ‘big, great’= ‘very’, ‘to a (very) high degree’, ‘intense(ly)’:
Magn(''naked'') = ''stark''
Magn(''laugh_V'') = ''heartily; one’s head off''
Magn(patience) = ''infinite''
Magn(''skinny'' 'person'' = ''as a rake''
24. Ver at. ''verus'' ‘real, genuine’= ‘as it should be’, ‘meeting intended requirements’:
Ver(''surprise'') = ''sincere, genuine, unfeigned''
Ver(''punishment'') = ''well-deserved, just''
Ver(''instrument'') = ''precise''
Ver(''walk_V'') = ''steadily''
25. Bon at. ''bonus'' ‘good’= ‘good’:
Bon(''cut_V'') = ''neatly, cleanly''
Bon(''proposal'') = tempting
Bon(''service'') = first-class
Bon(''assistance'') = invaluable
26. Loc_in at. ''locus'' ‘place’= preposition governing L and designating a containing spatial location (‘being in’):
Loc_in(''height'') = ''at'' 'a height of ...''27. Loc_ad at. locus ‘place’= preposition governing L and designating an entering spatial relation (‘moving into’):
Loc_ad(''height'') = ''to'' 'a height of ...''28. Loc_ab at. locus ‘place’= preposition governing L and designating an exiting spatial relation (‘moving out of’):
Loc_ab(''height'') = ''from'' 'a height of ...''29. Instr at. ''instrumentum'' ‘instrument’= preposition meaning ‘by means of L’:
Instr(''typewriter'') = ''on'' RT ~ Instr(''satellite'') = ''via'' Instr(''mail'') = ''by'' Instr(''argument'') = ''with'' RT ~30. Propt at. ''propter'' ‘because of’= preposition meaning ‘because of’/‘as a result of L’:
Propt(''fear'') = ''from, out of'' Propt(''love'') = ''out of'' 'one’s ~ of'' ...31. Oper_i at. ''operāri'' ‘[todo, carry out’">o.html" ;"title="at. ''operāri'' ‘[to">at. ''operāri'' ‘[todo, carry out’= a light verb used as part of the expression ‘realize/carry out L':
:The DSyntA I of this verb (and its Subject) is the expression that is described in the Government Pattern of L as the ''i''-th DSyntA of L, and Oper_i’s DSyntA II (= its Primary Object) is L itself.
Oper₁(''blow_N'') = 'to''''deal'' [ART ~ ''to'' N]
Oper₁(''support_N'') = 'to'' ''lend'' [~ ''to'' N]
Oper₂(''blow_N'') = 'to''''receive'' RT ~ ''from'' N Oper₂(''support_N'') = 'to''''receive'' ''from'' N
32. Func_i at. ''functionāre'' ‘[tofunction’">o.html" ;"title="at. ''functionāre'' ‘[to">at. ''functionāre'' ‘[tofunction’
:The DSyntA I of this verb (and its Subject) is L itself, and its DSyntA II (its Primary Object) is the ''i''-th DSyntA of L.
Func₁(''blow_N'') = ''comes'' [''from'' N]
Func₂(''blow_N'') = ''falls'' [''upon'' N]
:If Func_i has no object, the subscript 0 is used:
Func₀(''snow_N'') = ''falls''
Func₀(''option'') = ''is open''
Func₀(preparations) = ''are under way''
Func₀(''rumors'') = ''circulate''
33. Labor_ij at. ''labōrāre'' ‘[towork, toil’">o.html" ;"title="at. ''labōrāre'' ‘[to">at. ''labōrāre'' ‘[towork, toil’
:The DSynt-actant I of this verb (and its Subject) is the ''i''-th DSyntA of L, its DSyntA II (its Primary Object) is the ''j''-th DSyntA of L, its DSyntA III (= its Secondary Object) is the ''j''+1-st DSyntA of L, and its further DSyntA (its TertiaryObject) is L itself.
Labor₁₂(''interrogation'') = 'to''''subject'' [N ''to an'' ~]
Labor₃₂(''lease_N'') = 'to''''grant'' [N ''to'' N ''on'' ~]
34. Incep [Lat. ''incipere''] = ‘begin’:
Incep(''sleep'') = ''fall asleep''
35. Cont at. ''continuāre''= ‘continue’:
Cont(''sleep'') = ''stay asleep''
36. Fin at. ''fīnīre''= ‘cease’:
Fin(''sleep'') = ''wake up''
37. Caus at. ''causāre'' ‘cause’ �� ‘do something so that a situation occurs’br/>
38. Perm at. ''permittere''=‘permit/allow’ �� ‘do nothing which would cause that a situation does not occur��

39. Liqu at. *''liquidāre''= ‘liquidate’ �� ‘do something so that a situation does not occur’br/>
40. Real_i at. ''realis'' ‘real’ Real₁(''accusation'') = 'to''''prove'' RT ~
Real₁(''car'') = 'to''''drive'' RT ~ Real₁(''illness'') = 'to''''succumb'' 'to'' ART ~ Real₂(''law'') = 'to''''abide'' 'by'' ART ~ Real²(''hint_N'') = 'to''''take'' RT ~ Real₂(''demand_N'') = 'to''''meet'' RT ~41. Fact_0/i at. ''factum'' ‘fact’
42. Labreal_ijk hybrid of Labor and Real

43. Involv 'to''''drag along''’">at. ''involvere'' ‘ 'to''''drag along''’= verb meaning ‘ 'to''''involve'' Y’, ‘ 'to''''affect'' Y’
:Involv links L and the name of a non-participant Y which is affected or acted upon by the situation ‘L’; Y is DSyntA II of ''Involv'', and L is its DSyntA I:
Involv(''light_N'') = ''floods'' = Y, e.g. the room Involv(''snowstorm'') = ''catches'' _hum=Y Loc_in N ''hits'' _area= Y44. Manif at. ''manifestāre'' ‘[tomanifest’">o.html" ;"title="at. ''manifestāre'' ‘[to">at. ''manifestāre'' ‘[tomanifest’= verb meaning ‘L manifests itself [≈ becomes apparent] in Y’
:The keyword L, a noun, is DSyntA I of Manif, and Y (= in which L manifests itself) is its DSyntA II:
Manif(''doubt'') = ''nags''
Manif(''joy'') = ''lights up'' [''his eyes'']
45. Degrad at. ''degradāre'' ‘[todegrade’">o.html" ;"title="at. ''degradāre'' ‘[to">at. ''degradāre'' ‘[todegrade’= verb meaning ‘ odegrade’ ≈ ‘ obecome permanently worse or bad’.
:Degrad takes its keyword L, which can be any noun, as its DSyntA I.
Degrad(''milk'') = ''goes sour''
Degrad(''meat'') = ''goes off''
Degrad(''discipline'') = ''weakens''
Degrad(''house'') = ''becomes dilapidated''
46. Son 'to''''sound''’">at. ''sonāre'' ‘ 'to''''sound''’= verb meaning ‘ oemit characteristic sound’.
:Son also takes its keyword, which most often, but not necessarily, is a concrete noun, as its DSyntA I.
Son(''dog'') = ''barks''
Son(''battle'') = ''rumbles''
Son(''banknotes'') = ''rustle''
Son(''wind'') = ''howls''

Complex LFs and Configurations of LFs

Simple LFs can be combined to form complex LFs:
AntiMagn(''applause'') = ''scattered''
IncepOper₁(''love_N'') = 'to'' ''fall'' 'in'' ~ Adv₁Real₁(''whim'') = ''on'' 'a'' ~Certain expressions (collocations or derivations) can simultaneously realize two LFs, resulting in a configuration of LFs:
agn + Oper₁''(''doubt'') = 'to''''be plagued'' 'by'' ~(≈ ‘ 'to''''have'' Oper₁''strong'' Magn''doubts''’)
er + Oper₁''(''health'') = 'to''''have a clean bill'' 'of'' ~(≈ ‘ 'to''''have'' Oper₁''good'' Ver''health''’)

LFs in the lexicon

Lexical Functions play an important part in the lexicon, which of necessity must include information about the collocational and derivational properties of LUs. In MTT, the LFs for L are included in the entry for L in the Explanatory Combinatorial Dictionary:

REVULSION

Definition

''X’s revulsion for Y'' ≡ ‘X’s (strong) negative feeling about Y caused by X’s perception of Y, similar to what people normally experience when they perceive something that makes them sick and such that it causes that X wants to stop perceiving Y’.

Government Pattern

1) CII.2 : N denotes something that can be seen or felt

2) CII.4 : N denotes people

��C’ stands for ‘column;’ the Roman numeral identifies the column, and the Arabic numeral, the cell in it.br/>
John’s 〈his〉 revulsion against racism 〈against dismal results of his endeavors〉. John’s 〈his〉 revulsion at the sight of sea food; John’s 〈his〉 revulsion for work 〈for all those killings〉; John’s 〈his〉 revulsion for 〈= toward〉 these scoundrels 〈toward the government〉

Impossible:

''John’s 〈his〉 revulsion *at these words'' orrect expression: ''... for these words'' y Constraint 1br/>
''John’s 〈his〉 revulsion *towards these words'' y Constraint 2
Lexical Functions

Examples
He did it from deep revulsion for the bitterness of the sectarian strife. Any revulsion they might feel from fat-ass bastards they ran up against professionally was ad hominem and not ad genus . Lurie Mary turned her head away in revulsion. I felt no revulsion for her maternal fantasies, only a practical concern. She met his advances with revulsion. Pam was driven to revulsion (by the sight of the dead animal) 〈*The sight of the dead animal drove Pam to revulsion〉. Revulsion at slaughter cut war short ewspaper heading

Notes

References

{{Reflist, refs=
Mel’čuk, Igor A. (1974). Opyt teorii lingvističeskix modelej «Smysl ⇔ Tekst». Moscow: Nauka.
Mel’čuk, Igor A. (1996). Lexical Functions: A tool for the description of lexical relations in the lexicon. In Leo Wanner (ed.), Lexical Functions in Lexicography and Natural Language Processing, 37–102. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Mel’čuk, Igor A. (1998). Collocations and Lexical Functions. In Anthony P. Cowie (ed.) Phraseology. Theory, analysis, and applications, 23–53. Oxford: Clarendon.
Mel’čuk, Igor A. (2003). Collocations dans le dictionnaire. In Th. Szende (ed.), Les écarts culturels dans les dictionnaires bilingues, 19–64. Paris: Honoré Champion.
Wanner, Leo. (ed.) (1996). Lexical Functions in Lexicography and Natural Language Processing. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Žolkovskij, Aleksandr & Igor A. Mel’čuk, I. (1967). O semantičeskom sinteze. Problemy kibernetiki 19, 177–238.
Mel’čuk, Igor A. (2007). Lexical Functions. In H. Burger, D. Dobrovol’skij, P. Kühn & N. Norrick (eds.), ''Phraseology. An International Handbook of Contemporary Research'', 119–131. Berlin/New York: W. de Gruyter.
{{Cite book , last1 = Gelbukh , first1 = A. , last2 = Kolesnikova , first2 = O. , doi = 10.1007/978-3-642-28771-8 , title = Semantic Analysis of Verbal Collocations with Lexical Functions , series = Studies in Computational Intelligence , volume = 414 , year = 2013 , isbn = 978-3-642-28770-1

External links

A dictionary of Spanish verb-noun lexical functions

Lexical systems

Lexicography
Semantics
Meaning–text theory