Levantines in Turkey or Turkish Levantines, refers to the descendants of
Europeans who settled in the coastal cities of the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
to trade, especially after the
Tanzimat Era. Their estimated population today is around 1,000.
[Levanten kültürü turizme açılıyor]
haberler.com (12.08.2013) They mainly reside in
Istanbul
)
, postal_code_type = Postal code
, postal_code = 34000 to 34990
, area_code = +90 212 (European side) +90 216 (Asian side)
, registration_plate = 34
, blank_name_sec2 = GeoTLD
, blank_i ...
,
İzmir
İzmir ( , ; ), also spelled Izmir, is a metropolitan city in the western extremity of Anatolia, capital of the province of the same name. It is the third most populous city in Turkey, after Istanbul and Ankara and the second largest urban aggl ...
and
Mersin. Anatolian Muslims called Levantines ''Frenk'' (first used for French, then for all non-Orthodox Europeans) and ''Sweet Water Freng'' (due to their high-standard lifestyle) in addition to ''Levanten''.
Origin and meaning
The term ''
Levant
The Levant () is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean region of Western Asia. In its narrowest sense, which is in use today in archaeology and other cultural contexts, it is ...
'' comes from the French language. It means 'rising' (sun, i.e. East; the Latin word 'orient' had the same original meaning) in French. Even though it has been used for Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine, it was used to refer to 'the sea in the east of Italy'.
Over time the term Levant was widened in scope. During the era of the
Byzantines and the first years of the
Ottomans, the term was used to refer to Western Mediterraneans such as
Italians
, flag =
, flag_caption = The national flag of Italy
, population =
, regions = Italy 55,551,000
, region1 = Brazil
, pop1 = 25–33 million
, ref1 =
, region2 ...
,
Catalans
Catalans (Catalan, French and Occitan: ''catalans''; es, catalanes, Italian: ''catalani'', sc, cadelanos) are a Romance ethnic group native to Catalonia, who speak Catalan. The current official category of "Catalans" is that of the citize ...
, and
French. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the term also was used for settlers that came from Central and Northern Europe.
[Levanten kavramı ve Levantenler üzerine bir inceleme](_blank)
Raziye OBAN (ÇAKICIOĞLU)-Türkiyat Araştımaları Dergisi(12.08.2013)
History
First Levantines
Levantines began to settle in Constantinople in 991 when they were given some trade privileges from the Byzantines. They settled on the Istanbul peninsula and
Galata.
Pera was the settlement of Genoese and Venetians. In later years, traders from
Amalfi
Amalfi (, , ) is a town and ''comune'' in the province of Salerno, in the region of Campania, Italy, on the Gulf of Salerno. It lies at the mouth of a deep ravine, at the foot of Monte Cerreto (1,315 metres, 4,314 feet), surrounded by dramati ...
and
Pisa were given these privileges.
After the fall of
the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterr ...
, there were increasing differences between Latin-Western and Greek-Eastern Christians. According to
Ortaylı, the first significant Levantines were
Genoese merchants who had traded with Byzantines.
The second significant group of Levantines were
Venetians. At that time, Eastern Roman power was decreasing while Ottomans were gaining ground. Venetian merchants traded across the Mediterranean during the Byzantine era and built the
Galata Tower
The Galata Tower ( tr, Galata Kulesi), officially the Galata Kulesi Museum ( tr, Galata Kulesi Müzesi), is an old Genoese tower in the Galata part of the Beyoğlu district of Istanbul, Turkey. Built as a watchtower at the highest point of the ...
. Venetians and Ottomans were also allies against the Genoese-Byzantine alliance.
Genoese were more active in the
Anatolian Peninsula
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The reg ...
while Venetians were powerful in the
Aegean islands. There were also several
Italian
Italian(s) may refer to:
* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries
** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom
** Italian language, a Romance language
*** Regional Ita ...
city-states that were active in and around Anatolia. The
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were ...
also played an important role in the lives of Levantines.
The cities chosen by Levantines were settled in important trade routes and they were also safer places. Istanbul was the center of the Ottoman Empire and Izmir was a safe city located within a gulf and feeding Istanbul with its potential. Izmir was also a center for fresh produce such as grapes, figs, olives, and okra. Consequently, Venetians and French began to settle in Izmir after Genoese traders. Over time Italian influence began to decrease and British, Dutch, and German merchants increased their ties with the Anatolian coast. They also married other non-Catholic and non-Protestant Christians, especially Greek Orthodox.
Capitulations and Tanzimat
French merchants began to play an active role in Levant trade routes after the French-Ottoman alliance. Ottomans gave safe passage for French traders and approved
the capitulations for the
French state
Vichy France (french: Régime de Vichy; 10 July 1940 – 9 August 1944), officially the French State ('), was the fascist French state headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II. Officially independent, but with half of its terr ...
.
Especially after the
Tanzimat Era, the Capitulations were approved for other European states. Consequently, there was a significant increase in the numbers of Europeans who came to Ottoman territories, especially in coastal cities. European traders were not Ottoman citizens, so they did not have to pay taxes nor were they obliged to serve in the army. Therefore, these Europeans became wealthier over time.
[Atatürk döneminde Maliye Politikaları](_blank)
Maliye Bakanlığı In addition, they became pioneers in
industrialization and
Western Art
The art of Europe, or Western art, encompasses the history of visual art in Europe. European prehistoric art started as mobile Upper Paleolithic rock and cave painting and petroglyph art and was characteristic of the period between the Paleo ...
.
20th century
The Ottoman Empire fought against the
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies.
** Britishness, the British identity and common culture
* British English, ...
, French and Italians during
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
. The victorious states of World War I compelled the Ottoman government to sign the
Treaty of Sèvres
The Treaty of Sèvres (french: Traité de Sèvres) was a 1920 treaty signed between the Allies of World War I and the Ottoman Empire. The treaty ceded large parts of Ottoman territory to France, the United Kingdom, Greece and Italy, as well ...
. The United Kingdom, Italy, and France were among the occupants of Anatolia. After the independence of Turkey, there was negative public opinion towards Levantines because of allegations that Levantines had cooperated with the
Allies. After the
Great Fire of Smyrna
The burning of Smyrna ( el, Καταστροφή της Σμύρνης, "Smyrna Catastrophe"; tr, 1922 İzmir Yangını, "1922 Izmir Fire"; hy, Զմիւռնիոյ Մեծ Հրդեհ, ''Zmyuṙno Mets Hrdeh'') destroyed much of the port city of ...
, most of the Levantines left Smyrna (now Izmir), and only a few ever returned.
After the
Committee of Union and Progress
The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) ( ota, اتحاد و ترقى جمعيتی, translit=İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti, script=Arab), later the Union and Progress Party ( ota, اتحاد و ترقى فرقهسی, translit=İttihad ve Tera ...
(CUP) came into power after the
1908 Revolution, Levantines began to be affected by the policies of Turkish nationalists. Levantines were also not happy with the increasing Greek presence in the city of Smyrna. The Greek occupation in Smyrna weakened their economic power in the city. In addition, their economic interests suffered due to World War I and in the first years of modern Turkey.
The Great Depression
The Great Depression (19291939) was an economic shock that impacted most countries across the world. It was a period of economic depression that became evident after a major fall in stock prices in the United States. The economic contagio ...
affected Levantines significantly. They quit their jobs and began to leave Turkey due to rapidly rising costs. Their settlements became government property.
There were significant problems in the Turkish economy after the Levantines and Greeks left the country. Turkey faced export problems; most of its exports remained in the hands of local Turkish villagers. However, the Turkish government left all capitulations of Levantines in order to break the monopoly for Turkish entrepreneurs.
Present
Today, the exact number of Levantines is not clear. It is estimated that there are about 100-150 Levantines in Izmir. Another estimate put the number in the hundreds.
However, the number may be higher because of the assimilation policies of Turkish nationalist-
Kemalist
Kemalism ( tr, Kemalizm, also archaically ''Kamâlizm''), also known as Atatürkism ( tr, Atatürkçülük, Atatürkçü düşünce), or The Six Arrows ( tr, Altı Ok), is the founding official ideology of the Republic of Turkey.Eric J. Zurche ...
governments, conversions to
Islam because of fear after the
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
and
Armenian genocide
The Armenian genocide was the systematic destruction of the Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented primarily through t ...
s, or intermarriage. In the documentary about the Levantines of Izmir (Bazıları Onlara Levanten Diyor), Levantines call themselves 'Christian Turks', and they say they are not happy to be called Levantines.
Less than 100 Levantine families are left in Istanbul. However, the number is not clear. The
Istanbul pogrom deeply affected the Levantine population as much as Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. After the Istanbul Pogrom, it is known that most of the Levantines fled to
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
,
the United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
, and other Western European countries. Most of them had second passports, or they only had one passport of the country of their ancestors. Many young Levantines preferred to go abroad rather than stay in Turkey.
The remaining Levantines or their descendants have held meetings in Istanbul to protect their heritage and rediscover their past.
There are also several Levantines left in
Mersin and
Iskenderun. There are still some families in Mersin who are the descendants of Europeans: they often have the names of Levante, Montavani, Babini, Brecotti, Şaşati, Vitel, Talhuz, Antoine-Mirzan, Nadir, Rexya, Soysal, Hisarlı, Kokaz, Daniel, Kokalakis, or Yalnız.
Mersin Catholic Church
The Co-Cathedral of St. Anthony of Padua also St. Anthony Latin Catholic Church of Mersin ( tr, Aziz Antuan Latin Katolik Kilisesi) is a church in Mersin, Turkey. It is a co-cathedral of the Vicariate Apostolic of Anatolia.
It is in the business ...
is still active in the city. Some of the members of the church are still
Maronites
The Maronites ( ar, الموارنة; syr, ܡܖ̈ܘܢܝܐ) are a Christian ethnoreligious group native to the Eastern Mediterranean and Levant region of the Middle East, whose members traditionally belong to the Maronite Church, with the larg ...
.
Levantine population in the past
Istanbul (Constantinople)
![Istanbul ethnic map 1922](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Istanbul_ethnic_map_1922.jpg)
The first Levantines in the Ottoman territories lived in the Pera (
Beyoğlu) and
Galata districts of
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya ( Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis ( ...
, now known as
Istanbul
)
, postal_code_type = Postal code
, postal_code = 34000 to 34990
, area_code = +90 212 (European side) +90 216 (Asian side)
, registration_plate = 34
, blank_name_sec2 = GeoTLD
, blank_i ...
. The peak population of Levantines was during the 19th century, with 14,000 people.
Izmir (Smyrna)
In 1818, traveller
William Jowett described the distribution of
Smyrna
Smyrna ( ; grc, Σμύρνη, Smýrnē, or , ) was a Greek city located at a strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Due to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defence, and its good inland connections, Smyrna rose to promi ...
(now
Izmir)'s population: Turks 60,000, Greeks 40,000, Jews 10,000, Latins 3,000, Armenians 7,000.
In 1856, the Ottoman state allowed Christians to have possessions. Consequently, the number of Levantines in Smyrna began to increase dramatically. The non-Muslim population was 15,000 in 1847, while it increased to 50,000 in 1880. Smyrna became a Levantine city and began to be known as 'the capital of the Levant', 'the pearl of the Levant', 'the Marseille of the Anatolian coast' or 'Marseille on the coast of Asia Minor'.
19th-century sources estimated the population of Levantines between 16,000 and 25,000. This amounts of a minimum of 8% of Smyrna's population, while the maximum estimate is 17%.
[The Image of the Levantines as Portrayed in the late 19th Century Travel Literature](_blank)
Achilleas Chatziconstantinou (12.08.2013)
Non-Muslim peoples of Smyrna lived in different quarters. There was one each quarter for Turks, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and Frenks (Levantines). 1914 population estimate indicates; 378,000 Muslims and 217,686 Orthodox Christians.
Mersin
The
Çukurova region gained importance after the planting of cotton that came from the
Americas
The Americas, which are sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North and South America. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and comprise the New World.
Along with th ...
. Therefore, the cities of
Adana
Adana (; ; ) is a major city in southern Turkey. It is situated on the Seyhan River, inland from the Mediterranean Sea. The administrative seat of Adana province, it has a population of 2.26 million.
Adana lies in the heart of Cilicia, wh ...
and
Mersin began to attract Europeans. Levantines especially began to settle in Mersin, especially after the 19th century. European entrepreneurs created the 'Frenk Quarter' in Mersin. The estimated population during Ottoman times is below:
[Mersin Levanten binaları üzerine bir inceleme](_blank)
Çukuova Üniversitesi Yüksek Lisan Tezi, Gülizar AÇIK GÜNEŞ(28.08.2013)
*In 1879, 625 Muslims, 147 Greeks, 37 Armenians, and 50 Catholics were living in Mersin.
*In 1891, 5000 Muslims, 2700 Greeks, 860 Armenians, and 260 Catholics were living in Mersin.
Culture
Language
There are some Levantine words that have been adopted in the Turkish language, such as "racon" (show-off) and "faça" (face).
Religion
Levantines are Western Christians, separated by their sects. Most of them are Catholics, while there are Protestants (mainly Anglicans and Baptists) among them.
Levantines have their own churches in some cities. They are named according to their ethnicity or sect, such as Alman Protestan Kilisesi (German Protestant Church) or İzmir Baptist Kilisesi (Izmir Baptist Church). Churches in Izmir are sometimes called the 'Levantine Church'.
Churches
Istanbul asv2021-11 img71 StAnthony of Padua Church.jpg, Church of St. Anthony of Padua, Istanbul
Catholic Church of Mersin.jpg, Church of St. Anthony, Mersin
Crimea Memorial Church (Kırım Kilisesi) Beyoğlu, İstanbul - Mart 2013.JPG, Crimea Memorial Church
The Crimea Memorial Church, also known as ''Christ Church'', is a Church of England church in the Beyoglu - Taksim district of Istanbul, Turkey.
History
The current church was built on land donated by Sultan Abdulmecid and was constructed betwe ...
, İstanbul
Education
There are French, Italian, German, and Austrian schools in Istanbul and Izmir. However, most of their students are Turks. These schools are counted as private schools.
Schools
SBfacade.JPG, , İstanbul
Liceo Italiano front facade.jpg, Italian School, İstanbul
İstanbul - Sankt Georg Avusturya Lisesi ve Ticaret Okulu r2 - Mart 2013.JPG, St. George's Austrian High School, İstanbul
Architecture
One of the oldest buildings of the Levantines is Galata Tower in Istanbul. It was in the European quarter until 1453. After the fall of Istanbul, Venetians surrendered the tower to Ottomans.
Izmir is the most important city for the remaining historic Levantine architecture.
Karşıyaka
Karşıyaka () is a district of İzmir Province in Turkey. The district extends for twelve kilometres along the northern and eastern coastline of the tip of the Gulf of İzmir. Its centre is at a distance of to the north from the traditional cen ...
(Courdelion),
Bornova
Bornova is a metropolitan district of İzmir in İzmir Province in Turkey. It is the third largest district in İzmir's Greater Metropolitan Area of and is almost fully urbanized at the rate of 98.6 percent, with corresponding high levels of de ...
(Bournabad), and
Buca
Buca (, ) is a district of İzmir Province, Turkey. It is one of the main urban districts of İzmir Metropolitan Municipality.
History
Buca was one of the preferred settlement areas of İzmir's community of Levantines. The great mansions they bu ...
(Boudja) were known as the center of Levantines in Izmir until the Turkish Independence War. Levantines left tens of buildings in Izmir; most of them are mansions once belonging to European merchant families. Some of them are listed below:
There are also some
inn
Inns are generally establishments or buildings where travelers can seek lodging, and usually, food and drink. Inns are typically located in the country or along a highway; before the advent of motorized transportation they also provided accommo ...
s and
konaks in Mersin that still stand today.
Notable people
* Sir
Alfred Biliotti - Italian soldier and archeologist
* Livio Missir di Lusignano - Italian historian
*
Giuseppe Donizetti - Italian musician
*
Giovanni Scognamillo - Italian writer
* Count
Abraham Camondo - Jewish-Italian financier, philanthropist, and the patriarch of the
Camondo family
* Lucien Arkas - French businessman of Arkas holding company
* William Buttigieg - Maltese-British, the consul general of Izmir
*
Caroline Giraud Koç - French businesswoman
References
{{Latin Church footer
Italian diaspora
French diaspora
European diaspora in Turkey
Christian groups in the Middle East
*