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Lasswell's model of communication is one of the first and most influential
models of communication Models of communication simplify or represent the process of communication. Most communication models try to describe both Verbal communication, verbal and non-verbal communication and often understand it as an exchange of messages. Their funct ...
. It was initially published by Harold Lasswell in 1948 and analyzes
communication Communication is commonly defined as the transmission of information. Its precise definition is disputed and there are disagreements about whether Intention, unintentional or failed transmissions are included and whether communication not onl ...
in terms of five basic questions: "Who?", "Says What?", "In What Channel?", "To Whom?", and "With What Effect?". These questions pick out the five fundamental components of the communicative process: the sender, the
message A message is a unit of communication that conveys information from a sender to a receiver. It can be transmitted through various forms, such as spoken or written words, signals, or electronic data, and can range from simple instructions to co ...
, the channel, the receiver, and the effect. Some theorists have raised doubts that the widely used characterization as a ''model of communication'' is correct and refer to it instead as "Lasswell's formula", "Lasswell's definition", or "Lasswell's construct". In the beginning, it was conceived specifically for the analysis of
mass communication Mass communication is the process of imparting and exchanging information through mass media to large population segments. It utilizes various forms of media as technology has made the dissemination of information more efficient. Primary examples o ...
like radio, television, and newspapers. However, it has been applied to various other fields and many theorists understand it as a general model of communication. Lasswell's model is still being used today and has influenced many subsequent
communication theorists Communication is commonly defined as the transmission of information. Its precise definition is disputed and there are disagreements about whether unintentional or failed transmissions are included and whether communication not only transmit ...
. Some of them expanded the model through additional questions like "Under What Circumstances?" and "For What Purpose?". Others used it as a starting point for the development of their own models. Lasswell's model is often criticized for its simplicity. A common objection is that it does not explicitly discuss a
feedback Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause and effect that forms a circuit or loop. The system can then be said to ''feed back'' into itself. The notion of cause-and-effect has to be handle ...
loop or the influence of
context In semiotics, linguistics, sociology and anthropology, context refers to those objects or entities which surround a ''focal event'', in these disciplines typically a communicative event, of some kind. Context is "a frame that surrounds the event ...
on the communicative process. Another criticism is that it does not take the effects of
noise Noise is sound, chiefly unwanted, unintentional, or harmful sound considered unpleasant, loud, or disruptive to mental or hearing faculties. From a physics standpoint, there is no distinction between noise and desired sound, as both are vibrat ...
into account. However, not everyone agrees with these objections and it has been suggested that they apply mainly to how Lasswell's model was presented and interpreted by other theorists and not to Lasswell's original formulation.


Concept and usage

Lasswell's model is one of the earliest and most influential
models of communication Models of communication simplify or represent the process of communication. Most communication models try to describe both Verbal communication, verbal and non-verbal communication and often understand it as an exchange of messages. Their funct ...
. It was first published by
Harold Lasswell Harold Dwight Lasswell (February 13, 1902 – December 18, 1978) was an American political scientist and communications theorist. He earned his bachelor's degree in philosophy and economics and his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago. He was a ...
in his 1948 essay ''The Structure and Function of Communication in Society''. Its aim is to organize the "scientific study of the process of
communication Communication is commonly defined as the transmission of information. Its precise definition is disputed and there are disagreements about whether Intention, unintentional or failed transmissions are included and whether communication not onl ...
". It has been described as "a linear and Uni-directional process", "a one-way process", an "action model", a media theory "classic", a "widely used segmentation of the communication process", and "a simple, linear, and potentially hypodermic
conceptualization A concept is an abstract idea that serves as a foundation for more concrete principles, thoughts, and beliefs. Concepts play an important role in all aspects of cognition. As such, concepts are studied within such disciplines as linguistics, psy ...
of communication." Lasswell's model analyzes communication in terms of five basic questions: "Who", "Says What", "In What Channel", "To Whom", and "With What Effect". These questions refer to the most salient components of the process of communication. ''Who'' asks about the person formulating the
message A message is a unit of communication that conveys information from a sender to a receiver. It can be transmitted through various forms, such as spoken or written words, signals, or electronic data, and can range from simple instructions to co ...
and ''what'' is about the content of the message. The '' channel'' is the way the message is conveyed from the sender to the receiver. ''Whom'' refers to the recipient of the message. This can either be an individual or a bigger audience, as in the case of
mass communication Mass communication is the process of imparting and exchanging information through mass media to large population segments. It utilizes various forms of media as technology has made the dissemination of information more efficient. Primary examples o ...
. The ''effect'' is the outcome of the communication, for example, that the audience was persuaded to accept the point of view expressed in the message. It can include effects that were not intended by the sender. In the case of a news paper headline, the sender is the reporter, the message is the content of the headline, the newspaper itself is the channel, the audience is the reader, and the effect is how the reader responds to the headline. Lasswell assigns each question to its own field of inquiry within the discipline of
communication studies Communication studies (or communication science) is an academic discipline that deals with processes of human communication and behavior, patterns of communication in interpersonal relationships, social interactions and communication in differ ...
, corresponding to control analysis,
content analysis Content analysis is the study of documents and communication artifacts, known as texts e.g. photos, speeches or essays. Social scientists use content analysis to examine patterns in communication in a replicable and systematic manner. One of the ...
, media analysis,
audience analysis An audience is a group of people who participate in a show or encounter a work of art, literature (in which they are called "readers"), theatre, music (in which they are called "listeners"), video games (in which they are called "players"), or ...
, and effect analysis. Because of the centrality of its five questions, it is sometimes referred to as the 5W model of communication.


Alternative conceptions

Despite being widely seen as a ''model of communication'', not everyone agrees that this is an accurate characterization. A model of communication is a simplified presentation that aims to give a basic explanation of the process by highlighting its most fundamental characteristics and components. For example, James Watson and Anne Hill see Lasswell's model as a mere questioning device and not as a full model of communication. In the early reception, the term "Lasswell's formula" was commonly used instead by scholars interested in describing and classifying acts of communication. However, many subsequent theorists rejected this terminology since the term "formula" seems to miss part of the significance and applications. Many comparisons with the Shannon–Weaver model invited the term "model" here as well. In this regard, it may be understood as a framework for
concept A concept is an abstract idea that serves as a foundation for more concrete principles, thoughts, and beliefs. Concepts play an important role in all aspects of cognition. As such, concepts are studied within such disciplines as linguistics, ...
ualizing communication. Some theorists use the term "Lasswell's formula" only for the question "Who, says what, in which channel, to whom, with what effect?" and not for the framework as a whole. Because it treats various basic concepts of communication, some scholars also refer to it as "Lasswell's definition" and some dictionaries even make reference to Lasswell in their definitions of communication. Zachary Sapienza et al. hold that there are many different conceptions of Lasswell's model, given both by himself and by other theorists. For this reason, they propose the term "Lasswell's construct" to emphasize that it is not one particular model but "an umbrella term which allows for multiple conceptions".


Usage

Lasswell's model was initially formulated specifically for the analysis of mass communication like radio, television, and newspapers. But it has also been applied to various other fields and forms of communication. They include the analysis of new media, such as the internet, computer animations, and video games. Lasswell's model is also utilized in
pedagogical Pedagogy (), most commonly understood as the approach to teaching, is the theory and practice of learning, and how this process influences, and is influenced by, the social, political, and psychological development of learners. Pedagogy, taken ...
settings to teach students the major elements of the communication process and as a starting point for developing
hypotheses A hypothesis (: hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. A scientific method, scientific hypothesis must be based on observations and make a testable and reproducible prediction about reality, in a process beginning with an educ ...
. Lasswell and others have used his model beyond the scope of mass communication as a tool for the analysis of all forms of
verbal communication Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The areas of linguistic analysis are syntax (rules governing the structure of sentences), semantics (meaning), morphology (structure of words), phonetics (speech sounds and equivalent gestures ...
. This is also reflected in the fact that some theorists employ his model in their definition of communication in general.


Influence and developments

As one of the earliest models of communication, Lasswell's model has been very influential in the field of communication studies. In 1993, the communication scholars
Denis McQuail Denis McQuail (12 April 1935, London – 25 June 2017)"Prof. dr. D. McQuail, 1935 -," at ''Album Academicum'' website, University of Amsterdam. was a British communication theorist, Emeritus Professor at the University of Amsterdam, considere ...
and
Sven Windahl Sven Windahl (born May 1, 1942) is a Swedish professor of communication studies as well as a consultant in the field of organizational communication. His most influential work is the book ''Using Communication Theory'' from 1989, co-authored wit ...
referred to Lasswell's model as "perhaps the most famous single phrase in communication research." McQuail and Windahl also considered the model as a formula that would be transformed into a model once boxes were drawn around each element and arrows connected the elements. The model's influence is also reflected in various expansions and developments. Many theorists have used it as a starting point for the development of their own theories.
George Gerbner George Gerbner (August 8, 1919 – December 24, 2005) was a professor of communication and the founder of cultivation theory. He taught at Temple University, Villanova University, and the University of Pennsylvania.Lent, John A. 1995.Interview wit ...
, the founder of the
cultivation theory Cultivation theory is a sociological and communications framework designed to unravel the enduring impacts of media consumption, with a primary focus on television. At its core, the theory posits a compelling hypothesis: individuals who invest m ...
, expanded Lasswell's model in 1956 to focus "attention on
perception Perception () is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented information or environment. All perception involves signals that go through the nervous syste ...
and reaction by the perceiver and the consequences of the communication". Laswell's 5W model of communication was expanded by Richard Braddock into a 7W model in his 1958 paper "An Extension of Lasswell's Formula". It includes two additional questions: "Under What Circumstances?" and "For What Purpose?". The first question focuses on the importance of the context on communication. The second question emphasizes that there may be a difference between the sender's
intention An intention is a mental state in which a person commits themselves to a course of action. Having the plan to visit the zoo tomorrow is an example of an intention. The action plan is the ''content'' of the intention while the commitment is the ...
and the actual effect of the message. Similar extensions were proposed by Lennox Gray adding the question "in what situation?" and Herbert Hyman, who included the question "with what immediate response?". T. Duncan and S. Moriarty added a category for
noise Noise is sound, chiefly unwanted, unintentional, or harmful sound considered unpleasant, loud, or disruptive to mental or hearing faculties. From a physics standpoint, there is no distinction between noise and desired sound, as both are vibrat ...
and focused on
feedback Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause and effect that forms a circuit or loop. The system can then be said to ''feed back'' into itself. The notion of cause-and-effect has to be handle ...
instead of effect. According to media scholar Michael Real, not all such attempts are successful at capturing Lasswell's original intent. Lasswell himself also proposed additional questions, usually for the application of the model to specific fields. In the field of
political communication Political communication is the study of political messaging that is communicated, usually to the public e.g. political campaigns, speeches and political advertising, often concerning the mass media. It is an interdisciplinary field that draws f ...
, for example, he includes questions about what value outcomes are sought and whether the effect is in tune with the speaker's goals.


Criticism

Most criticism of Lasswell's model focuses on its simplicity and lack of indepth discussion. For example, Greenberg and Salwen state: "Although Lasswell's model draws attention to several key elements in the mass communication process, it does no more than describe general areas of study. It does not link elements together with any specificity, and there is no notion of an active process." A common objection emphasizes its lack of a feedback loop. Feedback means that the receiver responds by sending their own message back to the original sender. This makes the process more complicated since each participant acts both as sender and receiver. For many forms of communication, feedback is of vital importance, for example, to assess the effect of the communication on the audience. However, it does not carry the same weight in the case of mass communication. Some theorists argue that this criticism is based on a misinterpretation of Lasswell's model. One reason for this view is that most models of communication take the form of graphical representation. And while there exist such visualizations for Lasswell's model, Lasswell never devised one himself and they are all due to other theorists interpreting his work. These visual representations usually show Lasswell's model as a linear transmission model lacking a feedback loop. Sapienza et al. argue against this view that Lasswell's model is not a linear transmission model since Lasswell also discusses two-way communication in another paper. Another argument in favor of this objection is that the effect discussed by Lasswell may be understood as some form of feedback. Another shortcoming of Lasswell's model is that it does not take the effects of
noise Noise is sound, chiefly unwanted, unintentional, or harmful sound considered unpleasant, loud, or disruptive to mental or hearing faculties. From a physics standpoint, there is no distinction between noise and desired sound, as both are vibrat ...
into account. Noise refers to influences that distort the message and make it more difficult for the receiver to reconstruct the source's original
intention An intention is a mental state in which a person commits themselves to a course of action. Having the plan to visit the zoo tomorrow is an example of an intention. The action plan is the ''content'' of the intention while the commitment is the ...
. For example, crackling sounds during a telephone call are one form of noise. A further criticism focuses on the fact that Lasswell's model does not address various influences of the
context In semiotics, linguistics, sociology and anthropology, context refers to those objects or entities which surround a ''focal event'', in these disciplines typically a communicative event, of some kind. Context is "a frame that surrounds the event ...
on communication. ''Context'' is a wide term and refers to the circumstances of the transmission. There are various forms of context, like the physical surroundings,
emotional Emotions are physical and mental states brought on by neurophysiology, neurophysiological changes, variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavior, behavioral responses, and a degree of pleasure or suffering, displeasure. There is ...
aspects such as the mood of the participants as well as social and cultural factors. These factors are crucial in many cases for understanding why a conversation evolves one way rather than another. The above-mentioned criticisms often lead to another objection: that Lasswell's model is outdated and therefore lacks usefulness in comparison to more modern models. However, despite being one of the oldest models of communication, Lasswell's model is still being used today. Such uses are often restricted to specific applications where the cited criticisms do not carry much weight. Examples include the analysis of
mass media Mass media include the diverse arrays of media that reach a large audience via mass communication. Broadcast media transmit information electronically via media such as films, radio, recorded music, or television. Digital media comprises b ...
and new media. Not everyone agrees with the criticisms listed above based on the simplicity of Lasswell's model. According to Sapienza et al., many of these objections result from an overly simplified presentation of Lasswell's model by subsequent theorists but do not apply to Lasswell's original formulation. Such simplifications may be motivated by the desire of the interpreter to emphasize the advances of their own models in comparison. Some theorists hold that Lasswell's model is too simple to be called a model of communication and is better characterized as a questioning device. Against this view, it has been argued that the model's simple presentation in terms of five questions is a convenient starting point but does not do justice to its theoretical complexity.


See also

* Media effects *
Uses and gratifications theory Uses and gratifications theory is a communication theory that describes the reasons and means by which people seek out media to meet specific needs. The theory postulates that media is a highly available product, that audiences are the consumers o ...


References

{{reflist Communication theory