Lakeba (pronounced ) is an island in

Fiji Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists ...

’s Southern Lau Archipelago; the provincial capital of Lau is located here. The island is the tenth largest in Fiji, with a land area of nearly 60 square kilometers.Steadman (2006) It is fertile and well watered, and encircled by a 29-kilometer road. Its closest neighbors are

Aiwa is a consumer electronics brand owned and used by various companies in different regions of the world. American and other regions are owned by Chicago-based Aiwa Corporation. Towada Audio based in Tokyo owns the rights to the brand in Japa ...

and

Nayau Nayau is an island of Fiji, a member of the Lau archipelago. Nearby cities: Suva; Nuku'Alofa; Coordinates: 17°58'39"S 179°3'13"W. Nayau, north of Lakeba Lakeba (pronounced ) is an island in Fiji’s Southern Lau Archipelago; the pr ...

. Separated by deep sea from the latter but only by shallow waters from the former, when

sea level Mean sea level (MSL, often shortened to sea level) is an average surface level of one or more among Earth's coastal bodies of water from which heights such as elevation may be measured. The global MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised g ...

s were lower during

glacial A glacial period (alternatively glacial or glaciation) is an interval of time (thousands of years) within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the other hand, are periods of warmer climate betw ...

episodes Lakeba and Aiwa formed one large island. It has a population of around 2,100 in eight villages, the most important of which is the capital

Tubou Tubou is a village on the Fijian island of Lakeba. One of eight villages on Lakeba, it is considered the capital of the Lau Islands, being the seat of the Vuanirewa clan, a powerful chiefly family from which Fiji's longtime Prime Minister and Pre ...

which lies in the island's south. Near Tubou is the village of

Levuka Levuka () is a Local government in Fiji, town on the eastern coast of the Fijian island of Ovalau (Fiji), Ovalau, in Lomaiviti Province, in the Eastern Division, Fiji, Eastern Division of Fiji. Prior to 1877, it was the capital of Fiji. At the c ...

; not to be confused with its namesake – Fiji's old capital – Levuka on Lakeba is home to a fishing tribe whose ancestors came from

Bau Island Bau (pronounced ) is a small island in Fiji, off the east coast of the main island of Viti Levu. Bau rose to prominence in the mid-1800s and became Fiji's dominant power; until its cession to Britain, it has maintained its influence in politics and ...

. Another significant village is

Nasaqalau Nasaqalau is one of the eight villages on the island of Lakeba, in Fiji's Lau archipelago. The ''Yavusa Naseuvou'' includes four ''mataqalis'' (or sub-clans), namely Dreketi, Loma, Nakabuta and Nautoqumu. Nasaqalau was also home to the first settler ...

, located in the northern part of Lakeba. Foulehaio carunculatus1

Geography

Situated at 18.20° South and 178.80° East, Lakeba has an irregular

oval An oval () is a closed curve in a plane which resembles the outline of an egg. The term is not very specific, but in some areas (projective geometry, technical drawing, etc.) it is given a more precise definition, which may include either one or ...

shape. About 9 kilometers long and 8 kilometers wide, it is circumscribed by a total shoreline of 32 kilometers. The island, which has a maximum

altitude Altitude or height (also sometimes known as depth) is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or "up" direction, between a reference datum and a point or object. The exact definition and reference datum varies according to the context ...

of 219 meters, has a core of

andesitic Andesite () is a volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between silica-poor basalt and silica-rich rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in texture, and is composed predomina ...

volcanic A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates a ...

rock of

Miocene The Miocene ( ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about (Ma). The Miocene was named by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell; the name comes from the Greek words (', "less") and (', "new") and means "less recen ...

age, with raised

coral Corals are marine invertebrates within the class Anthozoa of the phylum Cnidaria. They typically form compact colonies of many identical individual polyps. Coral species include the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and sec ...

rock around it. The

limestone Limestone ( calcium carbonate ) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of . Limestone forms whe ...

lies bare in places, forming

karst Karst is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. It is characterized by underground drainage systems with sinkholes and caves. It has also been documented for more weathering-resistant ro ...

and – particularly on the north and north-west coasts – cliffs up to 76 meters high; the overall area taken up by bare limestone is about 4% of Lakeba's total land surface. A

reforestation Reforestation (occasionally, reafforestation) is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands (forestation) that have been depleted, usually through deforestation, but also after clearcutting. Management A debate ...

programme has seen the planting of Lakeba's hills (formerly partially denuded by

deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated d ...

) with

Caribbean pine The Caribbean pine (''Pinus caribaea'') is a hard pine species native to Central America and the northern West Indies (in Cuba, the Bahamas, and the Turks and Caicos Islands). It belongs to subsection '' Australes'' in subgenus ''Pinus''. It ...

(''Pinus caribea'') trees.Steadman (2006), Franklin ''et al.'' (2008) The

climate Climate is the long-term weather pattern in an area, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorologic ...

of Lakeba is generally

humid Humidity is the concentration of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor, the gaseous state of water, is generally invisible to the human eye. Humidity indicates the likelihood for precipitation, dew, or fog to be present. Humidity depen ...

, with a wetter summer and a drier winter. The average annual

precipitation In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravitational pull from clouds. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, ice pellets, graupel and hail. ...

is somewhat over 2,000 mm as measured at

, but average monthly precipitation in the winter months – June, July and August – is only around 80 mm, and there can be large differences in rainfall between years.Franklin ''et al.'' (2008) The village of

is noted for a number of

cave A cave or cavern is a natural void in the ground, specifically a space large enough for a human to enter. Caves often form by the weathering of rock and often extend deep underground. The word ''cave'' can refer to smaller openings such as sea ...

s, the most famous being '' Oso Nabukete,'' also known as the Pregnant Women's Cave. According to legend, a woman attempting to hide her pregnancy will not be able to escape through the mouth of the cave. It is adjoined by '' Qara Bulu,'' once used as a prison in times of tribal war. A third cave, '' Koro ni Vono,'' was once used as a place of banishment for

tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by '' Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections show no symptoms, in ...

patients, who were left there to die. Other notable caves include the

Tubou Cave Tubou is a village on the Fijian island of Lakeba. One of eight villages on Lakeba, it is considered the capital of the Lau Islands, being the seat of the Vuanirewa clan, a powerful chiefly family from which Fiji's longtime Prime Minister and ...

, of interest to

geologist A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid, liquid, and gaseous matter that constitutes Earth and other terrestrial planets, as well as the processes that shape them. Geologists usually study geology, earth science, or geophysics, althou ...

s, and ''

Qara ni Puka Qara may refer to: Places *Al Qara, a governorate in Al Bahah Region, Saudi Arabia *Qara, Syria, a Syrian city * Qara Oasis, Egypt Persons * Qara Iskander, ruled the Kara Koyunlu or Black Sheep Turcoman tribe from 1420 to 1436 * Qara Mahammad Tör ...

'' where many remains of

extinct Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and ...

birds have been found. Davallia fejeensis (Washington DC)

History and culture

Lakeba is known as a chiefly island, being the home island of the chiefly

Vuanirewa The Vuanirewa is the ruling tribe (yavusa) of the Lau Islands, a scattered group of more than a hundred islands (16 inhabited) and reefs along the eastern edge of Fiji. Origins The members of this clan all hail from the village of Tubou on the ...

clan, which is based in

. The head of this clan takes the title of ''

Tui Nayau ''Tu’i Nayau'' is the title held by the paramount chief of the Lau Islands in Fiji and is synonymous with the title holders over lordship of these islands. When translated, ''Tu’i Nayau'' means "Lord of Nayau", an island north of Lakeba, the la ...

'', and is the Paramount Chief of the Lau Islands. The last ''Tui Nayau'' was Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara (1920–2004); he was the first

Prime Minister of Fiji The prime minister of Fiji is the head of government of the Republic of Fiji. The prime minister is appointed under the terms of the 2013 Constitution of Fiji. The prime minister is the head of the Cabinet and appoints and dismisses ministers. ...

and second

President of Fiji The president of Fiji is the head of state of the Republic of Fiji. The president is appointed by the Parliament for a three-year term under the terms of the 2013 Constitution of Fiji. Although not entirely a figurehead, the role of president ...

, and the most durable figure of Fijian politics for more than three decades. Ratu Mara is buried in the village of Tubou, as are

Enele Ma'afu Enele is a given name. Notable people with the name include: * Enele Maʻafu ( 1816–1881), Tongan chief * Enele Malele (born 1990), Fijian rugby union player * Enele Sopoaga (born 1956), Tuvaluan diplomat and politician * Enele Taufa (bor ...

(1816–1881) – a

Tonga Tonga (, ; ), officially the Kingdom of Tonga ( to, Puleʻanga Fakatuʻi ʻo Tonga), is a Polynesian country and archipelago. The country has 171 islands – of which 45 are inhabited. Its total surface area is about , scattered over in ...

an warlord who conquered much of Fiji in the 19th century – and Fiji's first modern statesman

Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna Ratu Sir Josefa Lalabalavu Vanayaliyali Sukuna (22 April 1888 – 30 May 1958) was a Fijian chief, scholar, soldier, and statesman. He is regarded as the forerunner of the post-independence leadership of Fiji. He did more than anybody to lay ...

(1888–1958). Lakeba lies on a historical faultline between Fiji and

, and Tongan influence is seen in many aspects of Lakeban culture. Lakeban architecture features rounded houses rather than the square-ended ones elsewhere in Fiji. The Lakeban dialect of Fijian also shows Tongan influence. Tongan

hymn A hymn is a type of song, and partially synonymous with devotional song, specifically written for the purpose of adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification. The word ''hymn'' ...

s are popular in '' polotu'' (an evening church service), and Tongan clothing styles are reflected in the mats tied around the waist on formal occasions. Tongan traditional dances called ''

lakalaka The lakalaka (walking briskly) is a Tongan group dance where the performers are largely standing still and make gestures with their arms only. It is considered as the national dance of Tonga and part of the intangible human heritage. It is the ide ...

'' are also popular. Archaeological excavations in the 1990s discovered a massive fortress, built around a thousand years ago. Large enough to house 2,500 people (more than the total population of the island), the fortress is believed to have been built as a bulwark against Tongan invaders. The inhabitants of

are famous for the ability of one of their clans to call

shark Sharks are a group of elasmobranch fish characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, five to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head. Modern sharks are classified within the clade Selachimo ...

s from the sea. This clan originated in the village of Wainikeli on the island of

Taveuni Taveuni (pronounced ) is the third-largest island in Fiji, after Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, with a total land area of . The cigar-shaped island, a massive shield volcano which rises from the floor of the Pacific Ocean, is situated to the east of ...

. On Lakeba was born famous chief

Delailoa Delailoa (born on Lakeba) was a Fijian High Chief. He had an instrumental role in maintaining the fortunes of the Vuanirewa under the reign of his relative Malani. Family Delailoa was a son of the Chief Qoma and grandson of Chief Kalouyalew ...

, son of

Kalouyalewa Kalouyalewa (pronounced ) (born on Nayau) was a Fijian High Chief. Kalouyalewa was a son of the Chief Naosara (Tuivanuakula II) and his wife, ''Adi'' Gelegeleavanua, and thus a grandson of Chief Kubunavanua II, who was very famous. He was bo ...

, who went on Lakeba.

Economy

Copra Copra (from ) is the dried, white flesh of the coconut from which coconut oil is extracted. Traditionally, the coconuts are sun-dried, especially for export, before the oil, also known as copra oil, is pressed out. The oil extracted from copr ...

production is the most important economic activity on Lakeba. There is also a

coconut The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family ( Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the ...

mill four kilometers outside Tubou. Tourism is of lesser importance in Lakeba than in some other parts of Fiji.

Ecology

Due to the extensive and long-lasting settlement, the original

ecosystem An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the syste ...

on Lakeba has been strongly altered. Terrestrial

mammal Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur or ...

s, not originally native, have been introduces as

livestock Livestock are the domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to provide labor and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to animals ...

or stowaways, and today the island has

horse The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million y ...

pig The pig (''Sus domesticus''), often called swine, hog, or domestic pig when distinguishing from other members of the genus '' Sus'', is an omnivorous, domesticated, even-toed, hoofed mammal. It is variously considered a subspecies of ''Sus ...

cattle Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, cloven-hooved, herbivores. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus ''Bos''. Adult females are referred to as cows and adult mal ...

dog The dog (''Canis familiaris'' or ''Canis lupus familiaris'') is a domesticated descendant of the wolf. Also called the domestic dog, it is derived from the extinct Pleistocene wolf, and the modern wolf is the dog's nearest living relative. Do ...

cat The cat (''Felis catus'') is a domestic species of small carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species in the family Felidae and is commonly referred to as the domestic cat or house cat to distinguish it from the wild members of ...

s, and Polynesian (''Rattus exulans'') as well as

black rat The black rat (''Rattus rattus''), also known as the roof rat, ship rat, or house rat, is a common long-tailed rodent of the stereotypical rat genus ''Rattus'', in the subfamily Murinae. It likely originated in the Indian subcontinent, but is n ...

s (''R. rattus'').

Birds

Among land birds,

bird Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweigh ...

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...

disappeared from Lakeba in prehistoric times, probably after the upland forests were largely cleared away; introduced rats as well as hunting probably also contributed to their demise. Others managed to adapt to the alteration of

habitat In ecology, the term habitat summarises the array of resources, physical and biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical ...

by humans, though they are generally not as common as on

where there has been no significant

. For the most part, the

avifauna Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweight s ...

of Lakeba is more similar to that of

Samoa Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa; sm, Sāmoa, and until 1997 known as Western Samoa, is a Polynesian island country consisting of two main islands (Savai'i and Upolu); two smaller, inhabited islands (Manono Island, Manono an ...

and

than to that of the main group of

. Quite commonly seen are the

white-rumped swiftlet The white-rumped swiftlet (''Aerodramus spodiopygius'') is a species of swift in the family Apodidae. It is found in American Samoa, Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Vanuatu Vanuatu ( or ; ), of ...

(''Collocalia spodiopygia''),

Polynesian starling The Polynesian starling (''Aplonis tabuensis'') is a species of starling of the family Sturnidae. It is found in the Samoan Islands, Fiji, Niue, Tonga, the Santa Cruz Islands and Wallis and Futuna. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropica ...

, (''Aplonis tabuensis'', either the West Fijian

subspecies In biological classification, subspecies is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (morphology), but that can successfully interbreed. Not all species ...

''vitiensis'' or the subspecies ''tabuensis'' from the southern Lau group and Tonga), Vanikoro flycatcher (''Myiagra vanikorensis''), and the

slaty monarch The slaty monarch (''Mayrornis lessoni'') is a species of bird in the family Monarchidae endemic to Fiji. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. Taxonomy and systematics The slaty monarch was originally describ ...

(''Mayrornis lessoni'') which is

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsew ...

to Fiji. Two

honeyeater The honeyeaters are a large and diverse family (biology), family, Meliphagidae, of small to medium-sized birds. The family includes the Epthianura, Australian chats, myzomelas, friarbirds, wattlebirds, Manorina, miners and melidectes. They are ...

s, the endemic

orange-breasted myzomela The sulphur-breasted myzomela (''Myzomela jugularis''), also known as the orange-breasted myzomela or orange-breasted honeyeater, is a species of bird in the family Meliphagidae. Description The sulphur-breasted myzomela is 10 cm (4 in) lo ...

(''Myzomela jugularis'') and the widespread eastern

wattled honeyeater The wattled honeyeaters make up a genus (''Foulehaio'') of birds in the family Meliphagidae. It contains the following species: Foulehaio, * Birds of the Pacific Ocean, Taxa named by Ludwig Reichenbach {{Meliphagidae-stub ...

(''Foulehaio carunculatus carunculatus''), have adapted well to human settlement and are rather common in the

plantations. The

collared lory The collared lory (''Vini solitaria'') is a species of parrot in the family Psittaculidae. It is endemic to the islands of Fiji. It is the only Fijian rainforest bird to adapt to urban area, urban landscapes and can be found in urban Suva. Measur ...

(''Phigys solitarius''), endemic to Fiji in modern times, also frequents this habitat, but is a rather rare species on Lakeba. At least three species formerly found on Lakeba are now completely

: the Lakeba imperial pigeon (''

Ducula lakeba ''Ducula'' is a genus of the pigeon family Columbidae, collectively known as imperial pigeons. They are large to very large pigeons with a heavy build and medium to long tails. They are arboreal, feed mainly on fruit and are closely related to th ...

'') might also have occurred on

Viti Levu Viti Levu (pronounced ) is the largest island in the Republic of Fiji. It is the site of the nation's capital, Suva, and home to a large majority of Fiji's population. Geology Fiji lies in a tectonically complex area between the Australian P ...

and perhaps on the Tongan islands of ʻEua,

Foa Foa may refer to: People * Arnoldo Foà (1916–2014), Italian film actor * Barrett Foa (born 1977), American actor * Edna B. Foa (born 1937), Israeli psychologist * Emanuele Foà (1892–1949), Italian engineer * Eugénie Foa (1796–1852), ...

and

Lifuka Lifuka is an island in the Kingdom of Tonga. It is located within the Ha'apai Group, Haapai Group in the centre of the country, to northeast of the national capital of Nukuʻalofa, Nukualofa. It is the administrative centre of the Haapai group of ...

. If so, it probably was generally widespread in western

Polynesia Polynesia () "many" and νῆσος () "island"), to, Polinisia; mi, Porinihia; haw, Polenekia; fj, Polinisia; sm, Polenisia; rar, Porinetia; ty, Pōrīnetia; tvl, Polenisia; tkl, Polenihia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, made up of ...

, but until now it is only known with certainty from Lakeba and Aiwa. A hitherto undescribed ''

Gallirallus ''Gallirallus'' is a genus of rails that live in the Australasian-Pacific region. The genus is characterised by an ability to colonise relatively small and isolated islands and thereafter to evolve flightless forms, many of which became extinct ...

rail Rail or rails may refer to: Rail transport *Rail transport and related matters *Rail (rail transport) or railway lines, the running surface of a railway Arts and media Film * ''Rails'' (film), a 1929 Italian film by Mario Camerini * ''Rail'' ( ...

also inhabited Lakeba and Aiwa in the past; as this bird was

flightless Flightless birds are birds that through evolution lost the ability to fly. There are over 60 extant species, including the well known ratites (ostriches, emu, cassowaries, rheas, and kiwi) and penguins. The smallest flightless bird is the ...

it represents an endemic species. The

consumed scrubfowl The consumed scrubfowl (''Megapodius alimentum'') is an extinct megapode that was native to Fiji and Tonga in the south-west Pacific Ocean. It was originally described from subfossil remains collected by David Steadman from an archaeological si ...

(''

Megapodius alimentum The consumed scrubfowl (''Megapodius alimentum'') is an extinct megapode that was native to Fiji and Tonga in the south-west Pacific Ocean. It was originally described from subfossil remains collected by David Steadman from an archaeological si ...

''), a species rather widely distributed throughout Fiji and Tonga, also occurred on Lakeba and Aiwa in the past; as

scrubfowl The scrubfowl are the genus '' Megapodius '' of the mound-builders, stocky, medium-large chicken-like birds with small heads and large feet in the family Megapodiidae. They are found from south-east Asia to north Australia and islands in the we ...

were widely transported across islands by settlers, this species might have been brought here by humans, but altogether this is not too likely. However, on Aiwa a single bone was found, probably referrable either to the

Viti Levu scrubfowl The Viti Levu scrubfowl (''Megapodius amissus''), also known as the Fiji scrubfowl or lost megapode, is an extinct megapode that was endemic to Fiji. The epithet ''amissus'', from Latin "lost", refers to its extinction. Subfossil remains wer ...

(''M. amissus'') or the

pile-builder megapode The pile-builder megapode (''Megapodius molistructor'') is an extinct species of megapode. The subfossil remains were found by Jean-Christophe Balouet and Storrs L. Olson in the Pindai Caves of New Caledonia. Its remains have also been foun ...

(''M. molistructor''); the latter species occurred on Tonga and

New Caledonia ) , anthem = "" , image_map = New Caledonia on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg , map_alt = Location of New Caledonia , map_caption = Location of New Caledonia , mapsize = 290px , subdivision_type = Sovereign st ...

, while the former, which lived on Viti Levu and perhaps Kadavu of the western group of Fiji, possibly survived to modern times. Considering that only one bone was found and that ''M. alimentum'' was numerous on Lakeba and presumably also Aiwa, it may well be that the second ''Megapodius'' species was indeed imported as food by

Polynesians Polynesians form an ethnolinguistic group of closely related people who are native to Polynesia (islands in the Polynesian Triangle), an expansive region of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. They trace their early prehistoric origins to Island Sou ...

and never had a self-sustaining population; in that regard it may be noted that unlike ''M. alimentum'', ''M. amissus'' was a weak flier or even flightless. Parrot bones found on Lakeba might be of the

Oceanic eclectus parrot The oceanic eclectus parrot (''Eclectus infectus'') is an extinct parrot species which occurred on Tonga, Vanuatu and possibly on Fiji. Its only living relative is the eclectus parrot (''Eclectus roratus''), which has proportionally larger wings ...

(''Eclectus infectus'');

biogeography Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, ...

suggests that this species was formerly native to at least some islands in Fiji, as it occurred on Tonga to the east and

Vanuatu Vanuatu ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Vanuatu (french: link=no, République de Vanuatu; bi, Ripablik blong Vanuatu), is an island country located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is east of no ...

to the west. In addition, there remains a batch of

songbird A songbird is a bird belonging to the suborder Passeri of the perching birds (Passeriformes). Another name that is sometimes seen as the scientific or vernacular name is Oscines, from Latin ''oscen'', "songbird". The Passeriformes contains 500 ...

bones from several species that have not been identified; these might be of birds not found on Lakeba anymore but it is not too likely that they contain any entirely extinct forms. Also found on Aiwa was a single bone of a ''

Porzana ''Porzana'' is a genus of birds in the crake and rail family, Rallidae. Its scientific name is derived from Venetian terms for small rails. The spotted crake (''P. porzana'') is the type species. Taxonomy The genus ''Porzana'' was erected by th ...

'' rail. Apparently this was yet another distinct species, and if so it is likely to have occurred on Lakeba too. But until more material turns up and is studied, nothing can be said with certainty, particularly in respect of the fact that the

white-browed crake The white-browed crake (''Poliolimnas cinereus'') is a species of bird in the family Rallidae. It is found in Australia, Brunei, Cambodia, Fiji, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, India, Malaysia, Micronesia, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, the ...

(''P. cinerea'') and the

spotless crake The spotless crake (''Zapornia tabuensis'') is a species of bird in the rail family, Rallidae. It is widely distributed species occurring from the Philippines, New Guinea and Australia, across the southern Pacific Ocean to the Marquesas Islands a ...

(''P. tabuensis'') formerly occurred on Lakeba. Finally, a single bone of the

striated heron The striated heron (''Butorides striata'') also known as mangrove heron, little green heron or green-backed heron, is a small heron, about 44 cm tall. Striated herons are mostly sedentary and noted for some interesting behavioral traits. The ...

(''Butorides striata'') was found on Lakeba; the species does not occur there today, but unless more bones are found it is not sure that it had a self-sustaining population on this island rather than being merely an occasional visitor. Peale's imperial pigeon (''Ducula latrans''), the Southwest Pacific

peregrine falcon The peregrine falcon (''Falco peregrinus''), also known as the peregrine, and historically as the duck hawk in North America, is a Cosmopolitan distribution, cosmopolitan bird of prey (Bird of prey, raptor) in the family (biology), family Falco ...

(''Falco peregrinus nesiotes'') and the

Fiji shrikebill The Fiji shrikebill (''Clytorhynchus vitiensis'') is a songbird species in the family Monarchidae. It is found in American Samoa, Fiji, and Tonga. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. Taxonomy and systematics T ...

(''Clytorhynchus vitiensis'') breed on much smaller Aiwa but not on Lakeba; though no bones of these species have been found here to date, it is likely that they formerly occurred on Lakeba too.

Plants

The former upland forest was largely cleared after the initial settlement to make room for

agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to ...

; only about of it remain. A total 40% of Lakeba's surface is used for cultivation of

(''Pinus caribaea''), the rare

cycad Cycads are seed plants that typically have a stout and woody (ligneous) trunk (botany), trunk with a crown (botany), crown of large, hard, stiff, evergreen and (usually) pinnate leaves. The species are dioecious, that is, individual plants o ...

("sago palm") ''

Cycas seemannii ''Cycas seemannii'' is a species of cycad found in Fiji, Vanuatu (in Efate), Tonga, and New Caledonia.Whitelock, Loran M. 2002. ''The Cycads''. Portland: Timber Press. In Vanuatu, the cycad is known as namele and is an important symbol of tra ...

'', coconut palms (''

Cocos nucifera The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the f ...

'') and other

crop A crop is a plant that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. When the plants of the same kind are cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is called a crop. Most crops are cultivated in agriculture or hydroponic ...

s. The remaining vegetation of Lakeba is dominated by dicots; it can be classified as follows, progressing from the peak to the shore: * Upland forest on volcanic soil. Little remains today, mostly in

ravine A ravine is a landform that is narrower than a canyon and is often the product of streambank erosion.ridge A ridge or a mountain ridge is a geographical feature consisting of a chain of mountains or hills that form a continuous elevated crest for an extended distance. The sides of the ridge slope away from the narrow top on either side. The line ...

s. Contains such species as ''

Alyxia stellata ''Alyxia stellata'', known as ''maile'' in Hawaiian, is a species of flowering plant in the dogbane family, ''Apocynaceae'', that is native to Hawaii. It grows as either a twining liana, scandent shrub, or small erect shrub, and is one of the ...

'', ''

Alphitonia zizyphoides ''Alphitonia'' is a genus of arborescent flowering plants comprising about 20 species, constituting part of the buckthorn family ( Rhamnaceae). They occur in tropical regions of Southeast Asia, Oceania and Polynesia. These are large trees or shru ...

'', '' Barringtonia edulis'', '' Dysoxylum richii'', '' Ficus scabra'', '' Grewia crenata'', '' Micromelum minutum'', ''

Pittosporum arborescens ''Pittosporum'' ( or ) is a genus of about 200 species of flowering plants in the family Pittosporaceae. The genus is probably Gondwanan in origin; its present range extends from Australasia, Oceania, eastern Asia and some parts of Africa. ''Cit ...

'', '' Vavaea amicorum'', and '' Geissois ternata'' which is only found on volcanic soils. * ''talasiga''

grassland A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes, like clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur natur ...

and scrub. This is a

plant community A plant community is a collection or association of plant species within a designated geographical unit, which forms a relatively uniform patch, distinguishable from neighboring patches of different vegetation types. The components of each plant co ...

that contains mainly

herbaceous Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials. Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous" The fourth edition of t ...

and small woody species; it grows where forest had been cleared away in the past. In locations that have suffered much

erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust, and then transports it to another location where it is deposited. Erosion is distin ...

it persists; elsewhere it is gradually being replaced with forest again. Dominant plant species are ''

Dicranopteris linearis ''Dicranopteris linearis'' is a common species of fern known by many common names, including Old World forked fern, ''uluhe'' ( Hawaiian), and ''dilim'' ( Filipino). It is one of the most widely distributed ferns of the wet Old World tropics and ...

'', Hopseed (''

Dodonaea viscosa ''Dodonaea viscosa'', also known as the broadleaf hopbush, is a species of flowering plant in the ''Dodonaea'' (hopbush) genus that has a cosmopolitan distribution in Tropics, tropical, Subtropics, subtropical and warm temperate regions of Africa ...

''), ''

Pandanus tectorius ''Pandanus tectorius'' is a species of ''Pandanus'' (screwpine) that is native to Malesia, Papuasia, eastern Australia, and the Pacific Islands. It grows in the coastal lowlands typically near the edge of the ocean. Common names in English inclu ...

'' and ''

Pteridium esculentum ''Pteridium esculentum'', commonly known as bracken fern, Austral bracken or simply bracken, is a species of the bracken genus native to a number of countries in the Southern Hemisphere. Esculentum means edible. First described as ''Pteris escul ...

'';

grass Poaceae () or Gramineae () is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos and the grasses of natural grassland and species cultivated in lawns an ...

es include '' Bothriochloa bladhii'', '' Brachiaria subquadripara'', Southern Sandbur ('' Cenchrus echinatus''), Indian Goosegrass (''

Eleusine indica ''Eleusine indica'', the Indian goosegrass, yard-grass, goosegrass, wiregrass, or crowfootgrass, is a species of grass in the family Poaceae. It is a small annual grass distributed throughout the warmer areas of the world to about 50 degrees lat ...

''), '' Eragrostis scabriflora'', '' Eriochloa procera'', ''

Imperata conferta ''Imperata'' is a small but widespread genus of tropical and subtropical grasses, commonly known as satintails. Satintail grass species are perennial rhizomatous herbs with solid, erect stems and silky inflorescences. The best known species is ...

'', ''

Miscanthus floridulus ''Miscanthus floridulus'', the Pacific Island silvergrass, is a species of perennial grass in the family Poaceae. Use In the Highlands Region of Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua ...

'', ''

Paspalum conjugatum ''Paspalum conjugatum'', commonly known as carabao grass or hilo grass, is a tropical to subtropical perennial grass. It is originally from the American tropics, but has been naturalized widely in tropical Southeast Asia and Pacific Islands. It h ...

'', '' P. orbiculare'', ''

Pennisetum polystachion ''Pennisetum polystachion'', the mission grass, is a species of grass native to tropical Africa, and is an invasive species in Northern Australia and in Sri Lanka.S. Ranwala, B. Marambe, S. Wijesundara, P. Silva, D. Weerakoon, N. Atapattu, J. Gun ...

'' and '' Themeda quadrivalvis''. Regenerating forest is initially dominated by ''

Cyclophyllum barbatum ''Cyclophyllum'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. It is found from New Guinea, Australia and on islands in many parts of the Pacific. Species * ''Cyclophyllum baladense'' Guillaumin * '' Cyclophyllum balansae'' (Baill.) ...

'', ''Geissois ternata'', '' Geniostoma rupestre'', '' Leucosyke corymbulosa'', ''

Maesa tabacifolia ''Maesa'' is a genus of flowering plants. It is placed in the family Primulaceae, subfamily Maesoideae, for which it is the sole genus (monotypic).

'' and '' Myristica gillespieana''. * Upland forest on calcitic soil. This is essentially

secondary forest A secondary forest (or second-growth forest) is a forest or woodland area which has re-grown after a timber harvest or clearing for agriculture, until a long enough period has passed so that the effects of the disturbance are no longer evident. ...

in various stages of succession, but rich in Fijian

s. Dominated by ''Alphitonia zizyphoides'', '' Buchanania vitiensis'', ''Dysoxylum richii'', '' D. tenuiflorum'', '' Maniltoa floribunda'', ''

Melicope cucullata ''Melicope'' is a genus of about 240 species of shrubs and trees in the family Rutaceae, occurring from the Hawaiian Islands across the Pacific Ocean to tropical Asia, Australia and New Zealand. Plants in the genus ''Melicope'' have simple or ...

'' and '' Pouteria grayana''. * Wetlands vegetation. Most

freshwater Fresh water or freshwater is any naturally occurring liquid or frozen water containing low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. Although the term specifically excludes seawater and brackish water, it does include ...

wetland A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded or saturated by water, either permanently (for years or decades) or seasonally (for weeks or months). Flooding results in oxygen-free (anoxic) processes prevailing, especially in the soils. The ...

on Lakeba is used for

taro Taro () (''Colocasia esculenta)'' is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, and petioles. Taro corms are a food staple in Africa ...

cultivation. Otherwise, dominant plants include '' Ludwigia octovalvis'' and ''

Mikania micrantha ''Mikania micrantha'' is a tropical plant in the family Asteraceae; known as bitter vine, climbing hemp vine, or American rope. It is also sometimes called mile-a-minute vine (a moniker also used for the unrelated '' Persicaria perfoliata''). I ...

''. * Lowland swamp forest. Dominated by ''

Inocarpus fagifer ''Inocarpus fagifer'', commonly known as the Tahitian chestnut or Polynesian chestnut, is a species of flowering plant in the subfamily Faboideae of the legume family, Fabaceae. The tree has a wide range in the tropics of the south-west Pacific a ...

''. * Coastal forest. Characterized by '' Diospyros elliptica'', '' D. samoensis'', ''Pouteria grayana'', '' Syzygium richii'' and '' Xylosma simulans''. * Mangrove forest.

Mangrove A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows in coastal saline water, saline or brackish water. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse, as a result of convergent evoluti ...

s are widespread on the eastern coast of Lakeba, comprising about 7% of the island's total area. Dominant plant species are black mangrove (''

Bruguiera gymnorhiza ''Bruguiera gymnorhiza'', the large-leafed orange mangrove or oriental mangrove,) is a mangrove tree that grows usually to 7-20m high, but sometimes up to 35m, that belongs to the family Rhizophoraceae. It is found on the seaward side of mangrov ...

'') landwards, and red mangrove (''

Rhizophora mangle ''Rhizophora mangle'', the red mangrove, is distributed in Estuary, estuarine ecosystems throughout the tropics. Its Vivipary, viviparous "seeds", in actuality called propagules, become fully mature plants before dropping off the parent tree. Th ...

''), spotted mangrove ('' R. stylosa'') and their

sterile Sterile or sterility may refer to: *Asepsis, a state of being free from biological contaminants * Sterile (archaeology), a sediment deposit which contains no evidence of human activity *Sterilization (microbiology), any process that eliminates or ...

hybrid Hybrid may refer to: Science * Hybrid (biology), an offspring resulting from cross-breeding ** Hybrid grape, grape varieties produced by cross-breeding two ''Vitis'' species ** Hybridity, the property of a hybrid plant which is a union of two dif ...

'' R. × selala'' seawards. * Littoral forest. These trees are able to withstand

seawater Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 35 ppt, 600 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of seawater has appro ...

and most are even dispersed by the sea; they grow in a narrow strip along the beach. Dominant plants are sea poison tree (''

Barringtonia asiatica ''Barringtonia asiatica'' (fish poison tree, putat or sea poison tree) is a species of ''Barringtonia'' native to mangrove habitats from islands of the Indian Ocean in the west to tropical Asia and islands of the western Pacific Ocean. It is g ...

''), ballnut (''

Calophyllum inophyllum ''Calophyllum inophyllum'' is a large evergreen plant, commonly called tamanu, oil-nut, mastwood, beach calophyllum or beautyleaf. It is native to tropical Asia and Wallacea. Due to its importance as a source of timber for the traditional shipbu ...

''), '' Hernandia nymphaeifolia'', beach hibiscus (''

Hibiscus tiliaceus ''Hibiscus tiliaceus'', commonly known as the sea hibiscus or coast cottonwood, is a species of flowering tree in the mallow family, Malvaceae, with a pantropical distribution along coastlines. It has also been introduced to Florida and New Zea ...

''), '' Phaleria disperma'' and sea almond (''

Terminalia catappa ''Terminalia catappa'' is a large tropical tree in the leadwood tree family, Combretaceae, native to Asia, Australia, the Pacific, Madagascar and Seychelles. Common names in English include country almond, Indian almond, Malabar almond, sea almon ...

''). * Littoral scrub. The low-lying and mainly herbaceous beach vegetation. Dominated by oceanblue morning glory (''

Ipomoea indica ''Ipomoea indica'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Convolvulaceae, known by several common names, including blue morning glory, oceanblue morning glory, ''koali awa'', and blue dawn flower. It bears heart-shaped or 3-lobed leaves an ...

''), white-flowered beach morning glory ('' I. littoralis''), beach morning glory ('' I. pes-caprae''), ''Pandanus tectorius'', ''

Paspalum vaginatum ''Paspalum vaginatum'' is a species of grass known by many names, including seashore paspalum, biscuit grass, saltwater couch, silt grass, and swamp couch.Scaevola taccada ''Scaevola taccada'', also known as beach cabbage, sea lettuce, or beach naupaka, is a flowering plant in the family Goodeniaceae found in coastal locations in the tropical areas of the Indo-Pacific. It is a common beach shrub throughout the Arab ...

'' and ''

Vigna marina ''Vigna marina'' is a prostrate, creeping vine and a perennial plant.Descriptions of Major Dune Plants'' publication by the Beach Protection Authority of Queensland, Australia Also known as the beach pea, nanea, and notched cowpea, it is a speci ...

''. Plants found on Lakeba that are endemic to Fiji are '' Alangium vitiense'', ''Buchanania vitiensis'', '' Connarus pickeringii'', ''Davallia solida'' var. ''fejeensis'', ''Diospyros vitiensis'' var. ''longisepala'', ''Dysoxylum tenuiflorum'', '' Elatostema tenellum'', ''Eragrostis scabriflora'', '' Ficus fulvo-pilosa'', ''

Ficus masonii ''Ficus'' ( or ) is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the tropics with a few species extending i ...

'', ''Geissois ternata'', '' Geniostoma uninervium'', '' Glochidion seemannii'', '' Homalium pallidum'', ''Maniltoa floribunda'', ''Melicope cucullata'', '' Melochia vitiensis'', ''Myristica gillespieana'', '' Phaleria pubiflora'', ''

Polyalthia laddiana ''Meiogyne laddiana'' is a species of plant in the family Annonaceae, first described by Albert Charles Smith in 1936 as ''Polyalthia laddiana''. It is endemic to Fiji Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), o ...

'' and ''Psychotria'' cf. ''pickeringii''. Plants tentatively identified as the Fijian endemics '' Barringtonia seaturae'', '' Citronella vitiensis'', '' Cyathocalyx insularis'' and ''

Elaeocarpus storckii ''Elaeocarpus'' is a genus of nearly five hundred species of flowering plants in the family Elaeocarpaceae native to the Western Indian Ocean, Tropical and Subtropical Asia, and the Pacific. Plants in the genus ''Elaeocarpus'' are trees or shrubs ...

'' grow on Lakeba, but whether it is really these species requires confirmation. None of the described endemic species occurs exclusively on this island, but there is an unidentified ''

Syzygium ''Syzygium'' () is a genus of flowering plants that belongs to the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. The genus comprises about 1200 species, and has a native range that extends from Africa and Madagascar through southern Asia east through the Pacific. I ...

'' similar to '' Syzygium gracilipes'' and another member of this genus that almost certainly is a hitherto unknown species. These might indeed be found on Lakeba only. Interesting non-endemic plants found on Lakeba are the

endangered An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching and inva ...

'' Aglaia saltatorum'' and the rare (though not endangered) '' Burckella richii''. In 1999-2001 the first Fijian record of '' Macropiper timothianum'' outside the large northwestern islands was made on Lakeba, as well as the first records for Fiji of Suicide Tree (''

Cerbera odollam ''Cerbera odollam'' is a tree species in the family Apocynaceae commonly known as the ''suicide tree'', ''pong-pong'', ''mintolla'', and ''othalam.'' It bears a fruit known as ''othalanga (Malayalam: ഒതളങ്ങ)'' that yields a potent po ...

'') and '' Garuga floribunda''. Whether '' Canarium vanikoroense'', otherwise known in Fiji only from the large islands, occurs on Lakeba remains to be verified.

Footnotes

References

* (2008): The vegetation and flora of Lakeba, Nayau and Aiwa Islands, Central Lau Group, Fiji. ''Micronesica'' 40(1/2): 169–225
PDF fulltext
* (2006): ''Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds''. University of Chicago Press. {{authority control Islands of Fiji Lau Islands