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Kroncong (pronounced "kronchong"; id, Keroncong, nl, Krontjong) is the name of a
ukulele The ukulele ( ; from haw, ukulele , approximately ), also called Uke, is a member of the lute family of instruments of Portuguese origin and popularized in Hawaii. It generally employs four nylon strings. The tone and volume of the instrumen ...
-like instrument and an
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
n musical style that typically makes use of the kroncong (the sound ' comes from this instrument, so the music is called ''kroncong''). A ''kroncong'' orchestra or ensemble traditionally consists of a
flute The flute is a family of classical music instrument in the woodwind group. Like all woodwinds, flutes are aerophones, meaning they make sound by vibrating a column of air. However, unlike woodwind instruments with reeds, a flute is a reedless ...
, a violin, at least one, but usually a pair of ''kroncongs'', a cello in
pizzicato style Pizzicato (, ; translated as "pinched", and sometimes roughly as "plucked") is a playing technique that involves plucking the strings of a string instrument. The exact technique varies somewhat depending on the type of instrument : * On bowe ...
, string bass in pizzicato style, and a vocalist. ''Kroncong'' originated as an adaptation of a Portuguese musical tradition, brought by sailors to Indonesian port cities in the 16th century. By the late 19th century, ''kroncong'' reached popular music status throughout the Indonesian archipelago.


Characteristics

The name "Kroncong" may be derived from the jingling sound of the ''kerincing rebana'', as heard in the rhythmic background of the music created by the interlocking of instruments playing on or off beat. This background rhythm runs faster than the often slow vocals or melody, and is created, typically, by two ukuleles, a
cello The cello ( ; plural ''celli'' or ''cellos'') or violoncello ( ; ) is a Bow (music), bowed (sometimes pizzicato, plucked and occasionally col legno, hit) string instrument of the violin family. Its four strings are usually intonation (music), t ...
, a
guitar The guitar is a fretted musical instrument that typically has six strings. It is usually held flat against the player's body and played by strumming or plucking the strings with the dominant hand, while simultaneously pressing selected stri ...
and a bass. These instruments, especially the pair of ukuleles, interlock as do the instruments in a
gamelan Gamelan () ( jv, ꦒꦩꦼꦭꦤ꧀, su, ᮌᮙᮨᮜᮔ᮪, ban, ᬕᬫᭂᬮᬦ᭄) is the traditional ensemble music of the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese peoples of Indonesia, made up predominantly of percussive instruments. T ...
orchestra, and it is clear that the musical traditions of Indonesia have been applied to an orchestra of European instruments. Previously, they also used the Portuguese musical instrument called
cavaquinho The cavaquinho (pronounced in Portuguese) is a small Portuguese string instrument in the European guitar family, with four wires or gut strings. More broadly, ''cavaquinho'' is the name of a four-stringed subdivision of the lute family of instr ...
, a four steel stringed musical instrument that looks like a guitar; however, cavaquinho was then modified into a prounga, a 3 nylon stringed instrument with low pitch, and a macina, a 4 nylon stringed instrument with high pitch. One ukulele, called the "cak" (pronounced "chak"), may be steel-stringed. The instrumentalist strums chords with up to 8 strums per beat in 4/4 rhythm. The off-beat strums are often accentuated. The other ukulele, called the "cuk" (pronounced "chook"), is larger and has 3 gut or nylon strings. The instrumentalist may pluck
arpeggio A broken chord is a chord broken into a sequence of notes. A broken chord may repeat some of the notes from the chord and span one or more octaves. An arpeggio () is a type of broken chord, in which the notes that compose a chord are played ...
s and
tremolo In music, ''tremolo'' (), or ''tremolando'' (), is a trembling effect. There are two types of tremolo. The first is a rapid reiteration: * Of a single Musical note, note, particularly used on String instrument#Bowing, bowed string instrument ...
es using a plectrum, and the on-beat is emphasised. As a set, the cak and cuk form an interlocking pair that mostly gives Kroncong its characteristic kron and chong. The cello may have 3 gut or nylon strings and the chords are plucked rapidly, often with a unique skipped-beat using the thumb and one finger. This instrument then adds both rhythm and tone. The guitar may play similarly to either cak or cuk, but plays are often extended
scalar Scalar may refer to: *Scalar (mathematics), an element of a field, which is used to define a vector space, usually the field of real numbers * Scalar (physics), a physical quantity that can be described by a single element of a number field such ...
runs that provide an undulating background to a chord or bridge chord changes. The bass is often played in a minimalist style reminiscent of the large gongs in a gamelan. On top of this rhythmic layer, the melody and elaborate ornamentation is carried by a voice, flute, or violin. The violin or flute are used to play introductory passages that are often elaborate. The fills and scalar runs are both faster and more elaborate than the guitar's. The vocalist sings the melody which is slow with sustained notes in traditional Kroncong. The repertoire largely uses the Western
major key In music theory, the key of a piece is the group of pitches, or scale, that forms the basis of a musical composition in classical, Western art, and Western pop music. The group features a '' tonic note'' and its corresponding ''chords'', al ...
with some arrangements in the
minor Minor may refer to: * Minor (law), a person under the age of certain legal activities. ** A person who has not reached the age of majority * Academic minor, a secondary field of study in undergraduate education Music theory *Minor chord ** Barb ...
. One departure from this occurs when Kroncong orchestras play
Java Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's List ...
nese songs (Langgam Jawa). Javanese music ordinarily uses scales and intervals that do not occur in Western music. Kroncong Jawa maintains Western intervals but adopts a 5-tone scale that approximates one of the main Javanese septatonic scales. When playing this style, cak and cuk leave their characteristic interplay and both play arpeggios to approximate the sound and style of the Javanese instrument the
siter The siter and celempung are plucked string instruments used in Javanese gamelan. They are related to the ''kacapi'' used in Sundanese gamelan. The siter and celempung each have between 11 and 13 pairs of strings, strung on each side, between a ...
, a kind of
zither Zithers (; , from the Greek word ''cithara'') are a class of stringed instruments. Historically, the name has been applied to any instrument of the psaltery family, or to an instrument consisting of many strings stretched across a thin, flat bo ...
. The cello adopts a different rhythmic style as well.


History

Kroncong music began in the 16th century when sailors from the
Portuguese Empire The Portuguese Empire ( pt, Império Português), also known as the Portuguese Overseas (''Ultramar Português'') or the Portuguese Colonial Empire (''Império Colonial Português''), was composed of the overseas colonies, factories, and the l ...
brought Portuguese instruments and music to
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
. Lower-class citizens and gangs, commonly called ''buaya'' (a reference to ''buaya darat'', a term for playboys literally meaning "crocodile on land") adopted the new musical styles. Eventually, they were assimilated by the upper-class citizens. Paul Fisher writes,
The small kroncong guitar, also the name of a music, is derived from the Portuguese braguinha, sharing its roots with the
Hawaii Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only stat ...
an ukulele. Kroncong music is believed to have originated in the communities of freed Portuguese slaves called
Mardijkers The Mardijker people refers to an ethnic community in the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia) made up of descendants of freed slaves. They could be found at all major trading posts in the East Indies. They were mostly Christian, of various ...
in the 16th century. European influence from this time can also be heard in the music of the
Batak Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of closely related Austronesian ethnic groups predominantly found in North Sumatra, Indonesia, who speak Batak languages. The term is used to include the Karo, Pakpak, Simalungun, Toba, ...
people of
North Sumatra North Sumatra ( id, Sumatra Utara) is a province of Indonesia located on the northern part of the island of Sumatra. Its capital and largest city is Medan. North Sumatra is Indonesia's fourth most populous province after West Java, East Java and ...
. From the end of the 19th century, the beginnings of guitar accompaniment incorporated within a distinctly Indonesian idiom in music came from Sumatra,
South Sulawesi South Sulawesi ( id, Sulawesi Selatan) is a province in the southern peninsula of Sulawesi. The Selayar Islands archipelago to the south of Sulawesi is also part of the province. The capital is Makassar. The province is bordered by Central Sula ...
and elsewhere.
Kroncong (currently spelled ''Keroncong'' in
Indonesian Indonesian is anything of, from, or related to Indonesia, an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. It may refer to: * Indonesians, citizens of Indonesia ** Native Indonesians, diverse groups of local inhabitants of the archipelago ** Indonesian ...
) is now considered as old-fashioned folk music by most Indonesian youth, although efforts have been made since the 1960s to modernize the genre by adding
electric guitar An electric guitar is a guitar that requires external amplification in order to be heard at typical performance volumes, unlike a standard acoustic guitar (however combinations of the two - a semi-acoustic guitar and an electric acoustic gui ...
s,
keyboard Keyboard may refer to: Text input * Keyboard, part of a typewriter * Computer keyboard ** Keyboard layout, the software control of computer keyboards and their mapping ** Keyboard technology, computer keyboard hardware and firmware Music * Musi ...
s and
drums A drum kit (also called a drum set, trap set, or simply drums) is a collection of drums, cymbals, and other Percussion instrument, auxiliary percussion instruments set up to be played by one person. The player (drummer) typically holds a pair o ...
, notably in the so-called ''Pop Keroncong'' sung by
Hetty Koes Endang Hajjah Hetty Koes Endang (born 6 August 1957) is an Indonesian ''kroncong'' singer. Her 1977 duet with Ajie Bandi, "Damai Tapi Gersang" ("Peaceful Yet Arid"), was the first Indonesian song to win the World Popular Song Festival in Tokyo. The son ...
. The melancholic spirit of traditional acoustic Kroncong (similar to Portuguese
Fado Fado (; "destiny, fate") is a music genre that can be traced to the 1820s in Lisbon, Portugal, but probably has much earlier origins. Fado historian and scholar Rui Vieira Nery states that "the only reliable information on the history of fado was ...
music) has been recorded by Krontjong Poesaka Moresco Toegoe
Jakarta Jakarta (; , bew, Jakarte), officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta ( id, Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta) is the capital and largest city of Indonesia. Lying on the northwest coast of Java, the world's most populous island, Jakarta ...
-based in Tugu, who have performed at the well-known
Indo Indo may refer to: * Indo-, a prefix indicating India or the Indian Subcontinent * Indonesia, a country in Asia ** INDO LINES, callsign of Indonesian Airlines ** Indo people, people of mixed European and Indonesian ancestry ** Indo cuisine, fusion ...
festival ' Pasar Malam Besar' in
The Hague The Hague ( ; nl, Den Haag or ) is a city and municipality of the Netherlands, situated on the west coast facing the North Sea. The Hague is the country's administrative centre and its seat of government, and while the official capital of ...
. Considered as a Eurasian art form, Kroncong features prominently each year at the Tong Tong Fair. The genre is also being evolved in new directions by Indo artists in the Netherlands.


Instrumentation

Traditional instrumentation includes the flute, violin, cello, contrabass, cuk (ukulele with 3 nylon strings), cak (Ukulele with 4 or 5 metal strings), guitar, and vocalist. Modern kroncong can add other instruments such as saxophone, drum kit and keyboard.


The Evolution of Kroncong Music


Early Long Evolution 1552–1880

From the time when Portuguese sailors landed in Malacca in 1552 and Portuguese slaves were freed in
Kampung Tugu ''Kampung Tugu'' ( jv, ꦏꦩ꧀ꦥꦸꦁ​ꦠꦸꦒꦸ) is a historical neighborhood located in the northwestern Jakarta in the island of Java. ''Kampung Tugu'' grew from the land granted by the government of the Dutch East Indies to the convert ...
(now part of Koja in North Jakarta) in 1661, the genre of music that was to become known as Keroncong has started to take shape. Modern keroncong came into being after 1880, when its main instrument, the ukulele, was invented in Hawaii. The so-called "long evolution" of 1552–1879 was a preliminary stage of development that led to the modern form. Since the 1880s, keroncong is at a stage known as "short evolution".


The Last Short Evolution 1880–now

Short evolution is divided into four periods:


Tempo Doeloe (1880–1920)

''Tempo Doeloe'' means "olden time". ''Komedie Stamboel'' was an
Indo Indo may refer to: * Indo-, a prefix indicating India or the Indian Subcontinent * Indonesia, a country in Asia ** INDO LINES, callsign of Indonesian Airlines ** Indo people, people of mixed European and Indonesian ancestry ** Indo cuisine, fusion ...
touring comedy company that performed folk entertainment, which was very popular between 1891 and 1903, especially in East Java. It performed tales from ''
One Thousand and One Nights ''One Thousand and One Nights'' ( ar, أَلْفُ لَيْلَةٍ وَلَيْلَةٌ, italic=yes, ) is a collection of Middle Eastern folk tales compiled in Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age. It is often known in English as the ''Arabian ...
'', European folk tales, and local folk tales, such as Ali Baba, Cinderella, and
Si Pitoeng Si Pitung (Old spelling: Si Pitoeng; or sometimes written just Pitung) was a 19th-century bandit in Batavia, Dutch East Indies (modern-day Jakarta, Indonesia). His exploits have since become legendary, with numerous accounts of his life, deeds, an ...
. They toured by railway and ship to Malaysia and all over Indonesia. Between the scenes, there were musical intermezzos such as marches, polkas, waltzes, and kronchong music called ''stamboel''. During the ''Tempo Doeloe'' (1880–1920), there were 3 types of ''stamboel'' song. They usually had 16 bars and were played in a fast tempo (up to 110
beats per minute Beat, beats or beating may refer to: Common uses * Patrol, or beat, a group of personnel assigned to monitor a specific area ** Beat (police), the territory that a police officer patrols ** Gay beat, an area frequented by gay men * Battery ( ...
). :''Key to tables'': ::, – sounded ::. – unsounded (''tacet'') ::I – Tonic chord ::II# – Supertonic chromatic chord ::IV –
Subdominant In music, the subdominant is the fourth tonal degree () of the diatonic scale. It is so called because it is the same distance ''below'' the tonic as the dominant is ''above'' the tonicin other words, the tonic is the dominant of the subdomina ...
chord ::V – Dominant chord ::V7 –
Dominant seventh chord In music theory, a dominant seventh chord, or major minor seventh chord, is a seventh chord, usually built on the fifth degree of the major scale, and composed of a root, major third, perfect fifth, and minor seventh. Thus it is a major triad tog ...
;''Stamboel'' I Songs in this category include
Terang Bulan "Terang Bulan" () is a traditional Indonesian song. This song is an adaptation based on the song named "La Rosalie". History The song was a traditional folk song adapted from the popular French melody of La Rosalie. Following the popularity of t ...
, Potong Padi, Nina Bobo, Sarinande, O Ina Ni Keke, Bolelebo, and many others. The structure is A – B – A – B or A – B – C – D (16 bars): ;''Stamboel'' II Among the songs in this category are Si Jampang and Jali-Jali. The structure is A – B – A – C (16 bars): ;''Stamboel'' III The structure is Prelude – A – Interlude – B – C (16 bars):


Kronchong Eternity (1920–1960)

After World War I, American popular music came to Indonesia through ballroom music in hotels. Most of the musicians came from the Philippines. The 32-
bar Bar or BAR may refer to: Food and drink * Bar (establishment), selling alcoholic beverages * Candy bar * Chocolate bar Science and technology * Bar (river morphology), a deposit of sediment * Bar (tropical cyclone), a layer of cloud * Bar (u ...
American songs influenced local music; for example
Gesang Martohartono Gesang Martohartono (1 October 1917 – 20 May 2010) was an Indonesian singer-songwriter from central Java. He is the composer of the "Bengawan Solo," famous song throughout Indonesia, Japan, part of Asia, and some other countries. The song is a ...
composed the song ''
Bengawan Solo Bengawan Solo may refer to: *Solo River, Bengawan Solo River, the longest river on the Indonesian island of Java and site of paleoanthropology early hominid remains *Bengawan Solo (song), "Bengawan Solo" (song), a 1940 Indonesian song about the Jav ...
'' during this period. After a while, the center of development moved to
Surakarta Surakarta ( jv, ꦯꦸꦫꦏꦂꦠ), known colloquially as Solo ( jv, ꦱꦭ; ), is a city in Central Java, Indonesia. The 44 km2 (16.2 sq mi) city adjoins Karanganyar Regency and Boyolali Regency to the north, Karanganyar Regency and Sukoh ...
in Central Java. The kroncong there is slower (typically 80 beats per minute). ;''Langgam Keroncong'' This structure has a binary form, like a pop song: Verse A – Verse A – Bridge B – Verse A (32 bars): ;''Stamboel Keroncong'': ''Stamboel Keroncong'' has the form (A-B-A-B') x 2 = 16 bars x 2 = 32 bars. It is a modification of the 16-bar ''stambul'' II, doubled to give 32 bars. ;''Keroncong Asli'' ''Keroncong Asli'' has A-B-B' structure made up of 8 rows of 4 bars. It begins with a 4-bar instrumental prelude based on the 7th row. After the A section, there is a 4-bar interlude.


The Era of Modern Kronchong (1960–2000)

Kronchong continued to develop in the vicinity of Surakarta, and some kronchong musicians moved to other parts of Indonesia, like
Yogyakarta Yogyakarta (; jv, ꦔꦪꦺꦴꦒꦾꦏꦂꦠ ; pey, Jogjakarta) is the capital city of Special Region of Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the south-central part of the island of Java. As the only Indonesian royal city still ruled by a monarchy, ...
and Jakarta. ;Javanese Genre Gamelan and other Javanese music also influenced kroncong. The characteristics of Javanese music include: melodies using the
Pelog Pelog ( su, ᮕᮦᮜᮧᮌ᮪, translit=Pélog /pelog/, jv, ꦥꦺꦭꦺꦴꦒ꧀, ban, ᬧᬾᬮᭀᬕ᭄, translit=Pélog /pelok/) is one of the essential tuning systems used in gamelan instruments that has heptatonic scale. The other, ...
and
Slendro Slendro ( jv, ꦱ꧀ꦭꦺꦤ꧀ꦢꦿꦺꦴ, ban, slendro, translit=Sléndro) ( su, salendro, translit=Saléndro) is one of the essential tuning systems used in gamelan instruments that have pentatonic scale. Based on Javanese mythology, ...
(pentatonic) modes; the use of a
siter The siter and celempung are plucked string instruments used in Javanese gamelan. They are related to the ''kacapi'' used in Sundanese gamelan. The siter and celempung each have between 11 and 13 pairs of strings, strung on each side, between a ...
(a plucked stringed instrument), a
kendang Kendang or Gendang ( jv, ꦏꦼꦤ꧀ꦝꦁ, translit=Kendhang, su, ᮊᮨᮔ᮪ᮓᮀ, translit=Kendang, ban, ᬓᬾᬦ᭄ᬤᬂ, translit=Kendang, Tausug/Bajau Maranao: ''Gandang'', Bugis: ''Gendrang'' and Makassar: ''Gandrang'' or ''Ganra ...
(a Javanese drum), a kempul (a gong used in gamelan), metal and wood
marimba The marimba () is a musical instrument in the percussion family that consists of wooden bars that are struck by mallets. Below each bar is a resonator pipe that amplifies particular harmonics of its sound. Compared to the xylophone, the timbre ...
s, gongs, and a unique style of Javanese singing. The songs still follow the binary form used in pop music: A-A-B-A or sometimes A-B-C-D, with 32 bars. In 1958, composer Anjar Any (1936–2008) composed the well-known song "Yen Ing Tawang Ana Lintang" (If there is a star in the sky) and performed it with
Waljinah Waldjinah (born 7 November 1945) is an Indonesian traditional singer. She is most known for the song "Walang Kekek", which made Javanese keroncong music known throughout Indonesia. She has also worked with other Indonesian artists, including Ges ...
, the winner of a local radio singing contest in Surakarta. ;Keroncong Beat In 1959, Rudy Pirngadie and his Jakarta-based group (Yayasan Tetap Segar / Foundation) used the kronchong beat for accompanying various songs, local and foreign music. He introduced kroncong music to global audiences at the
1964 New York World's Fair The 1964–1965 New York World's Fair was a world's fair that held over 140 pavilions and 110 restaurants, representing 80 nations (hosted by 37), 24 US states, and over 45 corporations with the goal and the final result of building exhibits or ...
. Idris Sardi, an Indonesian violin virtuoso, presented the song "
I Left My Heart in San Francisco "I Left My Heart in San Francisco" is a popular song, written in the fall of 1953 in Brooklyn, New York, with music by George Cory (1920–1978) and lyrics by Douglass Cross and best known as the signature song of Tony Bennett. In 1962, the s ...
" with a kronchong beat, but was fined by the US Music Authority for copyright violation. ;''Campursari'' In 1968 at
Gunung Kidul Gunungkidul Regency is a regency in the southeast part of the province of Yogyakarta Special Region, Indonesia. It is located on the island of Java. The regency (the name of which means South Mountains in Javanese) is bordered by the Sleman Regenc ...
, an area near Yogyakarta, a local musician named Manthous introduced ''
Campursari Campursari in Indonesian refers to a crossover of several contemporary Indonesian music genres, mainly Javanese Langgam Jawa and Dangdut. The word ''campursari'' was coined from the Javanese language, and literally means "mixture of essences ...
'', a mixture of gamelan music and kronchong. Now, it is developing in the vicinity of Surakarta,
Sragen Sragen Regency ( jv, ꦑꦧꦸꦥꦠꦺꦤ꧀ꦱꦿꦒꦼꦤ꧀, translit=Kabupatèn Sragèn) is a regency ( id, kabupaten) in the eastern part of Central Java province in Indonesia. It covers an area of 941.56 km2 and had a population of 8 ...
and
Ngawi Ngawi may refer to: * Ngawi Regency, an administrative division of Indonesia * Ngawi (city), capital of Ngawi Regency * Ngawi railway station, a station of Paron District, Ngawi Regency * Ngawi, New Zealand, a village in New Zealand See also * ...
. ;Koes-Plus
Koes Plus Koes Plus, formerly Koes Bersaudara (Koes Brothers), is an Indonesian musical group that enjoyed success in the 1960s and 1970s. Known as one of Indonesia's classic musical acts, the band peaked in popularity in the days far before the advent of ...
, a rock-pop group from Surakarta, introduced kronchong music in a rock style in 1974 and has produced kronchong-style albums.


Millennium Kroncong (2000–present)

Kroncong music continues today. The pop music industry has not yet produced popular kroncong, but some groups have been experimenting with it. The
Bandung Bandung ( su, ᮘᮔ᮪ᮓᮥᮀ, Bandung, ; ) is the capital city of the Indonesian province of West Java. It has a population of 2,452,943 within its city limits according to the official estimates as at mid 2021, making it the fourth most ...
-based group Keroncong Merah Putih has experimented with elements of rap combined with kroncong music in the background. Bondan Prakoso has fused kroncong and hip-hop with his group, Bondan Prakoso & Fade 2 Black. At the Solo International Keroncong Festival in 2008, the Harmony Chinese Music Group added Chinese musical instruments to keroncong, creating a different atmosphere. They called the style Indonesian Chinese Keroncong.


See also

*
Dangdut Dangdut () is a genre of Indonesian folk music that is partly derived and fused from Hindustani, Arabic and to lesser extent, Malay and local folk music. Dangdut is a most popular musical genre in Indonesia and a very popular in other Malay wo ...
*
Music of Indonesia As it is a country with many different tribes and ethnic groups, the music of Indonesia ( id, Musik Indonesia) itself is also very diverse, coming in hundreds of different forms and styles. Every region have its own culture and art, and as a r ...


References


External links

* Fisher, Paul. "The Rough Guide to the Music of Indonesia." Liner notes to recording of the same title https://web.archive.org/web/20080727022051/http://www.farsidemusic.com/RG_INDONESIA.html * Indonesian Heritage Society. Mariah Waworuntu and Ann Triman, "History of Keroncong Music, https://web.archive.org/web/20080516122746/http://www.heritagejkt.org/Keroncong_history.php * Kompas. Sonya Hellen Sinombor, "Keroncong Harus Mengikuti Zaman", http://m.kompas.com/news/read/data/2008.12.13.15120283 {{Authority control Indonesian styles of music Indonesian musical instruments Ukuleles