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are a broad range of
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
percussion A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater including attached or enclosed beaters or rattles struck, scraped or rubbed by hand or struck against another similar instrument. Exc ...
instruments. In
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
, the term refers to any kind of drum, but outside Japan, it is used specifically to refer to any of the various Japanese drums called and to the form of ensemble drumming more specifically called . The process of constructing varies between manufacturers, and the preparation of both the drum body and skin can take several years depending on the method. have a mythological origin in
Japanese folklore Japanese folklore encompasses the informally learned folk traditions of Japan and the Japanese people as expressed in its oral traditions, customs, and material culture. In Japanese, the term is used to describe folklore. The academic study ...
, but historical records suggest that were introduced to
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
through
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
and
Korea Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
n cultural influence as early as the 6th century CE; pottery from the
Haniwa The are terracotta clay figures that were made for ritual use and buried with the dead as funerary objects during the Kofun period (3rd to 6th centuries AD) of the history of Japan. ''Haniwa'' were created according to the ''wazumi'' technique, ...
period depicting drums has also been found. Some are similar to instruments originating from India. Archaeological evidence also supports the view that were present in Japan during the 6th century in the
Kofun period The is an era in the history of Japan from about 300 to 538 AD (the date of the introduction of Buddhism), following the Yayoi period. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes collectively called the Yamato period. This period is ...
. Their function has varied throughout history, ranging from communication, military action, theatrical accompaniment, religious ceremony and concert performances. In modern times, have also played a central role in social movements for minorities both within and outside Japan. performance, characterized by an ensemble playing on different drums, was developed in 1951 through the work of Daihachi Oguchi and later in 1961 by the
Ondekoza ("demon drum group"), sometimes referred to as "''Za Ondekoza''", is a Japanese troupe specializing in ''taiko'' drumming. Founded in 1969 by Den Tagayasu, in Sado Island, Japan. Ondekoza was influential in the rise of the ''kumi-daiko'' (group ...
, and was made later popular with many other groups copying the format of Ondekoza such as
Kodo __NOTOC__ Kodo may refer to: Japan * ''Kōdō'' (香道), ceremonial appreciation of incense * Nippon Kodo (日本香堂), an incense company * Kodō (taiko group) (鼓童), a ''taiko'' drumming group * Kodo-kai (弘道会), a yakuza criminal orga ...
, Yamato, Tao, Taikoza, Fuun No Kai, Sukeroku Taiko, etc. Other performance styles, such as , have also emerged from specific communities in Japan. performance groups are active not only in Japan, but also in the United States, Australia, Canada, Europe, Taiwan, and Brazil. Taiko performance consists of many components in technical rhythm,
form Form is the shape, visual appearance, or configuration of an object. In a wider sense, the form is the way something happens. Form also refers to: *Form (document), a document (printed or electronic) with spaces in which to write or enter data ...
,
stick Stick or the stick may refer to: Thin elongated objects * Twig * The weapon used in stick fighting * Walking stick, a device to facilitate balancing while walking * Shepherd's crook * Swagger stick * Digging stick * Swizzle stick, used to stir d ...
grip, clothing, and the particular instrumentation. Ensembles typically use different types of barrel-shaped as well as smaller . Many groups accompany the drums with vocals, strings, and woodwind instruments.


History


Origin

The origin of the and its variants is unclear, though there have been many suggestions. Historical accounts, of which the earliest date from 588 CE, note that young Japanese men traveled to Korea to study the , a drum that originated in
South China South China () is a geographical and cultural region that covers the southernmost part of China. Its precise meaning varies with context. A notable feature of South China in comparison to the rest of China is that most of its citizens are not n ...
. This study and appropriation of Chinese instruments may have influenced the emergence of . Certain court music styles, especially and , arrived in Japan through both China and Korea. In both traditions, dancers were accompanied by several instruments that included drums similar to . Certain percussive patterns and terminology in , an early dance and music style in Japan, in addition to physical features of the , also reflect influence from both China and India on drum use in performance. Archaeological evidence shows that were used in Japan as early as the 6th century CE, during the latter part of the
Kofun period The is an era in the history of Japan from about 300 to 538 AD (the date of the introduction of Buddhism), following the Yayoi period. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes collectively called the Yamato period. This period is ...
, and were likely used for communication, in festivals, and in other rituals. This evidence was substantiated by the discovery of
haniwa The are terracotta clay figures that were made for ritual use and buried with the dead as funerary objects during the Kofun period (3rd to 6th centuries AD) of the history of Japan. ''Haniwa'' were created according to the ''wazumi'' technique, ...
statues in the Sawa District of
Gunma Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Kantō region of Honshu. Gunma Prefecture has a population of 1,937,626 (1 October 2019) and has a geographic area of 6,362 km2 (2,456 sq mi). Gunma Prefecture borders Niigata Prefecture and Fukushima ...
. Two of these figures are depicted playing drums; one of them, wearing skins, is equipped with a barrel-shaped drum hung from his shoulder and uses a stick to play the drum at hip height. This statue is titled "Man Beating the " and is considered the oldest evidence of performance in Japan. Similarities between the playing style demonstrated by this and known music traditions in China and Korea further suggest influences from these regions. The , the second-oldest book of Japanese classical history, contains a mythological story describing the origin of . The myth tells how
Amaterasu Amaterasu, also known as Amaterasu Ōmikami () or Ōhirume no Muchi no Kami (), is the goddess of the sun in Japanese mythology. One of the major deities (''kami'') of Shinto, she is also portrayed in Japan's earliest literary texts, the ''Kojik ...
, who had sealed herself inside a cave in anger, was beckoned out by an elder goddess
Ame-no-Uzume is the goddess of dawn, mirth, meditation, revelry and the arts in the Shinto religion of Japan, and the wife of fellow-god Sarutahiko Ōkami. She famously relates to the tale of the missing sun deity, Amaterasu Omikami. Her name can also be p ...
when others had failed. Ame-no-Uzume accomplished this by emptying out a barrel of
sake Sake, also spelled saké ( ; also referred to as Japanese rice wine), is an alcoholic beverage of Japanese origin made by fermenting rice that has been polished to remove the bran. Despite the name ''Japanese rice wine'', sake, and indee ...
and dancing furiously on top of it. Historians regard her performance as the mythological creation of music.


Use in warfare

In feudal Japan, were often used to motivate troops, call out orders or announcements, and set a marching pace; marches were usually set to six paces per beat of the drum. During the 16th-century
Warring States period The Warring States period () was an era in History of China#Ancient China, ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded ...
, specific drum calls were used to communicate orders for retreating and advancing. Other rhythms and techniques were detailed in period texts. According to the war chronicle , nine sets of five beats would summon an ally to battle, while nine sets of three beats, sped up three or four times, was the call to advance and pursue an enemy. Folklore from the 16th century on the legendary 6th-century
Emperor Keitai (died 10 March 531) was the 26th legendary emperor of Japan, Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 継体天皇 (26)/ref> according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but h ...
offers a story that he obtained a large drum from China, which he named . The Emperor was thought to have used it to both encourage his own army and intimidate his enemies.


In traditional settings

have been incorporated in Japanese theatre for rhythmic needs, general atmosphere, and in certain settings decoration. In the
kabuki is a classical form of Japanese dance-drama. Kabuki theatre is known for its heavily-stylised performances, the often-glamorous costumes worn by performers, and for the elaborate make-up worn by some of its performers. Kabuki is thought to ...
play ''The Tale of Shiroishi and the Taihei Chronicles'', scenes in the pleasure quarters are accompanied by to create dramatic tension.
Noh is a major form of classical Japanese dance-drama that has been performed since the 14th century. Developed by Kan'ami and his son Zeami, it is the oldest major theatre art that is still regularly performed today. Although the terms Noh and ' ...
theatre also features music, where performance consists of highly specific rhythmic patterns. The school of drumming, for example, contains 65 basic patterns in addition to 25 special patterns; these patterns are categorized in several classes. Differences between these patterns include changes in
tempo In musical terminology, tempo (Italian, 'time'; plural ''tempos'', or ''tempi'' from the Italian plural) is the speed or pace of a given piece. In classical music, tempo is typically indicated with an instruction at the start of a piece (often ...
, accent, dynamics, pitch, and function in the theatrical performance. Patterns are also often connected together in progressions. continue to be used in , a classical music tradition typically performed at the
Tokyo Imperial Palace The is the main residence of the Emperor of Japan. It is a large park-like area located in the Chiyoda district of the Chiyoda ward of Tokyo and contains several buildings including the where the Emperor has his living quarters, the where va ...
in addition to local temples and shrines. In , one component of the art form is traditional dance, which is guided in part by the rhythm set by the . have played an important role in many local festivals across Japan. They are also used to accompany religious ritual music. In , a category of music and dances stemming from
Shinto Shinto () is a religion from Japan. Classified as an East Asian religion by scholars of religion, its practitioners often regard it as Japan's indigenous religion and as a nature religion. Scholars sometimes call its practitioners ''Shintois ...
practices, frequently appear alongside other performers during local festivals. In Buddhist traditions, are used for ritual dances as part of the
Bon Festival or just is fusion of the ancient Japanese belief in ancestral spirits and a Japanese Buddhist custom to honor the spirits of one's ancestors. This Buddhist–Confucian custom has evolved into a family reunion holiday during which people retu ...
. , along with other instruments, are featured atop towers that are adorned with red-and-white cloth and serve to provide rhythms for the dancers who are encircled around the performers.


In addition to the instruments, the term also refers to the performance itself, and commonly to one style called , or ensemble-style playing (as opposed to festival performances, rituals, or theatrical use of the drums). was developed by Daihachi Oguchi in 1951. He is considered a master performer and helped transform performance from its roots in traditional settings in festivals and shrines. Oguchi was trained as a jazz musician in
Nagano Nagano may refer to: Places * Nagano Prefecture, a prefecture in Japan ** Nagano (city), the capital city of the same prefecture *** Nagano 1998, the 1998 Winter Olympics *** Nagano Olympic Stadium, a baseball stadium in Nagano *** Nagano Universi ...
, and at one point, a relative gave him an old piece of written music. Unable to read the traditional and esoteric notation, Oguchi found help to transcribe the piece, and on his own added rhythms and transformed the work to accommodate multiple taiko players on different-sized instruments. Each instrument served a specific purpose that established present-day conventions in performance. Oguchi's ensemble, Osuwa Daiko, incorporated these alterations and other drums into their performances. They also devised novel pieces that were intended for non-religious performances. Several other groups emerged in Japan through the 1950s and 1960s. Oedo Sukeroku Daiko was formed in
Tokyo Tokyo (; ja, 東京, , ), officially the Tokyo Metropolis ( ja, 東京都, label=none, ), is the capital and largest city of Japan. Formerly known as Edo, its metropolitan area () is the most populous in the world, with an estimated 37.468 ...
in 1959 under Seidō Kobayashi, and has been referred to as the first group who toured professionally. Globally, performance became more visible during the
1964 Summer Olympics The , officially the and commonly known as Tokyo 1964 ( ja, 東京1964), were an international multi-sport event held from 10 to 24 October 1964 in Tokyo, Japan. Tokyo had been awarded the organization of the 1940 Summer Olympics, but this ho ...
in Tokyo, when it was featured during the Festival of Arts event. was also developed through the leadership of , who gathered young men who were willing to devote their entire lifestyle to playing and took them to
Sado Island is a city located on in Niigata Prefecture, Japan. Since 2004, the city has comprised the entire island, although not all of its total area is urbanized. Sado is the sixth largest island of Japan in area following the four main islands and Ok ...
for training where Den and his family had settled in 1968. Den chose the island based on a desire to reinvigorate the folk arts in Japan, particularly ; he became inspired by a drumming tradition unique to Sado called that required considerable strength to play well. Den called the group "Za Ondekoza" or
Ondekoza ("demon drum group"), sometimes referred to as "''Za Ondekoza''", is a Japanese troupe specializing in ''taiko'' drumming. Founded in 1969 by Den Tagayasu, in Sado Island, Japan. Ondekoza was influential in the rise of the ''kumi-daiko'' (group ...
for short, and implemented a rigorous set of exercises for its members including long-distance running. In 1975, Ondekoza was the first group to tour in the United States. Their first performance occurred just after the group finished running the
Boston Marathon The Boston Marathon is an annual marathon race hosted by several cities and towns in greater Boston in eastern Massachusetts, United States. It is traditionally held on Patriots' Day, the third Monday of April. Begun in 1897, the event was i ...
while wearing their traditional uniforms. In 1981, some members of Ondekoza split from Den and formed another group called
Kodo __NOTOC__ Kodo may refer to: Japan * ''Kōdō'' (香道), ceremonial appreciation of incense * Nippon Kodo (日本香堂), an incense company * Kodō (taiko group) (鼓童), a ''taiko'' drumming group * Kodo-kai (弘道会), a yakuza criminal orga ...
under the leadership of
Eitetsu Hayashi (born February 2, 1952) is an acclaimed Japanese musician best known for his solo performance work in taiko. Hayashi joined the group Ondekoza at an early age. Later, after parting from group, helped found the taiko group Kodo, though he quickly l ...
. Kodo continued to use Sado Island for rigorous training and communal living, and went on to popularize through frequent touring and collaborations with other musical performers. Kodo is one of the most recognized groups both in Japan and worldwide. Estimates of the number of groups in Japan vary to up to 5,000 active groups in Japan, but more conservative assessments place the number closer to 800 based on membership in the Nippon Taiko Foundation, the largest national organization of groups. Some pieces that have emerged from early groups that continue to be performed include
Yatai-bayashi is a traditional taiko piece inspired by an annual festival in Chichibu, Japan. The piece been performed by many taiko ensembles, and became well-known through dramatic variations of the piece developed by Ondekoza and Kodo. ''Yatai-bayashi ...
from Ondekoza, from Osuwa Daiko, and from Kodo.


Categorization

Taiko have been developed into a broad range of
percussion instrument A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater including attached or enclosed beaters or rattles struck, scraped or rubbed by hand or struck against another similar instrument. Exc ...
s that are used in both Japanese folk and classical musical traditions. An early classification system based on shape and tension was advanced by
Francis Taylor Piggott Sir Francis Taylor Piggott (25 April 1852 – 12 March 1925) was a British jurist and author. He was the Chief Justice of Hong Kong from 1905 to 1912.
in 1909. Taiko are generally classified based on the construction process, or the specific context in which the drum is used, but some are not classified, such as the toy
den-den daiko The is a Japanese hand-held pellet drum, used in Shinto-Buddhist ceremonies, etc. It has two heads and is suspended on a rod, with beads or pellets hanging on threads on either sides of the body of the drum. The drum sounds when it is turned on ...
. With few exceptions, taiko have a drum shell with heads on both sides of the body, and a sealed resonating cavity. The head may be fastened to the shell using a number of different systems, such as using ropes. Taiko may be either tunable or non-tunable depending on the system used. Taiko are categorized into three types based on construction process. ''Byō-uchi-daiko'' are constructed with the
drumhead A drumhead or drum skin is a membrane stretched over one or both of the open ends of a drum. The drumhead is struck with sticks, mallets, or hands, so that it vibrates and the sound resonates through the drum. Additionally outside of percus ...
nailed to the body. ''
Shime-daiko The is a small Japanese drum. It has a short but wide body with animal skin drumheads on both its upper and bottom sides. The hide is first stretched on metal hops, then stretched over the body. Similar to the tsuzumi and to African talking d ...
'' are classically constructed with the skin placed over iron or steel rings, which are then tightened with ropes. Contemporary ''shime-daiko'' are tensioned using bolts or
turnbuckle A turnbuckle, stretching screw or bottlescrew is a device for adjusting the tension or length of ropes, cables, tie rods, and other tensioning systems. It normally consists of two threaded eye bolts, one screwed into each end of a small metal f ...
s systems attached to the drum body. ''Tsuzumi'' are also rope-tensioned drums, but have a distinct hourglass shape and their skins are made using deerskin. ''Byō-uchi-daiko'' were historically made only using a single piece of wood; they continue to be made in this manner, but are also constructed from staves of wood. Larger drums can be made using a single piece of wood, but at a much greater cost due to the difficulty in finding appropriate trees. The preferred wood is the
Japanese zelkova ''Zelkova serrata'' (Japanese zelkova, Japanese elm or keyaki or keaki; ja, 欅 (ケヤキ) keyaki /槻 (ツキ) tsuki; ; ko, 느티나무 neutinamu) is a species of the genus ''Zelkova'' native to Japan, Korea, eastern China and Taiwan.Flora ...
or ''keyaki'', but a number of other woods, and even
wine barrel Oak is used in winemaking to vary the color, flavor, tannin profile and texture of wine. It can be introduced in the form of a barrel during the fermentation or aging periods, or as free-floating chips or staves added to wine fermented in a ves ...
s, have been used to create taiko. ''Byō-uchi-daiko'' cannot be tuned. The typical ''byō-uchi-daiko'' is the ''nagadō-daiko'', an elongated drum that is roughly shaped like a wine barrel. ''Nagadō-daiko'' are available in a variety of sizes, and their head diameter is traditionally measured in
shaku Shaku may refer to: * Shaku (unit) * Shaku (ritual baton) * Buddhist surname In East Asian Buddhism, monks and nuns usually adopt a Buddhist surname and a Dharma name, which are combined in the surname-first East-Asian naming order. Since the 4th c ...
(units of roughly 30 cm). Head diameters range from . are the smallest of these drums and are usually about in diameter. The is a medium-sized ''nagadō-daiko'' ranging from , and weighing about . vary in size, and are often as large as in diameter. Some ''ō-daiko'' are difficult to move due to their size, and therefore permanently remain inside the performance space, such as temple or shrine. ''Ō-daiko'' means "large drum" and for a given ensemble, the term refers to their largest drum. The other type of ''byō-uchi-daiko'' is called a and can be any drum constructed such that the head diameter is greater than the length of the body. ''Shime-daiko'' are a set of smaller, roughly
snare drum The snare (or side drum) is a percussion instrument that produces a sharp staccato sound when the head is struck with a drum stick, due to the use of a series of stiff wires held under tension against the lower skin. Snare drums are often used ...
-sized instrument that are tunable. The tensioning system usually consists of hemp cords or rope, but bolt or turnbuckle systems have been used as well. , sometimes referred to as "taiko" in the context of theater, have thinner heads than other kinds of shime-daiko. The head includes a patch of deerskin placed in the center, and in performance, drum strokes are generally restricted to this area. The is a heavier type of ''shime-daiko''. They are available in sizes 1–5, and are named according to their number: ''namitsuke'' (1), ''nichō-gakke'' (2), ''sanchō-gakke'' (3), ''yonchō-gakke'' (4), and ''gochō-gakke'' (5). The ''namitsuke'' has the thinnest skins and the shortest body in terms of height; thickness and tension of skins, as well as body height, increase toward the ''gochō-gakke''. The head diameters of all ''shime-daiko'' sizes are around . is a type of racket-shaped Japanese drum. It is the only Japanese traditional drum without a sound box and only one skin. It is played with a drumstick while hanging it with the other hand. File:Taiwanese taiko drummer.jpg, A middle-sized ''chū-daiko'' being played on a slanted stand File:Kodo Taiko Drum.JPG, This ''ō-daiko'' from a
Kodo __NOTOC__ Kodo may refer to: Japan * ''Kōdō'' (香道), ceremonial appreciation of incense * Nippon Kodo (日本香堂), an incense company * Kodō (taiko group) (鼓童), a ''taiko'' drumming group * Kodo-kai (弘道会), a yakuza criminal orga ...
performance features a
tomoe , commonly translated as "comma", is a comma-like swirl symbol used in Japanese (roughly equivalent to a heraldic badge or charge in European heraldry). It closely resembles the usual form of a . The appears in many designs with various us ...
design on its
skin Skin is the layer of usually soft, flexible outer tissue covering the body of a vertebrate animal, with three main functions: protection, regulation, and sensation. Other cuticle, animal coverings, such as the arthropod exoskeleton, have diffe ...
. File:Shime Daiko drum - Shime Taiko Trommel.jpg, Example of a ''shime-daiko'', tensioned using rope File:Okedo Daiko drum - Okedo Taiko Trommel.jpg, Example of an ''okedō'', tensioned using rope File:162 Museu de la Música, tsuridaiko, tambor japonès.jpg, A ''tsuri-daiko'' on display at the Museu de la Música de Barcelona File:Kotsuzumi (Small Hourglass Drum) with Peonies LACMA M.89.134.1.jpg, A 17th-century ''ko-tsuzumi'' File:Gifujyou5851.JPG, An ''uchiwa-daiko.''
''Okedō-daiko'' or simply ''okedō'', are a type of ''shime-daiko'' that are stave-constructed using narrower strips of wood, have a tube-shaped frame. Like other ''shime-daiko'', drum heads are attached by metal hoops and fastened by rope or cords. ''Okedō'' can be played using the same drumsticks (called ''bachi'') as ''shime-daiko'', but can also be hand-played. ''Okedō'' come in short- and long-bodied types. ''Tsuzumi'' are a class of hourglass-shaped drums. The drum body is shaped on a spool and the inner body carved by hand. Their skins can be made from cowhide, horsehide, or deerskin. While the ''ō-tsuzumi'' skins are made from cowhide, ''ko-tsuzumi'' are made from horsehide. While some classify ''tsuzumi'' as a type of taiko, others have described them as a drum entirely separate from taiko. Taiko can also be categorized by the context in which they are used. The ''miya-daiko'', for instance, is constructed in the same manner as other ''byō-uchi-daiko'', but is distinguished by an ornamental stand and is used for ceremonial purposes at
Buddhist temples A Buddhist temple or Buddhist monastery is the place of worship for Buddhists, the followers of Buddhism. They include the structures called vihara, chaitya, stupa, wat and pagoda in different regions and languages. Temples in Buddhism represent ...
. The (a ''ko-daiko'') and (a ''nagadō-daiko'' with a cigar-shaped body) are used in
sumo is a form of competitive full-contact wrestling where a ''rikishi'' (wrestler) attempts to force his opponent out of a circular ring (''dohyō'') or into touching the ground with any body part other than the soles of his feet (usually by thr ...
and festivals respectively. Several drums, categorized as ''gagakki'', are used in the Japanese theatrical form,
gagaku is a type of Japanese classical music that was historically used for imperial court music and dances. was developed as court music of the Kyoto Imperial Palace, and its near-current form was established in the Heian period (794-1185) around t ...
. The lead instrument of the ensemble is the kakko, which is a smaller ''shime-daiko'' with heads made of deerskin, and is placed horizontally on a stand during performance. A ''tsuzumi'', called the ''san-no-tsuzumi'' is another small drum in gagaku that is placed horizontally and struck with a thin stick. are the largest drums of the ensemble, and have heads that are about in diameter. During performance, the drum is placed on a tall pedestals and surrounded by a rim decoratively painted with flames and adorned with mystical figures such as
wyverns A wyvern ( , sometimes spelled wivern) is a legendary winged dragon that has two legs. The wyvern in its various forms is important in heraldry, frequently appearing as a mascot of schools and athletic teams (chiefly in the United States, Un ...
. ''Dadaiko'' are played while standing, and are usually only played on the
downbeat ' (styled in all caps) is an American music magazine devoted to "jazz, blues and beyond", the last word indicating its expansion beyond the jazz realm which it covered exclusively in previous years. The publication was established in 1934 in Chi ...
of the music. The is a smaller drum that produces a lower sound, its head measuring about in diameter. It is used in ensembles that accompany
bugaku is a Japanese traditional dance that has been performed to select elites, mostly in the Japanese imperial court, for over twelve hundred years. In this way, it has been known only to the nobility, although after World War II, the dance was open ...
, a traditional dance performed at the
Tokyo Imperial Palace The is the main residence of the Emperor of Japan. It is a large park-like area located in the Chiyoda district of the Chiyoda ward of Tokyo and contains several buildings including the where the Emperor has his living quarters, the where va ...
and in religious contexts. ''Tsuri-daiko'' are suspended on a small stand, and are played sitting down. ''Tsuri-daiko'' performers typically use shorter mallets covered in leather knobs instead of
bachi ''Bachi'' (, ; also ''batchi'') are straight, wooden sticks used on Japanese taiko drums, and also the plectrum (written ) for stringed instruments of Japanese origin such as the shamisen and '' biwa''. For percussion Drum bachi (, ) are ...
. They can be played simultaneously by two performers; while one performer plays on the head, another performer uses bachi on the body of the drum. The larger ''ō-tsuzumi'' and smaller ''ko-tsuzumi'' are used in the opening and dances of
Noh theater is a major form of classical Japanese dance-drama that has been performed since the 14th century. Developed by Kan'ami and his son Zeami, it is the oldest major theatre art that is still regularly performed today. Although the terms Noh and ' ...
. Both drums are struck using the fingers; players can also adjust pitch by manually applying pressure to the ropes on the drum. The color of the cords of these drums also indicates the skill of the musician: Orange and red for amateur players, light blue for performers with expertise, and
lilac ''Syringa'' is a genus of 12 currently recognized species of flowering plant, flowering woody plants in the olive family or Oleaceae called lilacs. These lilacs are native to woodland and scrub from southeastern Europe to eastern Asia, and wid ...
for masters of the instrument. ''Nagauta-shime daiko'' or ''uta daiko'' are also featured in Noh performance. Many taiko in Noh are also featured in
kabuki is a classical form of Japanese dance-drama. Kabuki theatre is known for its heavily-stylised performances, the often-glamorous costumes worn by performers, and for the elaborate make-up worn by some of its performers. Kabuki is thought to ...
performance and are used in a similar manner. In addition to the ''ō-tsuzumi'', ''ko-tsuzumi'', and ''nagauta-shime daiko'', Kabuki performances make use of the larger ''ō-daiko'' offstage to help set the atmosphere for different scenes.


Construction


Process

Taiko construction has several stages, including making and shaping of the drum body (or shell), preparing the drum skin, and tuning the skin to the drumhead. Variations in the construction process often occur in the latter two parts of this process. Historically, ''byō-uchi-daiko'' were crafted from trunks of the Japanese zelkova tree that were dried out over years, using techniques to prevent
splitting Splitting may refer to: * Splitting (psychology) * Lumpers and splitters, in classification or taxonomy * Wood splitting * Tongue splitting * Splitting, railway operation Mathematics * Heegaard splitting * Splitting field * Splitting principle ...
. A master carpenter then carved out the rough shape of the drum body with a chisel; the texture of the wood after carving softened the tone of the drum. In contemporary times, taiko are carved out on a large
lathe A lathe () is a machine tool that rotates a workpiece about an axis of rotation to perform various operations such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, deformation, facing, and turning, with tools that are applied to the workpiece to c ...
using wood staves or logs that can be shaped to fit drum bodies of various sizes. Drumheads can be left to air-dry over a period of years, but some companies use large, smoke-filled warehouses to hasten the drying process. After drying is complete, the inside of the drum is worked with a deep-grooved chisel and sanded. Lastly, handles are placed onto the drum. These are used to carry smaller drums and they serve an ornamental purpose for larger drums. The skins or heads of taiko are generally made from
cowhide Cowhide is the natural, unbleached skin and hair of a cow. It retains the original coloring of the animal. Cowhides are a product of the food industry from cattle. Cowhide is frequently processed into leather. Process Once a cow has been killed ...
from Holstein cows aged about three or four years. Skins also come from
horse The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million y ...
s, and
bull A bull is an intact (i.e., not castrated) adult male of the species ''Bos taurus'' (cattle). More muscular and aggressive than the females of the same species (i.e., cows), bulls have long been an important symbol in many religions, includin ...
skin is preferred for larger drums. Thinner skins are preferred for smaller taiko, and thicker skins are used for larger ones. On some drumheads, a patch of deer skin placed in the center serves as the target for many strokes during performance. Before fitting it to the drum body the hair is removed from the hide by soaking it in a river or stream for about a month; winter months are preferred as colder temperatures better facilitate hair removal. To stretch the skin over the drum properly, one process requires the body to be held on a platform with several
hydraulic jack A jack is a mechanical lifting device used to apply great forces or lift heavy loads. A mechanical jack employs a screw thread for lifting heavy equipment. A hydraulic jack uses hydraulic power. The most common form is a car jack, floor jack o ...
s underneath it. The edges of the cowhide are secured to an apparatus below the jacks, and the jacks stretch the skin incrementally to precisely apply tension across the drumhead. Other forms of stretching use rope or cords with wooden
dowel A dowel is a cylindrical rod, usually made of wood, plastic, or metal. In its original manufactured form, a dowel is called a ''dowel rod''. Dowel rods are often cut into short lengths called dowel pins. Dowels are commonly used as structural ...
s or an iron wheel to create appropriate tension. Small tension adjustments can be made during this process using small pieces of bamboo that twist around the ropes. Particularly large drumheads are sometimes stretched by having several workers, clad in stockings, hop rhythmically atop it, forming a circle along the edge. After the skin has dried, tacks, called ''byō'', are added to the appropriate drums to secure it; ''chū-daiko'' require about 300 of them for each side. After the body and skin have been finished, excess hide is cut off and the drum can be stained as needed.


Drum makers

Several companies specialize in the production of taiko. One such company that created drums exclusively for the
Emperor of Japan The Emperor of Japan is the monarch and the head of the Imperial House of Japan, Imperial Family of Japan. Under the Constitution of Japan, he is defined as the symbol of the Japanese state and the unity of the Japanese people, and his positio ...
, Miyamoto Unosuke Shoten in Tokyo, has been making taiko since 1861. The Asano Taiko Corporation is another major taiko-producing organization, and has been producing taiko for over 400 years. The family-owned business started in
Mattō, Ishikawa was a city in Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan. In 2003, the city had an estimated population of 66,520 and a population density of 1,109.96 persons per km². The total area was 59.93 km². The city was founded in 1970. On February 1, 2005, Mattō, al ...
, and, aside from military equipment, made taiko for Noh theater and later expanded to creating instruments for festivals during the
Meiji period The is an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868 to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization ...
. Asano currently maintains an entire complex of large buildings referred to as Asano Taiko Village, and the company reports producing up to 8000 drums each year. As of 2012, there is approximately one major taiko production company in each prefecture of Japan, with some regions having several companies. Of the manufacturers in Naniwa, Taikoya Matabē is one of the most successful and is thought to have brought considerable recognition to the community and attracted many drum makers there. Umetsu Daiko, a company that operates in Hakata, has been producing taiko since 1821.


Performance

Taiko performance styles vary widely across groups in terms of the number of performers, repertoire, instrument choices, and stage techniques. Nevertheless, a number of early groups have had broad influence on the tradition. For instance, many pieces developed by Ondekoza and Kodo are considered standard in many taiko groups.


Form

Kata ''Kata'' is a Japanese word ( 型 or 形) meaning "form". It refers to a detailed choreographed pattern of martial arts movements made to be practised alone. It can also be reviewed within groups and in unison when training. It is practised ...
is the posture and movement associated with taiko performance. The notion is similar to that of kata in martial arts: for example, both traditions include the idea that the
hara Hara may refer to: Art and entertainment * Hara (band), a Romanian pop-band * ''Hara'' (film), a 2014 Kannada-language drama film * ''Hara'' (sculpture), a 1989 artwork by Deborah Butterfield * Goo Hara (1991-2019), South Korean idol singer ...
is the center of being. Author Shawn Bender argues that kata is the primary feature that distinguishes different taiko groups from one another and is a key factor in judging the quality of performance. For this reason, many practice rooms intended for taiko contain mirrors to provide visual feedback to players. An important part of kata in taiko is keeping the body stabilized while performing and can be accomplished by keeping a wide, low stance with the legs, with the left knee bent over the toes and keeping the right leg straight. It is important that the hips face the drum and the shoulders are relaxed. Some teachers note a tendency to rely on the upper body while playing and emphasize the importance of the holistic use of the body during performance. Some groups in Japan, particularly those active in Tokyo, also emphasize the importance of the lively and spirited ''
iki IKI may refer to: * Internationales Kulturinstitut in Vienna * Iodine potassium-iodide, a chemical compound * Russian Space Research Institute originally known as IKI RAN * Iki Airport, IATA code Iki or iki may refer to: * Iki Island, a Japanese ...
'' aesthetic. In taiko, it refers to very specific kinds of movement while performing that evoke the sophistication stemming from the mercantile and artisan classes active during the
Edo period The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional '' daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was characteriz ...
(1603–1868). The sticks for playing taiko are called ''bachi'', and are made in various sizes and from different kinds of wood such as
white oak The genus ''Quercus'' contains about 500 species, some of which are listed here. The genus, as is the case with many large genera, is divided into subgenera and sections. Traditionally, the genus ''Quercus'' was divided into the two subgenera '' ...
,
bamboo Bamboos are a diverse group of evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, bu ...
, and Japanese magnolia. ''Bachi'' are also held in a number of different styles. In ''kumi-daiko'', it is common for a player to hold their sticks in a relaxed manner between the V-shape of the index finger and thumb, which points to the player. There are other grips that allow performers to play much more technically difficult rhythms, such as the ''shime'' grip, which is similar to a
matched grip In percussion, grip refers to the manner in which the player holds the percussion mallet or mallets, whether drum sticks or other mallets. For some instruments, such as triangles and large gongs, only one mallet or beater is normally used, held ...
: the ''bachi'' are gripped at the back end, and the
fulcrum A fulcrum is the support about which a lever pivots. Fulcrum may also refer to: Companies and organizations * Fulcrum (Anglican think tank), a Church of England think tank * Fulcrum Press, a British publisher of poetry * Fulcrum Wheels, a bicy ...
rests between the performer's index finger and thumb, while the other fingers remain relaxed and slightly curled around the stick. Performance in some groups is also guided by principles based on
Zen Buddhism Zen ( zh, t=禪, p=Chán; ja, text= 禅, translit=zen; ko, text=선, translit=Seon; vi, text=Thiền) is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty, known as the Chan School (''Chánzong'' 禪宗), and ...
. For instance, among other concepts, the
San Francisco Taiko Dojo 'San Francisco Taiko Dojo'', founded in 1968 by Grand Master Seiichi Tanaka, was the first taiko group in North America, and has been seen as the primary link between the Japanese and North American branches of the art form. Additionally, Tanaka's b ...
is guided by emphasizing communication, respect, and harmony. The way the ''bachi'' are held can also be significant; for some groups, ''bachi'' represent a spiritual link between the body and the sky. Some physical parts of taiko, like the drum body, its skin, and the tacks also hold symbolic significance in Buddhism.


Instrumentation

''Kumi-daiko'' groups consist primarily of percussive instruments where each of the drums plays a specific role. Of the different kinds of taiko, the most common in groups is the ''nagadō-daiko''. ''Chū-daiko'' are common in taiko groups and represent the main rhythm of the group, whereas ''shime-daiko'' set and change tempo. A ''shime-daiko'' often plays the
Jiuchi , commonly referred to as "ji," is the base beat or underlying rhythm in traditional Japanese music. In the folk tradition, it consists of a simple, even rhythm, sung using kuchi shoka as "do ko do ko." This is often called "straight ji" in Engli ...
, a base rhythm holding together the ensemble. ''Ō-daiko'' provide a steady, underlying pulse and serve as a counter-rhythm to the other parts. It is common for performances to begin with a
single stroke roll In ''rudimental drumming'', a form of percussion music, a drum rudiment is one of a number of relatively small patterns which form the foundation for more extended and complex drumming patterns. The term "drum rudiment" is most closely assoc ...
called an '. The player starts slowly, leaving considerable space between strikes, gradually shortening the interval between hits, until the drummer is playing a rapid roll of hits. Oroshi are also played as a part of theatrical performance, such as in Noh theater. Drums are not the only instruments played in the ensemble; other Japanese instruments are also used. Other kinds of percussion instruments include the , a hand-sized gong played with a small mallet. In kabuki, the
shamisen The , also known as the or (all meaning "three strings"), is a three-stringed traditional Japanese musical instrument derived from the Chinese instrument . It is played with a plectrum called a bachi. The Japanese pronunciation is usual ...
, a
plucked string instrument Plucked string instruments are a subcategory of string instruments that are played by plucking the strings. Plucking is a way of pulling and releasing the string in such a way as to give it an impulse that causes the string to vibrate. Plucki ...
, often accompanies taiko during the theatrical performance. ''Kumi-daiko'' performances can also feature woodwinds such as the
shakuhachi A is a Japanese and ancient Chinese longitudinal, end-blown flute that is made of bamboo. The bamboo end-blown flute now known as the was developed in Japan in the 16th century and is called the .
and the
shinobue The ''shinobue'' (kanji: 篠笛; also called ''takebue'' (kanji: 竹笛) in the context of Japanese traditional arts) is a Japanese transverse flute or fue that has a high-pitched sound. It is found in hayashi and nagauta ensembles, and plays ...
. Voiced calls or shouts called
kakegoe ''Kakegoe'' () usually refers to shouts and calls used in performances of traditional Japanese music, Kabuki theatre, and in martial arts such as kendo. Kabuki In the kabuki theatre, the term is used to refer to melodramatic calls from an audien ...
and
kiai KIAI (93.9 FM) is a commercial radio station that serves the areas of Mason City, Iowa and Austin–Albert Lea, Minnesota. The station broadcasts a Country format. KIAI is owned by Alpha Media, through licensee Digity 3E License, LLC, which ...
are also common in taiko performance. They are used as encouragement to other players or cues for transition or change in dynamics such as an increase in tempo. In contrast, the philosophical concept of ma, or the space between drum strikes, is also important in shaping rhythmic phrases and creating appropriate contrast.


Clothing

There is a wide variety of traditional clothing that players wear during taiko performance. Common in many ''kumi-daiko'' groups is the use of the
happi A is a traditional tube-sleeved Japanese Coat (clothing), coat, usually worn only during Japanese festivals, festivals. typically feature symbols and/or text on the lapels, with a larger design on the back of the coat, typically the name or ...
, a decorative, thin-fabric coat, and traditional headbands called
hachimaki A is a Japanese headband, usually made of red or white cloth, typically featuring a design of kanji at the front. It is worn as a symbol of effort or courage by the wearer, especially by those in the military, or to simply keep sweat off one's ...
.
Tabi are traditional Japanese socks worn with thonged footwear such as zori, dating back to the 15th century. History Japanese are usually understood today to be a kind of split-toed sock that is not meant to be worn alone outdoors, much like r ...
, , and are also typical. During his time with the group Ondekoza, Eitetsu Hayashi suggested that a loincloth called a
fundoshi is a traditional Japanese undergarment for adult males and females, made from a length of cotton. Before World War II, the was the main form of underwear for Japanese men and women. However, it fell out of use quickly after the war with the ...
be worn when performing for French fashion designer
Pierre Cardin Pierre Cardin (, , ), born Pietro Costante Cardino (2 July 1922 – 29 December 2020), was an Italian-born naturalised-French fashion designer. He is known for what were his avant-garde style and Space Age designs. He preferred geometric shap ...
, who saw Ondekoza perform for him in 1975. The Japanese group Kodo has sometimes worn fundoshi for its performances.


Education

Taiko performance is generally taught orally and through demonstration. Historically, general patterns for taiko were written down, such as in the 1512 encyclopedia called the '' Taigensho'', but written scores for taiko pieces are generally unavailable. One reason for the adherence to an oral tradition is that, from group to group, the rhythmic patterns in a given piece are often performed differently. Furthermore, ethnomusicologist William P. Malm observed that Japanese players within a group could not usefully predict one another using written notation, and instead did so through listening. In Japan, printed parts are not used during lessons. Orally, patterns of
onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is the process of creating a word that phonetically imitates, resembles, or suggests the sound that it describes. Such a word itself is also called an onomatopoeia. Common onomatopoeias include animal noises such as ''oink'', ''m ...
called
kuchi shōga , also known as kuchi showa or kuchi shoka, is an educational musical notation for traditional Japanese drums, particularly the taiko and the tsuzumi. ''Kuchi shōga'' phoneticizes (that is, phonetically articulates) drum strokes using Japanese ...
are taught from teacher to student that convey the rhythm and
timbre In music, timbre ( ), also known as tone color or tone quality (from psychoacoustics), is the perceived sound quality of a musical note, sound or musical tone, tone. Timbre distinguishes different types of sound production, such as choir voice ...
of drum strikes for a particular piece. For example, represents a single strike to the center of the drum, where as represents two successive strikes, first by the right and then the left, and lasts the same amount of time as one ''don'' strike. Some taiko pieces, such as ''
Yatai-bayashi is a traditional taiko piece inspired by an annual festival in Chichibu, Japan. The piece been performed by many taiko ensembles, and became well-known through dramatic variations of the piece developed by Ondekoza and Kodo. ''Yatai-bayashi ...
'', include patterns that are difficult to represent in Western musical notation. The exact words used can also differ from region to region. More recently, Japanese publications have emerged in an attempt to standardize taiko performance. The Nippon Taiko Foundation was formed in 1979; its primary goals were to foster good relations among taiko groups in Japan and to both publicize and teach how to perform taiko. Daihachi Oguchi, the leader of the Foundation, wrote ''Japan Taiko'' with other teachers in 1994 out of concern that correct form in performance would degrade over time. The instructional publication described the different drums used in ''kumi-daiko'' performance, methods of gripping, correct form, and suggestions on instrumentation. The book also contains practice exercises and transcribed pieces from Oguchi's group, Osuwa Daiko. While there were similar textbooks published before 1994, this publication had much more visibility due to the Foundation's scope. The system of fundamentals ''Japan Taiko'' put forward was not widely adopted because taiko performance varied substantially across Japan. An updated 2001 publication from the Foundation, called the , describes regional variations that depart from the main techniques taught in the textbook. The creators of the text maintained that mastering a set of prescribed basics should be compatible with learning local traditions.


Regional styles

Aside from ''kumi-daiko'' performance, a number of folk traditions that use taiko have been recognized in different regions in Japan. Some of these include from
Sado Island is a city located on in Niigata Prefecture, Japan. Since 2004, the city has comprised the entire island, although not all of its total area is urbanized. Sado is the sixth largest island of Japan in area following the four main islands and Ok ...
, ' from the town of
Kokura is an ancient castle town and the center of Kitakyushu, Japan, guarding the Straits of Shimonoseki between Honshu and Kyushu with its suburb Moji. Kokura is also the name of the penultimate station on the southbound San'yō Shinkansen lin ...
, and ' from
Iwate Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Tōhoku region of Honshu. It is the second-largest Japanese prefecture at , with a population of 1,210,534 (as of October 1, 2020). Iwate Prefecture borders Aomori Prefecture to the north, Akita Prefectur ...
.


Eisa

A variety of folk dances originating from
Okinawa is a prefecture of Japan. Okinawa Prefecture is the southernmost and westernmost prefecture of Japan, has a population of 1,457,162 (as of 2 February 2020) and a geographic area of 2,281 km2 (880 sq mi). Naha is the capital and largest city ...
, known collectively as eisa, often make use of the taiko. Some performers use drums while dancing, and generally speaking, perform in one of two styles: groups on the Yokatsu Peninsula and on Hamahiga Island use small, single-sided drums called whereas groups near the city of Okinawa generally use ''shime-daiko''. Use of ''shime-daiko'' over ''pāranku'' has spread throughout the island, and is considered the dominant style. Small ''nagadō-daiko'', referred to as ''ō-daiko'' within the tradition, are also used and are worn in front of the performer. These drum dances are not limited to Okinawa and have appeared in places containing Okinawan communities such as in
São Paulo São Paulo (, ; Portuguese for 'Saint Paul') is the most populous city in Brazil, and is the capital of the state of São Paulo, the most populous and wealthiest Brazilian state, located in the country's Southeast Region. Listed by the GaWC a ...
,
Hawaii Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only stat ...
, and large cities on the Japanese mainland.


Hachijō-daiko

is a taiko tradition originating on the island of
Hachijō-jima is a volcanic Japanese island in the Philippine Sea. It is about south of the special wards of Tokyo. It is part of the Izu archipelago and within the Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park. Its only municipality is Hachijō. On 1 March 2018, its po ...
. Two styles of ''Hachijō-daiko'' emerged and have been popularized among residents: an older tradition based on a historical account, and a newer tradition influenced by mainland groups and practiced by the majority of the islanders. The ''Hachijō-daiko'' tradition was documented as early as 1849 based on a journal kept by an exile named Kakuso Kizan. He mentioned some of its unique features, such as "a taiko is suspended from a tree while women and children gathered around", and observed that a player used either side of the drum while performing. Illustrations from Kizan's journal show features of ''Hachijō-daiko''. These illustrations also featured women performing, which is unusual as taiko performance elsewhere during this period was typically reserved for men. Teachers of the tradition have noted that the majority of its performers were women; one estimate asserts that female performers outnumbered males by three to one. The first style of Hachijō-daiko is thought to descend directly from the style reported by Kizan. This style is called ''Kumaoji-daiko'', named after its creator Okuyama Kumaoji, a central performer of the style. ''Kumaoji-daiko'' has two players on a single drum, one of whom, called the , provides the underlying beat. The other player, called the , builds on this rhythmical foundation with unique and typically improvised rhythms. While there are specific types of underlying rhythms, the accompanying player is free to express an original musical beat. ''Kumaoji-daiko'' also features an unusual positioning for taiko: the drums are sometimes suspended from ropes, and historically, sometimes drums were suspended from trees. The contemporary style of ''Hachijō-daiko'' is called , which differs from ''Kumaoji-daiko'' in multiple ways. For instance, while the lead and accompanying roles are still present, ''shin-daiko'' performances use larger drums exclusively on stands. ''Shin-daiko'' emphasizes a more powerful sound, and consequently, performers use larger bachi made out of stronger wood. Looser clothing is worn by ''shin-daiko'' performers compared to
kimono The is a traditional Japanese garment and the national dress of Japan. The kimono is a wrapped-front garment with square sleeves and a rectangular body, and is worn left side wrapped over right, unless the wearer is deceased. The kimono ...
worn by ''Kumaoji-daiko'' performers; the looser clothing in ''shin-daiko'' allow performers to adopt more open stances and larger movements with the legs and arms. Rhythms used for the accompanying ''shita-byōshi'' role can also differ. One type of rhythm, called ''yūkichi'', consists of the following: This rhythm is found in both styles, but is always played faster in ''shin-daiko''. Another type of rhythm, called ''honbadaki'', is unique to ''shin-daiko'' and also contains a song which is performed in standard Japanese.


Miyake-daiko

is a style that has spread amongst groups through Kodo, and is formally known as . The word ''miyake'' comes from
Miyake-jima is an inhabited volcanic island in the Izu archipelago in the Philippine Sea approximately southeast of Tokyo, Japan. As with the other islands in the Izu Island group, Miyake-jima forms part of the Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park. Etymology ...
, part of the
Izu Islands The are a group of volcanic islands stretching south and east from the Izu Peninsula of Honshū, Japan. Administratively, they form two towns and six villages; all part of Tokyo Prefecture. The largest is Izu Ōshima, usually called simply Ō ...
, and the word ''Kamitsuki'' refers to the village where the tradition came from. Miyake-style taiko came out of performances for — a traditional festival held annually in July on Miyake Island since 1820 honoring the deity
Gozu Tennō Gozu Tennō (牛頭天王, lit. "Ox-Headed Heavenly King") is a Shinbutsu shūgō, syncretic Japanese deity of disease and List of health deities, healing. Originally imported to Japan from mainland Asia, he was regarded since the Heian period b ...
. In this festival, players perform on taiko while
portable shrine A miniature shrine, also referred to in literature as a portable shrine, pocket shrine, or a travel altar, is a small, generally moveable shrine or altar. They vary greatly in size and architectural style, and by which region or culture produced th ...
s are carried around town. The style itself is characterized in a number of ways. A ''nagadō-daiko'' is typically set low to the ground and played by two performers, one on each side; instead of sitting, performers stand and hold a stance that is also very low to the ground, almost to the point of kneeling.


Outside Japan


Australia

Taiko groups in Australia began forming in the 1990s. The first group, called Ataru Taru Taiko, was formed in 1995 by Paulene Thomas, Harold Gent, and Kaomori Kamei.
TaikOz Taikoz is a taiko ensemble based in Sydney, Australia. Formed in 1997, they are credited with not only being an early Australian taiko ensemble, but for also broadly expanding interest in taiko performance in Australian society. History Taikoz ...
was later formed by percussionist Ian Cleworth and
Riley Lee Riley Kelly Lee (born 1951) is an American-born Australian-based shakuhachi player and teacher. In 1980 he became the first non-Japanese person to attain the rank of Dai Shihan (grand master) in the shakuhachi tradition. He is a recipient of two ...
, a former Ondekoza member, and has been performing in Australia since 1997. They are known for their work in generating interest in performing taiko among Australian audiences, such as by developing a complete education program with both formal and informal classes, and have a strong fan base. Cleworth and other members of the group have developed several original pieces.


Brazil

The introduction of ''kumi-daiko'' performance in Brazil can be traced back to the 1970s and 1980s in São Paulo. Tangue Setsuko founded an eponymous taiko dojo and was Brazil's first taiko group; Setsuo Kinoshita later formed the group Wadaiko Sho. Brazilian groups have combined native and African drumming techniques with taiko performance. One such piece developed by Kinoshita is called ''Taiko de Samba'', which emphasizes both Brazilian and Japanese aesthetics in percussion traditions. Taiko was also popularized in Brazil from 2002 through the work of Yukihisa Oda, a Japanese native who visited Brazil several times through the
Japan International Cooperation Agency The is a governmental agency that delivers the bulk of Official Development Assistance (ODA) for the government of Japan. It is chartered with assisting economic and social growth in developing countries, and the promotion of international co ...
. The Brazilian Association of Taiko (ABT) suggests that there are about 150 taiko groups in Brazil and that about 10–15% of players are non-Japanese; Izumo Honda, coordinator of a large annual festival in São Paulo, estimated that about 60% of all taiko performers in Brazil are women.


North America

Taiko emerged in the United States in the late 1960s. The first group,
San Francisco Taiko Dojo 'San Francisco Taiko Dojo'', founded in 1968 by Grand Master Seiichi Tanaka, was the first taiko group in North America, and has been seen as the primary link between the Japanese and North American branches of the art form. Additionally, Tanaka's b ...
, was formed in 1968 by
Seiichi Tanaka is the first Japan-trained teacher of kumidaiko, or taiko, in the United States and is largely regarded as the father of the art form in North America. Early life Tanaka was born in Tokyo, Japan in 1943 and immigrated to the United States in 19 ...
, a postwar immigrant who studied taiko in Japan and brought the styles and teachings to the US. A year later, a few members of
Senshin Buddhist Temple The Senshin Buddhist Temple (formerly called the Senshin Buddhist Church) is a Buddhist temple in Los Angeles, California. An affiliate of the Buddhist Churches of America (BCA), the temple was built in 1951. It is known for its maintenance ...
in Los Angeles led by its minister Masao Kodani initiated another group called
Kinnara Taiko ''Kinnara Taiko'' is a Japanese American drumming ensemble (playing taiko) based out of Senshin Buddhist Temple in Los Angeles, USA. They began playing taiko in 1969 when a few third-generation Japanese Americans gathered after an Obon festival ...
. San Jose Taiko later formed in 1973 in
Japantown, San Jose Japantown (Japanese: 日本町; ''Nihonmachi''), commonly known as J Town, is a historic cultural district of San Jose, California, north of Downtown San Jose. Historically a center for San Jose's Japanese American and Chinese American communit ...
, under
Roy Roy is a masculine given name and a family surname with varied origin. In Anglo-Norman England, the name derived from the Norman ''roy'', meaning "king", while its Old French cognate, ''rey'' or ''roy'' (modern ''roi''), likewise gave rise to ...
and PJ Hirabayashi. Taiko started to branch out to the eastern US in the late 1970s. This included formation of Denver Taiko in 1976, and Soh Daiko in
New York City New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the List of United States cities by population, most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the L ...
in 1979. Many of these early groups lacked the resources to equip each member with a drum and resorted to makeshift percussion materials such as rubber tires or creating taiko out of wine barrels. Japanese-Canadian taiko began in 1979 with Katari Taiko, and was inspired by the San Jose Taiko group. Its early membership was predominantly female. Katari Taiko and future groups were thought to represent an opportunity for younger, third-generation
Japanese Canadians are Canadian citizens of Japanese ancestry. Japanese Canadians are mostly concentrated in Western Canada, especially in the province of British Columbia, which hosts the largest Japanese community in the country with the majority of them living ...
to explore their roots, redevelop a sense of ethnic community, and expand taiko into other musical traditions. There are no official counts or estimates of the number of active taiko groups in the United States or Canada, as there is no governing body for taiko groups in either country. Unofficial estimates have been made. In 1989, there were as many as 30 groups in the US and Canada, seven of which were in
California California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...
. One estimate suggested that around 120 groups were active in the US and Canada as of 2001, many of which could be traced to the San Francisco Taiko Dojo; later estimates in 2005 and 2006 suggested there were about 200 groups in the United States alone. The
Cirque du Soleil Cirque du Soleil (, ; "Circus of the Sun" or "Sun Circus") is a Canadian entertainment company and the largest contemporary circus producer in the world. Located in the inner-city area of Saint-Michel, it was founded in Baie-Saint-Paul on 16 Ju ...
shows '' Mystère'' in Las Vegas and ''
Dralion ''Dralion'' (pronounced Drah-lee-on) was a touring production by the Canadian entertainment company Cirque du Soleil. The show combined elements of traditional Chinese circus with Western contemporary circus, complementing the "East-meets-West" ...
'' have featured taiko performance. Taiko performance has also been featured in commercial productions such as the 2005
Mitsubishi Eclipse The Mitsubishi Eclipse is a sport compact car that was produced by Mitsubishi Motors, Mitsubishi in four generations from 1989 until 2011. A convertible body style was added during the 1996 model year. The first two generations share the autom ...
ad campaign, and in events such as the 2009
Academy Awards The Academy Awards, better known as the Oscars, are awards for artistic and technical merit for the American and international film industry. The awards are regarded by many as the most prestigious, significant awards in the entertainment ind ...
and 2011
Grammy Award The Grammy Awards (stylized as GRAMMY), or simply known as the Grammys, are awards presented by the Recording Academy of the United States to recognize "outstanding" achievements in the music industry. They are regarded by many as the most pres ...
s. From 2005 to 2006, the
Japanese American National Museum The is located in Los Angeles, California, and dedicated to preserving the history and culture of Japanese Americans. Founded in 1992, it is located in the Little Tokyo area near downtown. The museum is an affiliate within the Smithsonian Affil ...
held an exhibition called ''Big Drum: Taiko in the United States''. The exhibition covered several topics related to taiko in the United States, such as the formation of performance groups, their construction using available materials, and social movements. Visitors were able to play smaller drums.


Italy

The first group, called Quelli del Taiko, was formed in 2000 by Pietro Notarnicola. They played in World Premiere - 2017 - "On Western Terror 8" - Concerto for Taiko Ensemble and Orchestra of the Italian composed Luigi Morleo


Related cultural and social movements

Certain peoples have used taiko to advance social or cultural movements, both within Japan and elsewhere in the world.


Gender conventions

Taiko performance has frequently been viewed as an art form dominated by men. Historians of taiko argue that its performance comes from masculine traditions. Those who developed ensemble-style taiko in Japan were men, and through the influence of Ondekoza, the ideal taiko player was epitomized in images of the masculine peasant class, particularly through the character Muhōmatsu in the 1958 film ''
Rickshaw Man , also released as ''Muhomatsu, the Rickshaw Man'' or ''The Rikisha-Man'', is a 1958 color Japanese film directed by Hiroshi Inagaki. It is a remake of his own 1943 film. In the 1943 version Tsumasaburo Bando played the role of Muhōmatsu. In Oct ...
''. Masculine roots have also been attributed to perceived capacity for "spectacular bodily performance" where women's bodies are sometimes judged as unable to meet the physical demands of playing. Before the 1980s, it was uncommon for Japanese women to perform on traditional instruments, including taiko, as their participation had been systematically restricted; an exception was the San Francisco Taiko Dojo under the guidance of Grand master Seiichi Tanaka, who was the first to admit females to the art form. In Ondekoza and in the early performances of Kodo, women performed only dance routines either during or between taiko performances. Thereafter, female participation in ''kumi-daiko'' started to rise dramatically, and by the 1990s, women equaled and possibly exceeded representation by men. While the proportion of women in taiko has become substantial, some have expressed concern that women still do not perform in the same roles as their male counterparts and that taiko performance continues to be a male-dominated profession. For instance, a member of Kodo was informed by the director of the group's apprentice program that women were permitted to play, but could only play "as women". Other women in the apprentice program recognized a gender disparity in performance roles, such as what pieces they were allowed to perform, or in physical terms based on a male standard. Female taiko performance has also served as a response to gendered stereotypes of Japanese women as being quiet, subservient, or a
femme fatale A ''femme fatale'' ( or ; ), sometimes called a maneater or vamp, is a stock character of a mysterious, beautiful, and seductive woman whose charms ensnare her lovers, often leading them into compromising, deadly traps. She is an archetype of ...
. Through performance, some groups believe they are helping to redefine not only the role of women in taiko, but how women are perceived more generally.


Burakumin

Those involved in the construction of taiko are usually considered part of the
burakumin is a name for a low-status social group in Japan. It is a term for ethnic Japanese people with occupations considered as being associated with , such as executioners, undertakers, slaughterhouse workers, butchers, or tanners. During Japan's ...
, a marginalized minority class in Japanese society, particularly those working with leather or animal skins. Prejudice against this class dates back to the
Tokugawa period The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional ''daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was characterize ...
in terms of legal discrimination and treatment as social outcasts. Although official discrimination ended with the Tokugawa era, the burakumin have continued to face social discrimination, such as scrutiny by employers or in marriage arrangements. Drum makers have used their trade and success as a means to advocate for an end to discriminatory practices against their class. The , representing the contributions of burakumin, is found in
Naniwa Ward is one of 24 wards of Japan, wards of Osaka, Japan. It has an area of 4.37 km², and a population of 51,567. General information Largely a residential area itself, Naniwa-ku is adjacent to and has in recent years blurred into the Namb ...
in
Osaka is a designated city in the Kansai region of Honshu in Japan. It is the capital of and most populous city in Osaka Prefecture, and the third most populous city in Japan, following Special wards of Tokyo and Yokohama. With a population of 2. ...
, home to a large proportion of burakumin. Among other features, the road contains taiko-shaped benches representing their traditions in taiko manufacturing and leatherworking, and their influence on national culture. The road ends at the Osaka Human Rights Museum, which exhibits the history of systematic discrimination against the burakumin. The road and museum were developed in part due an advocacy campaign led by the Buraku Liberation League and a taiko group of younger performers called .


North American ''sansei''

Taiko performance was an important part of cultural development by third-generation Japanese residents in North America, who are called ''
sansei is a Japanese and North American English term used in parts of the world such as South America and North America to specify the children of children born to ethnic Japanese in a new country of residence. The ''nisei'' are considered the second g ...
''. During
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
, second-generation Japanese residents, called ''
nisei is a Japanese-language term used in countries in North America and South America to specify the ethnically Japanese children born in the new country to Japanese-born immigrants (who are called ). The are considered the second generation, ...
'' faced internment in the United States and in Canada on the basis of their race. During and after the war, Japanese residents were discouraged from activities such as speaking Japanese or forming ethnic communities. Subsequently, sansei could not engage in Japanese culture and instead were raised to assimilate into more normative activities. There were also prevailing stereotypes of Japanese people, which sansei sought to escape or subvert. During the 1960s in the United States, the
civil rights movement The civil rights movement was a nonviolent social and political movement and campaign from 1954 to 1968 in the United States to abolish legalized institutional Racial segregation in the United States, racial segregation, Racial discrimination ...
influenced sansei to reexamine their heritage by engaging in Japanese culture in their communities; one such approach was through taiko performance. Groups such as San Jose Taiko were organized to fulfill a need for solidarity and to have a medium to express their experiences as Japanese-Americans. Later generations have adopted taiko in programs or workshops established by sansei; social scientist Hideyo Konagaya remarks that this attraction to taiko among other Japanese art forms may be due to its accessibility and energetic nature. Konagaya has also argued that the resurgence of taiko in the United States and Japan are differently motivated: in Japan, performance was meant to represent the need to recapture sacred traditions, while in the United States it was meant to be an explicit representation of masculinity and power in Japanese-American men.


Notable performers and groups

A number of performers and groups, including several early leaders, have been recognized for their contributions to taiko performance. Daihachi Oguchi was best known for developing ''kumi-daiko'' performance. Oguchi founded the first ''kumi-daiko'' group called Osuwa Daiko in 1951, and facilitated the popularization of taiko performance groups in Japan. Seidō Kobayashi is the leader of the Tokyo-based taiko group Oedo Sukeroku Taiko as of December 2014. Kobayashi founded the group in 1959 and was the first group to tour professionally. Kobayashi is considered a master performer of taiko. He is also known for asserting intellectual control of the group's performance style, which has influenced performance for many groups, particularly in North America. In 1968,
Seiichi Tanaka is the first Japan-trained teacher of kumidaiko, or taiko, in the United States and is largely regarded as the father of the art form in North America. Early life Tanaka was born in Tokyo, Japan in 1943 and immigrated to the United States in 19 ...
founded the
San Francisco Taiko Dojo 'San Francisco Taiko Dojo'', founded in 1968 by Grand Master Seiichi Tanaka, was the first taiko group in North America, and has been seen as the primary link between the Japanese and North American branches of the art form. Additionally, Tanaka's b ...
and is regarded as the Grandfather of Taiko and primary developer of taiko performance in the United States. He was a recipient of a 2001 National Heritage Fellowship awarded by the National Endowment for the Arts and since 2013 is the only taiko professional presented with the Order of the Rising Sun 5th Order: Gold and Silver Rays by Emperor Akihito of Japan, in recognition of Grandmaster Seiichi Tanaka's contributions to the fostering of US-Japan relations as well as the promotion of Japanese cultural understanding in the United States. In 1969, founded
Ondekoza ("demon drum group"), sometimes referred to as "''Za Ondekoza''", is a Japanese troupe specializing in ''taiko'' drumming. Founded in 1969 by Den Tagayasu, in Sado Island, Japan. Ondekoza was influential in the rise of the ''kumi-daiko'' (group ...
, a group well known for making taiko performance internationally visible and for its artistic contributions to the tradition. Den was also known for developing a communal living and training facility for Ondekoza on Sado Island in Japan, which had a reputation for its intensity and broad education programs in folklore and music. Performers and groups beyond the early practitioners have also been noted.
Eitetsu Hayashi (born February 2, 1952) is an acclaimed Japanese musician best known for his solo performance work in taiko. Hayashi joined the group Ondekoza at an early age. Later, after parting from group, helped found the taiko group Kodo, though he quickly l ...
is best known for his solo performance work. When he was 19, Hayashi joined Ondekoza, a group later expanded and re-founded as
Kodo __NOTOC__ Kodo may refer to: Japan * ''Kōdō'' (香道), ceremonial appreciation of incense * Nippon Kodo (日本香堂), an incense company * Kodō (taiko group) (鼓童), a ''taiko'' drumming group * Kodo-kai (弘道会), a yakuza criminal orga ...
, one of the best known and most influential taiko performance groups in the world. Hayashi soon left the group to begin a solo career and has performed in venues such as Carnegie Hall in 1984, the first featured taiko performer there. He was awarded the 47th Education Minister's Art Encouragement Prize, a national award, in 1997 as well as the 8th Award for the Promotion of Traditional Japanese Culture from the Japan Arts Foundation in 2001.


Glossary


See also

* Kuchi shōga, a spoken rhythmic system for taiko and other Japanese instruments. * Music of Japan#Taiko, Music of Japan * ''Taiko: Drum Master'' and ''Taiko no Tatsujin'', rhythm video games involving taiko performance.


References


Notes


Citations


Bibliography

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External links


The Nippon Taiko Foundation
part of the Agency for Cultural Affairs {{Authority control Directly struck membranophones Drums Battle drums Japanese musical instruments Asian percussion instruments Musical instruments played with drum sticks Unpitched percussion instruments Japanese traditional music Articles containing video clips Sacred musical instruments Japanese words and phrases