In the

Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...

, hijra ur} bn, kn, te, pa, or,
, and / ''khusra'' (Punjabi). are

eunuchs A eunuch ( ) is a male who has been castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millennium ...

intersex Intersex people are individuals born with any of several sex characteristics including chromosome patterns, gonads, or genitals that, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical bina ...

people, or

transgender A transgender (often abbreviated as trans) person is someone whose gender identity or gender expression does not correspond with their sex assigned at birth. Many transgender people experience dysphoria, which they seek to alleviate through tr ...

people who live in communities that follow a kinship system known as guru-chela system. Also known as aravani, aruvani, and jogappa, the hijra community in India prefer to call themselves " kinnar", referring to the mythological beings that excel at song and dance. In

Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...

, they are known as khawaja sira, the equivalent of transgender in the

Urdu Urdu (;"Urdu"
''

third gender Third gender is a concept in which individuals are categorized, either by themselves or by society, as neither man nor woman. It is also a social category present in societies that recognize three or more genders. The term ''third'' is usually ...

in the Abbottabad, being considered neither completely male nor female. Hijras have a

recorded history Recorded history or written history describes the historical events that have been recorded in a written form or other documented communication which are subsequently evaluated by historians using the historical method. For broader world hist ...

in the

since

antiquity Antiquity or Antiquities may refer to: Historical objects or periods Artifacts *Antiquities, objects or artifacts surviving from ancient cultures Eras Any period before the European Middle Ages (5th to 15th centuries) but still within the histo ...

, as suggested by the '' Kama Sutra''. Starting in the 19th century, hijras were targeted by British colonial authorities who sought to eradicate them, criminalised under Section 377 of the

Indian Penal Code The Indian Penal Code (IPC) is the official criminal code of India. It is a comprehensive code intended to cover all substantive aspects of criminal law. The code was drafted on the recommendations of first law commission of India established in ...

(1860), and labelled as a criminal tribe in 1871. This encouraged anti-hijra sentiments throughout the Indian subcontinent, the legacies of which continued in the post-colonial era. Many hijras today live in well-defined and organised all-hijra communities, led by a

guru Guru ( sa, गुरु, IAST: ''guru;'' Pali'': garu'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverentia ...

.
These communities have consisted over generations of those who are in abject poverty or who have been rejected by or fled their family of origin. Many work as

sex workers A sex worker is a person who provides sex work, either on a regular or occasional basis. The term is used in reference to those who work in all areas of the sex industry.Oxford English Dictionary, "sex worker" According to one view, sex work is d ...

. The word ''hijra'' is a Hindustani word. It has traditionally been translated into English as "eunuch" or "

hermaphrodite In reproductive biology, a hermaphrodite () is an organism that has both kinds of reproductive organs and can produce both gametes associated with male and female sexes. Many Taxonomy (biology), taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrate ...

", where "the irregularity of the male genitalia is central to the definition". However, in general hijras have been assigned male at birth, with only a few having been born with intersex variations. Some hijras undergo an initiation rite into the hijra community called nirvaan, which involves the removal of the penis, scrotum and testicles. Since the late 20th century, some hijra activists and non-government organizations have lobbied for official recognition of the hijra as a kind of "third sex" or "

", as neither man nor woman. Hijras have successfully gained this recognition in Bangladesh and are eligible for priority in education and certain kinds of low paid jobs. In India, the

Supreme Court A supreme court is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts in most legal jurisdictions. Other descriptions for such courts include court of last resort, apex court, and high (or final) court of appeal. Broadly speaking, the decisions of ...

in April 2014 recognised hijras, transgender people, eunuchs, and intersex people as a "third gender" in law. Nepal, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh have all legally accepted the existence of a third gender, with India, Pakistan and Nepal including an option for them on passports and certain official documents.

Terminology

The Hindustani word ''hijra'' may alternately be romanized as ''hijira'', ''hijda'', ''hijada'', ''hijara'', ''hijrah'' and is pronounced . This term is generally considered derogatory in Urdu and the term ''Khwaja Sara'' is used instead. Khawajasira is sometimes seen as a more respectable term and has been reclaimed by the community given its precolonial origins and revered status within Islamic spirituality. Another such term is ''khasuaa'' (खसुआ) or ''khusaraa'' (खुसरा). A number of terms across the culturally and linguistically diverse Indian subcontinent represent similar sex or gender categories. While these are rough

synonym A synonym is a word, morpheme, or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in a given language. For example, in the English language, the words ''begin'', ''start'', ''commence'', and ''initiate'' are all ...

s, they may be better understood as separate identities due to regional cultural differences. In

Odia Odia, also spelled Oriya or Odiya, may refer to: * Odia people in Odisha, India * Odia language, an Indian language, belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family * Odia alphabet, a writing system used for the Odia languag ...

, a hijra is referred to as ''hinjida'' or ''hinjda'', in

Tamil Tamil may refer to: * Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia ** Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils **Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia * Tamil language, nati ...

as ''ali'', ''aravanni'', ''aravani'' or ''aruvani'' (often considered derogatory, and have been supplanted by in-community terms rejecting the concept of hijra for a broader trans identity, such as ''thirunangai'' ( ta, திருநங்கை, tirunaṅkai, label=none; "respected woman"), ''thirunambi'' ( ta, திருநம்பி, tirunampi, label=none; "respected man") and ''thirunar'' ( ta, திருனர், tiruṉar, label=none; "respected person") for trans woman, man and person respectively), in

Punjabi Punjabi, or Panjabi, most often refers to: * Something of, from, or related to Punjab, a region in India and Pakistan * Punjabi language * Punjabi people * Punjabi dialects and languages Punjabi may also refer to: * Punjabi (horse), a British Th ...

as ''khusra'' or ''jankha'', in

Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...

as ''mangalamukhi'' (ಮಂಗಳಮುಖಿ), in Sindhi as ''khadra'', and in

Gujarati Gujarati may refer to: * something of, from, or related to Gujarat, a state of India * Gujarati people, the major ethnic group of Gujarat * Gujarati language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them * Gujarati languages, the Western Indo-Aryan sub- ...

as ''pavaiyaa'' (પાવૈયા). In

Bengali Bengali or Bengalee, or Bengalese may refer to: *something of, from, or related to Bengal, a large region in South Asia * Bengalis, an ethnic and linguistic group of the region * Bengali language, the language they speak ** Bengali alphabet, the w ...

, hijra is called ''হিজড়া'', ''hijra'', ''hijla'', ''hijre'', ''hizra'', or ''hizre''. In Konkani, they are known as ''hizddem'' or ''hizdô''. In North India, the goddess

Bahuchara Mata The Bahuchara Mata ( hi, बहुचर माता, Bahucharā Mātā; gu, બહુચર માતા, Bahuchara Mātā) is a Hindu goddess of chastity and fertility in her Maiden aspect, of the incarnation of the Hinglaj. Like other divinit ...

is worshipped by pavaiyaa. In South India, the goddess

Renuka Renuka, also known as Yellamma, is a Hindu goddess worshipped predominantly in the South Indian states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and western state of Maharashtra. She is also known as the mother of Parashurama ...

is believed to have the power to change one's sex. Male devotees in female clothing are known as ''jogappa''. They perform similar roles to hijra, such as dancing and singing at birth ceremonies and weddings. The word '' kothi'' (or ''koti'') is common across India, similar to the

kathoey ''Kathoey'' or ''katoey'' ( th, กะเทย; ) is an identity used by some people in Thailand, whose identities in English may be best described as transgender women in some cases, or effeminate gay men in other cases. Transgender wom ...

of Thailand, although kothis are often distinguished from hijras. Kothis are regarded as

feminine men Effeminacy is the embodiment of traits and/or expressions in those who are not of the female sex (e.g. boys and men) that are often associated with what is generally perceived to be feminine behaviours, mannerisms, styles, or gender roles, rathe ...

or boys who take a feminine role in sex with men, but do not live in the kind of intentional communities that hijras usually live in. Additionally, not all kothis have undergone initiation rites or the body modification steps to become a hijra. Local equivalents include ''durani'' (

Kolkata Kolkata (, or , ; also known as Calcutta , the official name until 2001) is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal, on the eastern bank of the Hooghly River west of the border with Bangladesh. It is the primary business, comme ...

), ''menaka'' (

Cochin Kochi (), also known as Cochin ( ) ( the official name until 1996) is a major port city on the Malabar Coast of India bordering the Laccadive Sea, which is a part of the Arabian Sea. It is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of K ...

),Naz Foundation International, Briefing Paper 3: Developing community-based sexual health services for males who have sex with males in South Asia. August 1999
Paper online
( Microsoft Word file). ''meti'' (Nepal), and ''zenana'' (Pakistan). Hijra used to be translated in English as "eunuch" or "hermaphrodite", although

LGBT ' is an initialism that stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. In use since the 1990s, the initialism, as well as some of its common variants, functions as an umbrella term for sexuality and gender identity. The LGBT term is a ...

historians or human rights activists have sought to include them as being

. In a series of meetings convened between October 2013 and January 2014 by the transgender experts committee of India's Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, hijra and other trans activists asked that the term "eunuch" be discontinued from usage in government documents, as it is not a term with which the communities identify.

Gender and sexuality

These identities have no exact match in the taxonomy of gender and

sexual orientation Sexual orientation is an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender. These attractions are generall ...

, and challenge Western ideas of sex and gender. A common misconception of many in Indian society is that ''hijra'' are intersex, asexual, and impotent. This is not fully accurate as many hijra are sexually active, in relationships, or may even partake in sex work. In India, some Hijras do not define themselves by specific sexual orientation, but rather by renouncing sexuality altogether. Sexual energy is transformed into sacred powers. However, these notions can come in conflict with the practical, which is that hijras are often employed as prostitutes.Nanda, Serena. "Hijra and Sadhin". ''Constructing Sexualities''. Ed. LaFont, S., New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2003. Print. Furthermore, in India a feminine male who takes a "receptive" role in sex with a man will often identify as a ''kothi'' (or the local equivalent term). While kothis are usually distinguished from hijras as a separate gender identity, they often dress as women and act in a feminine manner in public spaces, even using feminine language to refer to themselves and each other. The usual partners of hijras and kothis are men who consider themselves heterosexual as they are the ones who penetrate. These male partners are often married, and any relationships or sex with "kothis" or hijras are usually kept secret from the community at large. Some hijras may form relationships with men and even marry, although their marriage is not usually recognized by law or religion. Hijras and kothis often have a name for these masculine sexual or romantic partners; for example, ''panthi'' in Bangladesh, ''giriya'' in

Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders w ...

or ''sridhar'' in

. A 2015 study found that self identified ''panthi'' participants reported their sexual orientation as bisexual but otherwise aligned with male-typical in other study measures. Identification as ''hijra'', ''kothi'' and ''panthi'' can be distinguished from Western categories, as they go beyond sexual attraction (such as gay, lesbian or bisexual in the West) to also include gender roles/presentation and preference in sexual position. A qualitative, interview based study found that those who fall under the umbrella of being hijra tend to identify with certain ‘schools of thought’ including Khusrapan and Zananapan. These terms refer to categories of hijra functioning. Those who follow Khusrapan identify with being a Hermaphrodite, denouncing sex work while believing that the ancient practices of bestowing prayers and blessings are to be depended on for sustenance. In contrast, the Zananapan school of thought has followers who may be born biologically male but identify with being a woman through their appearance and lifestyle. They often turn to begging or sex work as a consequence of social exclusion.

History

The ancient Kama Sutra mentions the performance of fellatio by feminine people of a third sex (''tritiya prakriti''). This passage has been variously interpreted as referring to men who desired other men, so-called eunuchs ("those disguised as males, and those that are disguised as females"), male and female trans people ("the male takes on the appearance of a female and the female takes on the appearance of the male"), or two kinds of biological males, one dressed as a woman, the other as a man. Furthermore, in the

Puranas Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...

three kinds of ''devas'' or divine beings of music and dance were identified. These included ''apsaras'', ''gandharvas'', and ''kinnars'', with the former two referring to female and male while the latter refers to ‘neuters’. Additionally, the early writings of the

Manu Smriti The ''Manusmṛiti'' ( sa, मनुस्मृति), also known as the ''Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' or Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts and constitution among the many ' of Hinduism. In ancient India, the sages often wrote their ...

explained the biological origin of the sexes, identifying a third sex that could result if there was an equal prevalence of male and female 'seed'.

Islamic era

Hijra identity and culture is documented to have evolved during the

Delhi Sultanate The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526).

(1226-1526) and

Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire was an early-modern empire that controlled much of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries. Quote: "Although the first two Timurid emperors and many of their noblemen were recent migrants to the subcontinent, the d ...

(1526-1707), where hijras held positions as servants for elite households, manual laborers, military commanders, political advisors, and guardians of the harem.

Franciscan The Franciscans are a group of related Mendicant orders, mendicant Christianity, Christian Catholic religious order, religious orders within the Catholic Church. Founded in 1209 by Italian Catholic friar Francis of Assisi, these orders include t ...

travelers in the 1650s noted the presence of "men and boys who dress like women" roaming the streets of

Thatta Thatta ( sd, ٺٽو; ) is a city in the Pakistani province of Sindh. Thatta was the medieval capital of Sindh, and served as the seat of power for three successive dynasties. Thatta's historic significance has yielded several monuments in and ...

, in modern

. The presence of these individuals was taken to be a sign of the city's depravity.

British colonialism and the anti-Hijra campaign (1858-1947)

Beginning in the 1850s with the

British Raj The British Raj (; from Hindi ''rāj'': kingdom, realm, state, or empire) was the rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent; * * it is also called Crown rule in India, * * * * or Direct rule in India, * Quote: "Mill, who was himsel ...

, colonial authorities deployed various strategies to eradicate hijras, whom they saw as "a breach of public decency." The British viewed hijras as incapable of "moral transformation" and assimilation and therefore subjected them to eliminatory policies. In 1860, hijras became subjected to Section 377 of the

which allowed British authorities to prosecute hijras simply for existing. Even though they were already criminalized under Section 377, in 1861, authorities of the

North-Western Provinces The North-Western Provinces was an administrative region in British India. The North-Western Provinces were established in 1836, through merging the administrative divisions of the Ceded and Conquered Provinces. In 1858, the nawab-ruled kingdom ...

(NWP) sought to enact a 'special law' against hijras. By 1870, no high-ranking British officials argued against the implementation of special legislation to address the 'hijra problem,' thus solidifying a violent anti-hijra campaign all across the

. Anti-hijra laws were enacted; whereas a law outlawing castration, a central part of the hijra community (although not required for community membership), was left intact, though it was rarely enforced. The hijra were included in the

Criminal Tribes Act Since the 1870s, various pieces of colonial legislation in India during British rule were collectively called the Criminal Tribes Act (CTA), which criminalized entire communities by designating them as habitual criminals. Under these acts, ethni ...

(1871) and labelled a "criminal tribe", now subjected to compulsory registration, strict monitoring, and stigmatization. Because of economic costs, which were the main impetus behind British colonialism in India, hijras and other so-called "criminal tribes" were unable to be collectively sequestered from colonial society. British Lieutenant-Governor Edmund Drummond (1814-1895) framed the anti-hijra campaign as a necessary project of "extinguishment" and "extinction." Intense surveillance tactics were enacted over communities with hopes to eradicate hijras permanently. Child removal projects, which had already begun elsewhere in the British Empire, like colonial Australia with the forced removal of

aboriginal Aborigine, aborigine or aboriginal may refer to: *Aborigines (mythology), in Roman mythology * Indigenous peoples, general term for ethnic groups who are the earliest known inhabitants of an area *One of several groups of indigenous peoples, see ...

children for assimilation into white settler society, were brought to India for all 'criminal tribes' officially in 1911. Child removal was already in ''

de facto ''De facto'' ( ; , "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, whether or not they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with ''de jure'' ("by la ...

'' practice against hijras since the passage of the Criminal Tribes Act (1871) to initiate the extermination of hijra communities by preventing initiation, since the dominant colonial narrative was that all hijra children were "kidnapped and enslaved". Jessica Hinchy notes that the elimination-oriented tactics carried out toward hijras during the colonial era were comparable to what

Patrick Wolfe Patrick Wolfe (1949 – 18 February 2016) was an Australian historian and scholar who made significant contributions to several academic fields, including anthropology, genocide studies, Indigenous studies, and the historiography of race, colon ...

called the 'logic of elimination' in British settler colonies, such as the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...

and

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...

, as well as the anti-joya campaigns executed by Spanish colonial authorities against

people centuries earlier in the establishment of

New Spain New Spain, officially the Viceroyalty of New Spain ( es, Virreinato de Nueva España, ), or Kingdom of New Spain, was an integral territorial entity of the Spanish Empire, established by Habsburg Spain during the Spanish colonization of the Am ...

(1535-1821).

Post-colonial era (1947-present)

After independence, hijras survived these colonial extermination attempts. However, the centuries-old stigma continues as a legacy of British colonialism. Hijra communities remain throughout modern states of Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, although they continue to face social marginalization and police abuse. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, hijras became the subject of more attention, being the focus of numerous documentaries, news features, ethnographies, monographs, and dissertations. Gayatri Reddy writes that in the 21st century, hijras have also been 'mainstreamed' into popular films: "given this history of near invisibility, the recent attention focused on hijras has been unsettling for both hijras and non-hijras."

Social status and economic circumstances

Most hijras live at the margins of society with very low status; the very word "hijra" is sometimes used in a derogatory manner. The Indian lawyer and author

Rajesh Talwar Rajesh Talwar is a lawyer and writer from India. He has written several books on the topics of law and human rights. Early life Talwar studied economics at Hindu College at the University of Delhi. Subsequently, he went to the University of ...

has written a book, titled ''The Third Sex and Human Rights'', highlighting the human rights abuses suffered by the community. Few employment opportunities are available to hijras. Many get their income from performing at ceremonies (toli), begging (dheengna), or

prostitution Prostitution is the business or practice of engaging in Sex work, sexual activity in exchange for payment. The definition of "sexual activity" varies, and is often defined as an activity requiring physical contact (e.g., sexual intercourse, n ...

('raarha')—an occupation of eunuchs also recorded in premodern times. Violence against hijras, especially those who are prostitutes, is often brutal, and occurs in public spaces, police stations, prisons, and their homes. As with

people in most of the world, they face extreme discrimination in health, housing, education, employment, immigration, law, and any bureaucracy that is unable to place them into male or female gender categories.

Housing

The aforementioned all-hijra communities are where many hijra seek refuge and move in. These are made up of a hierarchical structure with large groups of hijras from different areas forming lineages or ''gharanas''. A ''naayak'' is the head and primary decision maker for a gharana, determining policies for the community. Falling under naayaks are ''gurus'' (lit. "teachers"). Gurus are above community members and regulate daily life in the housing space (known as a ''dera''). The followers of a ''guru'' are called ''chelas''. Traditionally, teachers and their disciples use these terms in many domains such as religious learning; however, they bear specific meaning in hijra communities as being about cultural learning—hijra chelas are taught about hijra customs by their guru. These communities reflect similarities to Western notions of

found family A family of choice, also known as chosen family, found family, kith and kin, or hānai family is a term that refers to a non-biologically related group of people established to provide ongoing social support. Unlike a "family of origin" (the biol ...

. In these communities, the hijras usually refer to each other in feminine terms. Thus, they refer to their relations as sisters with those who fall around their age range or aunt with those older than them, and so on. In October 2013, Pakistani Christians and Muslims (Shia and Sunni) put pressure on the landlords of Imamia Colony to evict any

residents. I.A. Rehman, the director of the

Human Rights Commission of Pakistan The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan ( ur, ) (HRCP) is an independent, democratic non-profit organisation. Founded in 1987, it is one of the oldest human rights organisations in the country. HRCP is committed to monitoring, protecting a ...

, said, "Generally in Pakistan, Khwaja Sira are not under threat. But they are in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province because of a 'new Islam' under way."

Healthcare

The social status of hijra in society plays a part in their difficulty accessing healthcare services as doctors will turn hijra clients away, claiming that their presence will disturb other clients. Hijra have to hide their identities or can't disclose illnesses such as STI’s. Most medical practitioners are also not well educated and informed enough on hijra or sexuality, further contributing to this issue. Social exclusion of the ''hijra'' also has some severe consequences for their health. ''Hijra'' in Dhaka, Bangladesh were found to have the highest syphilis rates out of all at-risk groups in the city. In a study of Bangladeshi hijras, participants reported not being allowed to seek healthcare at the private chambers of doctors, and experiencing abuse if they go to government hospitals. In 2008, HIV prevalence was 27.6% amongst hijra sex workers in

Larkana Larkana ( ur, , translit=lāṛkāna; sd, لاڙڪاڻو, translit=lāṛkāṇo) is a city located in the Sindh province of Pakistan. It is the 15th largest city of Pakistan by population. It is home to the Indus Valley civilization site Moh ...

, Pakistan. The general prevalence of HIV among the adult Pakistani population is estimated at 0.1%. The aforementioned social inequalities and medical negligence also make hijra sex workers a more vulnerable population to HIV. Protection is not usually used in coerced sex, increasing risk of direct exposure to HIV. 40% of the sample in a Pakistan study on HIV reported experiencing forced sex or abuse. Additionally, of this sample, 58% of participants had STI's, the most common being syphilis and gonorrhoea. An Indian study consisting of 68 transgender participants reported that respondents expressed having intense feelings of low self worth, shame, depression and suicidal thoughts, internalizing the negative views the society around them holds. Many hijra experience a lack of a support system, facing rejection from family members or difficulties in terms of maintaining steady relationships with romantic partners. This rejection from society contributes to struggles with mental health as well as trans sex workers feeling obligated to accept the violence and stigmas they are subject to.

Criminalization of sexuality

After India's Supreme Court re-criminalized homosexual sex on 11 December 2013, there was a sharp increase in physical, psychological and sexual violence against the

community by the

Indian Police Service The Indian Police Service ( IPS) is a civil service under the All India Services. It replaced the Indian Imperial Police in 1948, a year after India became independent from the British Raj. Along with the Indian Administrative Service (IAS ...

, which often does not investigate reports of sexual assault against them. On 6 September 2018, the Supreme Court overturned India's Section 377, which criminalized anal and oral sex.

Education and employment

In an ethnographic study on the ''hijra'' experience in Bangladesh, many ''hijra'' recounted childhood experiences of facing abuse and isolation from their peers for presenting as feminine males. Additionally, many ''hijra'' reported facing abuse and humiliation from their teachers as well, making school an unfriendly and uncomfortable environment for them. These experiences ultimately resulted in their reluctance to attend school or continue education. This lack of education ends up playing a role in unemployment rates of Hijra. Hijra in Bangladesh also experience sexual harassment and abuse at work, being removed from their jobs when outed as hijra or denied from jobs in general. They face accusations of disturbing the workplace environment. Being turned away from traditional careers, many hijra have become involved in sex work. However, this too has its own cons as Hijras face harassment, forced unprotected sex and assault from clients but many are not able to report it due to fear of harassment from the police as well. In 2002, nearly 5,000 people attended the All India Eunuch Conference held in Varanasi; the conference's platform demanded that universities and government open more job opportunities to this population. On 15 April 2014, in '' National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India'', the

Supreme Court of India The Supreme Court of India ( IAST: ) is the supreme judicial authority of India and is the highest court of the Republic of India under the constitution. It is the most senior constitutional court, has the final decision in all legal matters ...

ruled that transgender people should be treated as a third category of gender or as a socially and economically "backward" class entitled to proportional access and representation in education and jobs. Beginning in 2006, hijras were engaged to accompany

Patna Patna ( ), historically known as Pataliputra, is the capital and largest city of the state of Bihar in India. According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Patna had a population of 2.35 million, making it the 19th largest city in India. ...

city revenue officials to collect unpaid taxes, receiving a 4-percent commission.

Language

The hijra community developed a secret language known as Hijra Farsi. The language has a sentence structure loosely based on Hindustani and a unique vocabulary of at least a thousand words. Some of the kinship terms and names for rituals used by the Hindi-speaking Hijra community are different in use from those used by people outside the Hijra community. For example, ''dādī'', the Standard Hindi for ''paternal grandmother'', is used in the Hijra community to address one’s guru’s guru. Beyond the Urdu-Hindi speaking areas of subcontinent the vocabulary is still used by the hijra community within their own native languages.

In politics of South Asia

The governments of both India (1994) and Pakistan (2009) have recognized hijras as a "third sex", thus granting them the basic civil rights of every citizen. In India, hijras now have the option to identify as a eunuch ("E") on passports and on certain government documents. They are not, however, fully accommodated; in order to vote, for example, citizens must identify as either male or female. There is also further discrimination from the government. In the 2009 general election, India's election committee denied three hijras candidature unless they identified themselves as either male or female. In 2013, transgender people in Pakistan were given their first opportunity to stand for election.

Sanam Fakir Sanam may refer to: Places * Sanam, Iran, a village in Iran * Sanam, Niger, a commune in Niger * Sanam, Sudan, a village in Sudan Entertainment * ''Sanam'' (1997 film), a 1997 Hindi drama film * ''Sanam'' (1951 film), a 1951 Bollywood romanti ...

, a 32-year-old hijra, ran as an independent candidate for Sukkur, Pakistan's general election in May. In April 2014, Justice KS Radhakrishnan declared

to be the third gender in Indian law in National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India. The ruling said:

Seldom, our society realises or cares to realise the trauma, agony and pain which the members of Transgender community undergo, nor appreciates the innate feelings of the members of the Transgender community, especially of those whose mind and body disown their biological sex. Our society often ridicules and abuses the Transgender community and in public places like railway stations, bus stands, schools, workplaces, malls, theatres, hospitals, they are sidelined and treated as untouchables, forgetting the fact that the moral failure lies in the society's unwillingness to contain or embrace different gender identities and expressions, a mindset which we have to change.

Justice Radhakrishnan said that transgender people should be treated consistently with other minorities under the law, enabling them to access jobs, healthcare and education. He framed the issue as one of human rights, saying that, "These TGs, even though insignificant in numbers, are still human beings and therefore they have every right to enjoy their human rights", concluding by declaring that:

# Hijras,
Eunuch A eunuch ( ) is a male who has been castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millennium ...
s, apart from binary gender, be treated as "third gender" for the purpose of safeguarding their rights under Part III of our Constitution and the laws made by the Parliament and the State Legislature. # Transgender persons' right to decide their self-identified gender is also upheld and the Centre and State Governments are directed to grant legal recognition of their gender identity such as male, female or as third gender.

A bill supported by all political parties was tabled in Indian parliament to ensure transgender people get benefits akin reserved communities like SC/STs and is taking steps to see that they get enrollment in schools and jobs in government besides protection from sexual harassment. In the 1990s, about 10,000 people belonged to a national organization called Treetiya Panthi Sanghatana (TPS). As of 2003, the president was Kajal Nayak. A younger Kajal Nayak, who was 27 years old in 2019, is the president of

Jajpur Jajpur (also known as Jajapur) is a town and a municipality in Jajpur district in the Indian state of Odisha. It was the capital of the Kesari dynasty, later supplanted by Cuttack. Now, it is the headquarter of Jajpur district. Etymology and ...

's Transgender Association.

In religion

Many practice a form of

syncretism Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various school of thought, schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or religious assimilation, assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in t ...

that draws on multiple religions; seeing themselves to be neither men nor women, hijras practice rituals for both men and women. They are usually devotees of the mother goddess

Lord Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...

, or both.

Bahuchara Mata

is a Hindu goddess with two unrelated stories both associated with transgender behavior. One story is that she appeared in the avatar of a princess who castrated her husband because he would run in the woods and act like a woman rather than have sex with her. Another story is that a man tried to rape her, so she cursed him with impotence. When the man begged her forgiveness to have the curse removed, she relented only after he agreed to run in the woods and act like a woman. The primary temple to this goddess is located in

Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...

and it is a place of pilgrimage for hijras, who see Bahuchara Mata as a patroness.

Lord Shiva

One of the forms of Lord Shiva is a merging with

Parvati Parvati ( sa, पार्वती, ), Uma ( sa, उमा, ) or Gauri ( sa, गौरी, ) is the Hindu goddess of power, energy, nourishment, harmony, love, beauty, devotion, and motherhood. She is a physical representation of Mahadevi i ...

where together they are

Ardhanari The Ardhanarishvara ( sa, अर्धनारीश्वर, Ardhanārīśvara, the half-female Lord, translit-std=IAST), is a form of the Hindu deity Shiva combined with his consort Parvati. Ardhanarishvara is depicted as half-male and half ...

, a god that is half Shiva and half Parvati. Ardhanari has special significance as a patron of hijras, who identify with the gender ambiguity. The legend includes a story where

Rishi ''Rishi'' () is a term for an accomplished and enlightened person. They find mentions in various Vedic texts. Rishis are believed to have composed hymns of the Vedas. The Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the rishis as "great yogis" or ...

Bhrigu Bhrigu ( sa, भृगु, ) was a rishi in Hinduism. He was one of the seven great sages, the Saptarshis, one of the many Prajapatis (the facilitators of Creation) created by Brahma. The first compiler of predictive astrology, and also th ...

pleased Lord Shiva and denied to please Mata Parvati. Then Lord Shiva and Parvati merged with each other and showed their form of Ardhanari or Ardhanarishwar, meaning half man and half woman. The form represents that a man and woman has both elements of masculine and feminine.

In the ''Ramayana''

In some versions of the ''

Ramayana The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th ...

'',"Many, if not most, translations of Valmiki's Ramayana do not contain this reference." Joseph T. Bockrath,
Bhartia Hijro Ka Dharma
The Code of India's Hijra", ''Legal Studies Forum'' 83 (2003). when

Rama Rama (; ), Ram, Raman or Ramar, also known as Ramachandra (; , ), is a major deity in Hinduism. He is the seventh and one of the most popular '' avatars'' of Vishnu. In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Bein ...

leaves

Ayodhya Ayodhya (; ) is a city situated on the banks of holy river Saryu in the States and union territories of India, Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Ayodhya, also known as Sāketa, Saketa, is an ancient city of India, the birthplace of Rama and ...

for his 14-year exile, a crowd of his subjects follow him into the forest because of their devotion to him. Soon Rama notices this, and gathers them to tell them not to mourn, and that all the "men and women" of his kingdom should return to their places in Ayodhya. Rama then leaves for 14 years. When he returns to Ayodhya, he finds that the hijras, being neither men nor women, have not moved from the place where he gave his speech. Impressed with their devotion, Rama grants hijras the boon to confer blessings on people during auspicious inaugural occasions like childbirth and weddings. Specifically, hijras will perform and bestow their blessings when a son is born. This boon is the origin of ''badhai'' in which hijras sing, dance, and give blessings.

In the ''Mahabharata''

The

Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...

includes an episode in which

Arjuna Arjuna (Sanskrit: अर्जुन, ), also known as Partha and Dhananjaya, is a character in several ancient Hindu texts, and specifically one of the major characters of the Indian epic Mahabharata. In the epic, he is the third among Panda ...

, a hero of the epic, is sent into exile. There he assumes an identity of a eunuch-transvestite and performs rituals during weddings and childbirths that are now performed by hijras. In another episode, before the

Kurukshetra War The Kurukshetra War ( sa, कुरुक्षेत्र युद्ध ), also called the Mahabharata War, is a war described in the ''Mahabharata ( sa, महाभारत )''. The conflict arose from a dynastic succession struggle be ...

Aravan Aravan may refer to: *Aravan, Kyrgyzstan, a large village in Osh Region, Kyrgyzstan *Aravan District, a district of Osh Region, Kyrgyzstan *Aravan or Aravansay, a river in Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan *Aravan (legendary), a legendary ruler of 5th cent ...

offers his lifeblood to

goddess Kali Kali (; sa, काली, ), also referred to as Mahakali, Bhadrakali, and Kalika ( sa, कालिका), is a Hindu goddess who is considered to be the goddess of ultimate power, time, destruction and change in Shaktism. In this tradit ...

to ensure victory for the

Pandavas The Pandavas (Sanskrit: पाण्डव, IAST: Pāṇḍava) refers to the five legendary brothers— Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva—who are the central characters of the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. They are acknowledg ...

, and Kali agrees. On the night before the battle, Aravan expresses a desire to get married before he dies. No woman was willing to marry a man doomed to die in a few hours, so Lord

Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...

(as Mohini) marries him. In South India, hijras claim Aravan as their progenitor and call themselves ''aravanis''. Each year in Tamil Nadu, during April and May, hijras celebrate an eighteen-day religious festival at a temple located in the village Koovagam in the Ulundurpettai, Ulundurpet taluk in Villupuram district. The temple is devoted to the deity Koothandavar, who is identified with Aravan. During the festival, the hijras reenact the wedding of Lord Krishna and Lord Aravan, followed by Aravan's subsequent sacrifice. They then mourn Aravan's death through ritualistic dances and by breaking their bangles. An annual beauty pageant is also held, as well as various health and HIV/AIDS focused seminars. Hijras from all over the country travel to this festival. BBC Three documentary ''India's Ladyboys'' as well as the National Geographic Channel television series ''Taboo (2002 TV series), Taboo'' depict personal experiences of hijras attending this festival.

In Islam

There is evidence that Indian hijras identifying as Muslim also incorporate aspects of Hinduism. Still, despite this

, Gayatri Reddy notes that hijra do not practice Islam differently from other Muslims and argues that their syncretism does not make them any less Muslim. Reddy also documents an example of how this syncretism manifests: in Hyderabad, India, a group of Muslim converts were Khitan (circumcision), circumcised, something seen as the quintessential marker of male Muslim identity.

In films and literature

India

''Hijras'' have been portrayed on screen in Cinema of India, Indian cinema since its inception, historically as comic relief. A notable turning point occurred in 1974 when real ''hijras'' appeared during a song-and-dance sequence in ''Kunwara Baap (1974 film), Kunwaara Baap'' ("The Unmarried Father"). The Hindi movie ''Amar Akbar Anthony'' (1977) features ''hijras'' who accompany one of the heroes, Akbar (Rishi Kapoor), in a song entitled "''Tayyab Ali Pyar Ka Dushman''" ("Tayyab Ali, the Enemy of Love"). * In ''Soorma Bhopali'' (1988), Jagdeep encounters a troupe of ''hijra'' on his arrival in Bombay. The leader of this pack is also played by Jagdeep himself. * One of the main characters in Khushwant Singh's novel ''Delhi: A Novel, Delhi'' (1990), Bhagmati, is a ''hijra''. She makes a living as a semi-prostitute and is wanted in the diplomatic circles of the city. * One of the first sympathetic ''hijra'' portrayals was in Mani Ratnam's Bombay (film), ''Bombay'' (1995). 1997's ''Tamanna (1997 film), Tamanna'' starred male actor Paresh Rawal in a central role as "Tiku", a ''hijra'' who raises a young orphan. Pooja Bhatt produced and also starred in the movie, with her father Mahesh Bhatt co-writing and directing. * The 1997 Hindi film ''Darmiyaan: In Between'', directed & co-written by Kalpana Lajmi, is based on the subject of ''hijras'', with a fictitious story of an actress bearing a son that turns out to be neuter. * Kishor Shantabai Kale, Kishor Shatabai Kale's novel, ''Hijara Ek Mard [Eunuch, A Man],'' was adapted for the stage in 1998''.'' The play was titled ''Andharyatra.'' * In the 2000 Tamil film ''Appu (2000 film), Appu'', directed by Vasanth and a remake of the Hindi film ''Sadak'', the antagonist is a brothel-owning ''hijra'' played by Prakash Raj. (In ''Sadak'', the brothel-owning character was played by Sadashiv Amrapurkar under the name "Maharani".) * In Anil Kapoor's ''Nayak (2001 Hindi film), Nayak'' (2001), Johnny Lever, who plays the role of the hero's assistant, gets beaten up by hijras, when he is caught calling them "hijra" (he is in habit of calling almost everyone who bothers him by this pejorative and no one cares much, except this once ironically, as the addressees are literally what he is calling them.) * There is a brief appearance of ''hijras'' in the 2004 Gurinder Chadha film ''Bride & Prejudice'', singing to a bride-to-be in the marketplace. * Deepa Mehta's controversial film ''Water (2005 film), Water'' (2005) features the ''hijra'' character "Gulabi" (played by Raghubir Yadav), who has taken to introducing the downtrodden, outcast widows of Varanasi to prostitution. * Vijay TV's ''Ippadikku Rose'' (2008), a Tamil show conducted by postgraduate educated transgender woman Rose, was a very successful program that discussed various issues faced by youth in Tamil Nadu, where she also gave her own experiences. * In addition to numerous other themes, the 2008 movie ''Welcome to Sajjanpur'' by Shyam Benegal explores the role of ''hijras'' in Indian society. * ''Jogwa'', a 2009 Marathi film, depicts the story of a man forced to be ''hijra'' under certain circumstances. The movie has received several accolades. * The 2011 film ''Queens! Destiny Of Dance'' tells the story of an upmarket hijra community that is headed by their queen, Guru Amma, played by actress Seema Biswas. * The 2011 comedy-horror ''Kanchana (2011 film), Kanchana'' features an unemployed man who is possessed by a transgender woman seeking revenge against her murderers. * The 2020 comedy-horror ''Laxmii'', based on ''Kanchana'', features the actor Akshay Kumar, a cisgender man who usually plays hypermasculine roles, in the role of a Muslim man who begins crossdressing because he is possessed by the ghost of a transgender woman.

Malayalam

In the Malayalam movie ''Ardhanaari'', released on 23 November 2012, director Santhosh Sowparnika tries to depict the life of a transgender person. Manoj K Jayan, Thilakan, Sukumari and Maniyanpilla Raju perform leading roles. Njan Marykutty is another Malayalam film about the troubles and challenges of a trans woman in Kerala.

Tamil

''Vaadamalli'' by novelist Su. Samuthiram is the first

novel about the Aravaani community in Tamil people, Tamil Nadu, published in 1994. Transgender activist A. Revathi became the first hijra to write about transgender issues and gender politics in Tamil. Her works have been translated into more than eight languages and act as primary resources on gender studies in Asia. Her book is part of a research project for more than 100 universities. She is the author of ''Unarvum Uruvamum'' (Feeling and Form), the first of its kind in English from a member of the hijra community. She acted and directed stage plays on gender and sexuality issues in Tamil and Kannada. ''The Truth about Me: A Hijra Life Story'' is part of the syllabus for final year students of The American College in Madurai. "Naan Saravanan Alla" (2007) and Vidya's ''I Am Vidya'' (2008) were the first autobiographies of trans women.

Pakistan

The 1992 film ''Immaculate Conception (film), Immaculate Conception'' by Jamil Dehlavi is based upon the culture-clash between a western Jewish couple seeking fertility at a Karachi shrine known to be blessed by a Sufi, Sufi fakir called 'Gulab Shah' and the group of Pakistani eunuchs who guard it. ''Murad (film), Murad'' ( en, desire, but the film's English title was ''Eunuch's Motherhood''), was an award-winning biographical telefilm drama made by Evergreen Media Europe for Pakistan's television channel Indus TV that aired in 2003. It featured some of the country's top male television actors—Sohail Asghar, Nadeem Zafar, Nabeel, Qazi Wajid, and Kamran Jilani playing the roles of hijras. It was directed by Kamran Qureshi, written by Zafar Mairaj and produced by Iram Qureshi. It won both Best TeleFilm and Best Director awards at 2003 Indus Telefilm Festival. The story revolves around Saima, a transgender woman, who adopts a child named Murad. For the first time, influential male actors showed their support for hijra rights during interviews, pointing out that in Pakistani English at that time eunuch was the term to describe a transgender person, and ''khwaja sara'' had not yet replaced what is now considered a derogatory term due to decades of heckling and name calling. In 2004, Kamran Qureshi directed ''Moorat'' ( en, effigy but released in English under the title ''Eunuch's Wedding''. It a 33-episode series produced by Humayun Saeed and Abdullah Kadwani with more than a dozen cast members. It was nominated for Best Drama Serial, Abid Ali (actor), Abid Ali for Best Actor, and Maria Wasti for Best Actress at the Lux Style Awards 2005. The show was credited with making people understand the pain and abuse that hijra constantly endure when people make fun of the way they look or dress. The story involves a young lady who is engaged to be married. It turns out her husband is transgender. The story unfolds the trans community and their deprived and isolated world. It portrays eloquently how they, too, are not far away from human emotions and feelings and their world is not much different from the heterosexual community. Even though they are in plain sight, they are taboo subjects and are not taken seriously. This makes them suffer endlessly in silence wrapped in slurs. The 33-episode series therefore touches on transgender abuse, abuse against women, poverty, the immorality of arranged marriages and child abuse. ''Bol (film), Bol'' (Urdu: بول meaning ''Speak''), is a 2011 Urdu-language Pakistani social drama film. It concerns a patriarch, Hakim, who is a misogynist, a domestic abuser, a bigot and a zealot who forces religion on his family. They face financial difficulties due to Hakim wanting a son. He rejects his transgender daughter, Saifi, as he wanted an heir and she identifies as a girl. Saifi is deeply loved by the rest of her family. As she grows up, men want to take advantage of her and she does not understand at first. However, her oldest sister intervenes and teaches Saifi about what kind of touching is inappropriate. As Saifi grows older, she is not allowed to leave the house. She finds her sister's dresses compelling and tries them on, revealing her gender identity. A neighbour played by famous South Asian singer Atif Aslam, who is in love with one of the sisters, gets Saifi a job at a place where they paint trucks, with the blessing of Saifi's sisters and mother. Saifi dresses like a boy; however, other boys sense her lack of self-esteem and eventually gang-rape her. She is saved when another transgender person, played by Almas Bobby (a transgender actor), finds her and takes her home. Hakim overhears Saifi telling her mother and Zainab what happened. When everybody is asleep, Hakim locks the room and suffocates his child for luring the men for the "shame" he would have to bear if the story got out. It received several positive reviews from critics and went on to win the Best Hindi film award in IRDS Film awards 2011 by Institute for Research and Documentation in Social Sciences (IRDS).

Outside the Indian subcontinent

In the graphic novel Habibi (graphic novel), ''Habibi'' by Craig Thompson, the protagonist, Zam, is adopted by a group of hijras. In the TV comedy ''Outsourced (TV series), Outsourced'' (2011), a hijra is hired by Charlie as a stripper for Rajiv's "bachelor party", much to Rajiv's utter horror. The novel ''The Ministry of Utmost Happiness'' by Arundhati Roy features a storyline involving a hijra character named Anjum. Hijras feature prominently in John Irving's 2002 novel ''A Son of the Circus.'' In the 2008 film 'Bride and Prejudice', directed by Gurinder Chadha, a group of hijras make an appearance during the 'A Marriage Has Come to Town' number, in which they dance and sing the following lyrics: "Who can tell you more about Yin & Yang?/Sharing one spirit between woman and man/Marriage is the path taken by he and she/May your new life be kissed by harmony."

Documentaries

* ''Ladyboys (film), Ladyboys'' (1992) * ''Middle Sexes: Redefining He and She, Middle Sexes'' (HBO documentary, includes segment on modern hijra) (2005) * ''Shabnam Mausi'' (2005) based on the life of politician Shabnam Mausi.

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

External links

Human Rights Violations against the Transgender Community
, summary of a 2003 report by the Peoples' Union for Civil Liberties, Karnataka

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140829060300/http://www.thewe.cc/contents/more/archive/aruvani.html Collected BBC articles on Hijras]
India's eunuchs demand rights
BBC News, 4 September 2003
The Works on Hijra in Indian Sub-Continent – Photographs
''(Link to most recent archived version at Archive.org.)''
Why are Indian eunuchs warned about unsafe sex?

World Press: Pakistan's Hijras

Sangama
– Leading Hijra Human Rights Organisation in India
Eunuch MP takes seat – BBC world news
News on Shabnam Mausi, Hijra MP {{Authority control Hijra (South Asia), Gender systems Transgender in Asia Third gender Gender and Hinduism