The Jaffna Kingdom ( ta, யாழ்ப்பாண அரசு, si, යාපනය රාජධානිය; 1215–1624 CE), also known as Kingdom of Aryachakravarti, was a historical kingdom of what today is northern Sri Lanka. It came into existence around the town of
Jaffna
Jaffna (, ) is the capital city of the Northern Province of Sri Lanka. It is the administrative headquarters of the Jaffna District located on a peninsula of the same name. With a population of 88,138 in 2012, Jaffna is Sri Lanka's 12th most ...
on the
Jaffna peninsula and was traditionally thought to have been established after the invasion of
Kalinga Magha
Kalinga Magha or Gangaraja Kalinga Vijayabahu ( ta, கலிங்க மாகன் / கலிங்க மாகோன் / கங்கராஜ காலிங்க விஜயவாகு மகன் , si, කාලිංග මාඝ, ...
from
Kalinga Kalinga may refer to:
Geography, linguistics and/or ethnology
* Kalinga (historical region), a historical region of India
** Kalinga (Mahabharata), an apocryphal kingdom mentioned in classical Indian literature
** Kalinga script, an ancient writ ...
in India.
[Nadarajan, V. ''History of Ceylon Tamils'', p. 72][Indrapala, K. ''Early Tamil Settlements in Ceylon'', p. 16] Established as a powerful force in the north, northeast and west of the island, it eventually became a tribute-paying
feudatory
A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain. W ...
of the
Pandyan Empire in modern
South India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...
in 1258, gaining independence
when the last Pandyan ruler of
Madurai
Madurai ( , also , ) is a major city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the cultural capital of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Madurai District. As of the 2011 census, it was the third largest Urban agglomeration in ...
was defeated and expelled in 1323 by
Malik Kafur
Malik Kafur (died 1316), also known as Taj al-Din Izz al-Dawla, was a prominent slave-general of the Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji. He was captured by Alauddin's general Nusrat Khan during the 1299 invasion of Gujarat, and rose to promin ...
, the army general of the
Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526). . For a brief period in the early to mid-14th century it was an ascendant power in the island of Sri Lanka, to which all regional kingdoms accepted subordination. However, the kingdom was overpowered by the rival
Kotte Kingdom
The Kingdom of Kotte ( si, කෝට්ටේ රාජධානිය, Kottay Rajadhaniya), named after its capital, Kotte, was a Sinhalese kingdom that flourished in Sri Lanka during the 15th century.
Kotte, under the rule of Ming-backed ...
around 1450 when it was invaded by
Prince Sapumal
Bhuvanekabahu VI of Kotte (, ), also known as Sapumal Kumaraya and Chempaka Perumal, was an adopted son of Parakramabahu VI of Kotte, Parakramabahu VI, whose principal achievement was the conquest of Jaffna Kingdom in 1447 or 1450.Gnanaprakasar, ...
under the orders of
Parakramabahu VI
Parâkramabâhu VI (1410/1412/1415–1467) was a king in the Sri Lankan kingdom of Kotte. He is the last great king in Sri Lanka who managed to unite the island under one flag. His rule is famous for the political stability which he maintained i ...
.
[Nadarajan, V. ''History of Ceylon Tamils'', p. 72][Indrapala, K. ''Early Tamil Settlements in Ceylon'', p. 16]
It gained independence from
Kingdom of Kotte
The Kingdom of Kotte ( si, කෝට්ටේ රාජධානිය, Kottay Rajadhaniya), named after its capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, Kotte, was a Sinhala kingdom, Sinhalese kingdom that flourished in Sri Lanka during the 15th cent ...
control in 1467,
and its subsequent rulers directed their energies towards consolidating its economic potential by maximising revenue from pearls, elephant exports and land revenue.
It was less
feudal
Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was the combination of the legal, economic, military, cultural and political customs that flourished in Middle Ages, medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a wa ...
than most of the other regional kingdoms on the island of Sri Lanka of the period.
During this period, important local
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
literature was produced and
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
temples were built, including an academy for language advancement.
The Sinhalese Nampota dated in its present form to the 14th or 15th century CE suggests that the whole of the Jaffna Kingdom, including parts of the modern
Trincomalee District
Trincomalee District ( ta, திருக்கோணமலை மாவட்டம் ''Tirukōṇamalai Māvaṭṭam;'' si, ත්රිකුණාමළය දිස්ත්රික්කය ''Trikuṇāmalaya distrikkaya'') is one ...
, was recognised as a Tamil region by the name Demala-pattana (Tamil city). In this work, a number of villages that are now situated in the
Jaffna
Jaffna (, ) is the capital city of the Northern Province of Sri Lanka. It is the administrative headquarters of the Jaffna District located on a peninsula of the same name. With a population of 88,138 in 2012, Jaffna is Sri Lanka's 12th most ...
,
Mullaitivu
Mullaitivu ( ta, முல்லைத்தீவு, translit=Mullaittīvu; si, මූලදූව, translit=Mūladūva) is the main town of Mullaitivu District, situated on the north-eastern coast of Northern Province, Sri Lanka. A largely ...
and
Trincomalee
Trincomalee (; ta, திருகோணமலை, translit=Tirukōṇamalai; si, ත්රිකුණාමළය, translit= Trikuṇāmaḷaya), also known as Gokanna and Gokarna, is the administrative headquarters of the Trincomalee Dis ...
districts are mentioned as places in Demala-pattana.
The arrival of the
Portuguese
Portuguese may refer to:
* anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal
** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods
** Portuguese language, a Romance language
*** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language
** Portu ...
on the island of Sri Lanka in 1505, and its strategic location in the
Palk Strait
The Palk Strait ( ta, பாக்கு நீரிணை ''Pākku Nīriṇai'', si, පෝක් සමුද්ර සන්ධිය ''Pok Samudra Sandhiya'') is a strait between the Tamil Nadu state of India and the Jaffna Distric ...
connecting all interior
Sinhalese kingdoms to
South India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...
, created political problems. Many of its kings confronted and ultimately made peace with the Portuguese. In 1617,
Cankili II
Cankili II ( ta, சங்கிலி குமாரன், translit=Caṅkili Kumāraṉ; died 1619) was the last king of the Jaffna kingdom and was a usurper who came to throne with a palace massacre of the royal prince and the regent Ara ...
, a usurper to the throne, confronted the Portuguese but was defeated, thus bringing the kingdom's independent existence to an end in 1619.
[Gnanaprakasar, S. ''A critical history of Jaffna'', pp. 153–172] Although rebels like
Migapulle Arachchi Migapulle Arachchi ( or ) also known as ''Chinna Migapillai'', was a feudal lord from the Jaffna Kingdom who became a rebel leader just after its annexation by the Portuguese Empire in 1619. His title ''Arachchi'', is a title given to the commanders ...
—with the help of the
Thanjavur Nayak
The Thanjavur Nayak kingdom or Thanjavur Nayak dynasty were the rulers of Thanjavur in the 15th and 17th centuries. The Nayaks of the Balija social group, were originally appointed as provincial governors by the Vijayanagara Emperor in the 15th ...
kingdom—tried to recover the kingdom, they were eventually defeated.
[''An historical relation of the island Ceylon'', Volume 1, by Robert Knox and JHO Paulusz, pp. 19–47.][''An historical relation of the island Ceylon'', Volume 1, by Robert Knox and JHO Paulusz, p. 43.] Nallur, a suburb of modern Jaffna town, was its capital.
History
Founding
The origin of the Jaffna kingdom is obscure and still the subject of controversy among historians. Among mainstream historians, such as
K. M. de Silva
Professor Kingsley Muthumuni de Silva (born 31 December 1931), is a Sri Lankan academic, historian and author. A former lecturer of history at the University of Ceylon, Peradeniya, de Silva has written numerous books on Sri Lankan history includi ...
,
S. Pathmanathan and
Karthigesu Indrapala
Professor Karthigesu Indrapala (born 22 October 1938) is a Sri Lankan academic, historian, archaeologist, author and former dean of the Faculty of Arts, University of Jaffna.
Early life and family
Indrapala was born on 22 October 1938. He was th ...
, the widely accepted view is that the Kingdom of the
Aryacakravarti dynasty
The Arya Chakravarti dynasty ( ta, ஆரியச் சக்கரவர்த்திகள் வம்சம், Sinhalese: ආර්ය චක්රවර්තී රාජවංශය) were kings of the Jaffna Kingdom in Sri Lank ...
in Jaffna began in 1215 with the invasion of a previously unknown chieftain called
Magha, who claimed to be from
Kalinga Kalinga may refer to:
Geography, linguistics and/or ethnology
* Kalinga (historical region), a historical region of India
** Kalinga (Mahabharata), an apocryphal kingdom mentioned in classical Indian literature
** Kalinga script, an ancient writ ...
in modern India.
[Coddrington, K. ''Ceylon coins and currency'', pp. 74–76] He deposed the ruling
Parakrama Pandyan II
Parakrama Pandyan II, also Pandu Parakramabahu of Polonnaruwa or Parakrama Pandu, was a Pandyan king who invaded the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa in the thirteenth century and ruled from 1212 to 1215 CE. His namesake royal Parakrama Pandyan I had rule ...
, a foreigner from the
Pandyan Dynasty who was ruling the
Kingdom of Polonnaruwa
The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa ( si, පොළොන්නරුව රාජධානිය, Polonnaruwa Rājādhaniya) was the Sinhalese kingdom that expanded across the island of Sri Lanka and several overseas territories, from 1070 until 1232. ...
at the time with the help of his soldiers and mercenaries from the Kalinga, modern
Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
and
Damila (Tamil Nadu) regions in India.
After the conquest of
Rajarata
Rajarata ā dja ra tə(Meaning: King's country) ( Sinhala: රජරට) (Tamil: ரஜரட) was one of three historical regions of the island of Sri Lanka for about 1,700 years from the 6th century BCE to the early 13th century CE. Several anci ...
, he moved the capital to the
Jaffna peninsula which was more secured by heavy
Vanni forest Vanni forest is a heavy forest which covers the Vanni area and most part (approximately 75%) of the Northern province of Sri Lanka. This Jungle is spread from Omanthai in south to Paranthan in north. From west and east, the sea was the boundary. Thi ...
and ruled as a tribute-paying subordinate of the
Chola empire
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE d ...
of
Tanjavur
Thanjavur (), also Tanjore, Pletcher 2010, p. 195 is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the Gr ...
, in modern Tamil Nadu, India.
During this period (1247), a
Malay
Malay may refer to:
Languages
* Malay language or Bahasa Melayu, a major Austronesian language spoken in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore
** History of the Malay language, the Malay language from the 4th to the 14th century
** Indonesi ...
chieftain from
Tambralinga
Tambralinga ( sa, Tāmbraliṅga) was an Indianised kingdom located on the Malay Peninsula, existing at least from the 10th to 13th century. It was under the influence of Srivijaya for some time, but later became independent from it. The name ha ...
in modern
Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...
named
Chandrabhanu
Chandrabhanu (died 1262) or Chandrabhanu Sridhamaraja was the King of Tambralinga Kingdom in present-day Thailand, Malaysia and Sumatra and the Jaffna Kingdom in northern Sri Lanka. A Javaka, he was known to have ruled from during the period of ...
invaded the politically fragmented island.
Although King
Parakramabahu II
Parakramabahu II, also known as Panditha Parakramabāhu, was the King of Dambadeniya in 13th century, whose reign lasted from 1234 to 1269. As a pioneer in literature, he was bestowed with the honorary title "Kalikala Sahitya Sarvagna Pandita". Pa ...
(1236–1270) from
Dambadeniya
Dambadeniya ''(DMBD)'' is a ruined ancient city situated in the North Western Province (Wayamba), Sri Lanka on the Kurunegala–Negombo main road. It served as the capital of Sri Lanka in the mid 13th century. Much of Dambadeniya still lies burie ...
was able to repulse the attack, Chandrabhanu moved north and secured the throne for himself around 1255 from Magha.
Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I
Jatavarman Sundara I, also known as Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan, was a emperor of the Pandyan dynasty who ruled regions of Tamilakkam (present day South India) between 1250–1268 CE.Sethuraman, p124 He is remembered for his patronage of the ...
invaded Sri Lanka in the 13th century and defeated Chandrabhanu the usurper of the Jaffna Kingdom in northern Sri Lanka.
[''Sri Lanka and South-East Asia: Political, Religious and Cultural Relations'' by W.M. Sirisena, p. 57] Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I
Jatavarman Sundara I, also known as Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan, was a emperor of the Pandyan dynasty who ruled regions of Tamilakkam (present day South India) between 1250–1268 CE.Sethuraman, p124 He is remembered for his patronage of the ...
forced Chandrabhanu to submit to the Pandyan rule and to pay tributes to the
Pandyan Dynasty. But later on when Chandrabhanu became powerful enough he again invaded the Singhalese kingdom but he was defeated by the brother of
Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I
Jatavarman Sundara I, also known as Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan, was a emperor of the Pandyan dynasty who ruled regions of Tamilakkam (present day South India) between 1250–1268 CE.Sethuraman, p124 He is remembered for his patronage of the ...
called Veera Pandyan I and Chandrabhanu lost his life.
Sri Lanka was invaded for the 3rd time by the
Pandyan Dynasty under the leadership of Arya Cakravarti who established the Jaffna kingdom.
Aryacakravarti dynasty
When Chandrabhanu embarked on a second invasion of the south, the Pandyas came to the support of the Sinhalese king and killed Chandrabhanu in 1262 and installed
Aryacakravarti
The Arya Chakravarti dynasty ( ta, ஆரியச் சக்கரவர்த்திகள் வம்சம், Sinhalese language, Sinhalese: ආර්ය චක්රවර්තී රාජවංශය) were kings of the Jaffna ...
, a minister in charge of the invasion, as the king.
When the Pandyan Empire became weak due to
Muslim
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
invasions, successive Aryacakravarti rulers made the Jaffna kingdom independent and a regional power to reckon with in Sri Lanka.
[de Silva, ''A History of Sri Lanka'', pp. 91–92][Peebles, ''History of Sri Lanka'', pp. 31–32] All subsequent kings of the Jaffna Kingdom claimed descent from one Kulingai Cakravarti who is identified with Kalinga Magha by Swami Gnanaprakasar and Mudaliar Rasanayagam while maintaining their Pandyan progenitor's family name.
Politically, the dynasty was an expanding power in the 13th and 14th century with all regional kingdoms paying tribute to it.
However, it met with simultaneous confrontations with the
Vijayanagar empire
The Vijayanagara Empire, also called the Karnata Kingdom, was a Hinduism, Hindu empire based in the region of South India, which consisted the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa and some parts of Telangana an ...
that ruled from
Vijayanagara
Vijayanagara () was the capital city of the historic Vijayanagara Empire. Located on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, it spread over a large area and included the modern era Group of Monuments at Hampi site in Vijayanagara district, Bellary ...
, southern India, and a rebounding
Kingdom of Kotte
The Kingdom of Kotte ( si, කෝට්ටේ රාජධානිය, Kottay Rajadhaniya), named after its capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, Kotte, was a Sinhala kingdom, Sinhalese kingdom that flourished in Sri Lanka during the 15th cent ...
from the south of Sri Lanka.
This led to the kingdom becoming a
vassal
A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain. W ...
of the Vijayanagar Empire as well as briefly losing its independence under the Kotte kingdom from 1450 to 1467.
The kingdom was re-established with the disintegration of Kotte kingdom and the fragmentation of Vijayanagar Empire.
[Peebles, ''History of Sri Lanka'', p. 34] It maintained very close commercial and political relationships with the
Thanjavur Nayakar kingdom in southern India as well as the
Kandyan
Kandy ( si, මහනුවර ''Mahanuwara'', ; ta, கண்டி Kandy, ) is a major city in Sri Lanka located in the Central Province. It was the last capital of the ancient kings' era of Sri Lanka. The city lies in the midst of hills ...
and segments of the Kotte kingdom. This period saw the building of Hindu temples and a flourishing of literature, both in Tamil and Sanskrit.
[de Silva, ''A History of Sri Lanka'', pp. 132–133]
Kotte conquest and restoration
The Kotte conquest of the Jaffna Kingdom was led by king
Parakramabahu VI
Parâkramabâhu VI (1410/1412/1415–1467) was a king in the Sri Lankan kingdom of Kotte. He is the last great king in Sri Lanka who managed to unite the island under one flag. His rule is famous for the political stability which he maintained i ...
's adopted son,
Prince Sapumal
Bhuvanekabahu VI of Kotte (, ), also known as Sapumal Kumaraya and Chempaka Perumal, was an adopted son of Parakramabahu VI of Kotte, Parakramabahu VI, whose principal achievement was the conquest of Jaffna Kingdom in 1447 or 1450.Gnanaprakasar, ...
. This battle took place in many stages. Firstly, the tributaries to the Jaffna Kingdom in the
Vanni area, namely the
Vanniar
The Vanniyar, also spelled Vanniya, formerly known as the Palli, are a Dravidian community or '' jāti'' found in the northern part of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. From the 19th century, peasant castes typically classified under Shudra ca ...
chieftains of the
Vannimai
The Vanni chieftaincies or Vanni principalities was a region between Anuradhapura and Jaffna, but also extending to along the eastern coast to Panama and Yala, during the Transitional and Kandyan periods of Sri Lanka. The heavily forested land ...
were neutralised. This was followed by two successive conquests. The first war of conquest did not succeed in capturing the kingdom. It was the second conquest dated to 1450 that eventually was successful. Apparently connected with this war of conquest was an expedition to Adriampet in modern
South India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...
, occasioned according to Valentyn by the seizure of a Lankan ship laden with
cinnamon
Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus ''Cinnamomum''. Cinnamon is used mainly as an aromatic condiment and flavouring additive in a wide variety of cuisines, sweet and savoury dishes, breakfa ...
. The ''Tenkasi inscription'' of Arikesari Parakrama Pandya of
Tinnevelly
Tirunelveli (, ta, திருநெல்வேலி, translit=Tirunelveli) also known as Nellai ( ta, நெல்லை, translit=Nellai) and historically (during British rule) as Tinnevelly, is a major city in the Indian state of Tami ...
who saw the backs of kings at ''Singai'', ''Anurai'', and else where, may refer to these wars; it is dated between 1449–50 and 1453–54.
Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan the Aryacakravarti king fled to South India with his family. After the departure of ''
Sapumal Kumaraya
Bhuvanekabahu VI of Kotte (, ), also known as Sapumal Kumaraya and Chempaka Perumal, was an adopted son of Parakramabahu VI, whose principal achievement was the conquest of Jaffna Kingdom in 1447 or 1450.Gnanaprakasar, S ''A critical history of ...
'' to Kotte, Kanakasooriya Cinkaiarian re-took the kingdom in 1467.
Decline & dissolution
Portuguese traders reached Sri Lanka by 1505 where their initial forays were against the south-western coastal Kotte kingdom due to the lucrative monopoly on trade in
spices
A spice is a seed, fruit, root, Bark (botany), bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavoring or as a garni ...
that the Kotte kingdom enjoyed that was also of interest to the Portuguese.
The Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese officials in Colombo for multiple reasons which included their interference in
Roman Catholic
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
missionary activities,
(which was assumed to be patronizing Portuguese interests) and their support to anti-Portuguese factions of the Kotte kingdom, such as the chieftains from
Sittawaka.
The Jaffna Kingdom also functioned as a logistical base for the
Kandyan kingdom
The Kingdom of Kandy was a monarchy on the island of Sri Lanka, located in the central and eastern portion of the island. It was founded in the late 15th century and endured until the early 19th century.
Initially a client kingdom of the Kin ...
, located in the central highlands without access to any seaports, as an entrypot for military aid arriving from
South India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...
.
Further, due to its strategic location, it was feared that the Jaffna kingdom may become a beachhead for the
Dutch
Dutch commonly refers to:
* Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands
* Dutch people ()
* Dutch language ()
Dutch may also refer to:
Places
* Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States
* Pennsylvania Dutch Country
People E ...
landings.
[Abeysinghe, T. ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', p. 2] It was king
Cankili I
Cankili I ( ta, சங்கிலியன்) (died 1565), also known as Segarasasekaram (Jaga Rajasekharam), is the most remembered Jaffna kingdom king in the Sri Lankan Tamil history. He was very active in resisting Portuguese colonial inroads ...
who resisted contacts with the Portuguese and even massacred 600–700
Parava Catholics
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
in the
island of Mannar. These Catholics were brought from India to Mannar to take over the lucrative pearl fisheries from the Jaffna kings.
Client state
The
first expedition led by Viceroy Dom
Constantino de Bragança
Dom Constantino of Braganza ( pt, Constantino de Bragança; 1528–1575) was a Portuguese nobleman, ''conquistador'', and administrator of the Portuguese Empire. Born a member of the powerful House of Braganza, he is best known for having served ...
in 1560 failed to subdue the kingdom but wrested
Mannar Island
Mannar Island ( ; ta, மன்னார் தீவு, Maṉṉār tīvu; si, මන්නාරම් දූපත, Mannāram dūpata), formerly spelt Manar Island, which lies off the north-western coast of Sri Lanka, is part of Mannar D ...
from it.
Although the circumstances are unclear, by 1582 the Jaffna king was paying a tribute of ten elephants or an equivalent in cash.
In 1591, during the
second expedition led by André Furtado de Mendonça, king
Puvirasa Pandaram
Puviraja Pandaram ( ta, புவிராஜ பண்டாரம்) (died 1591) ruled the Jaffna kingdom during a period of chaos during and after the death of his father Cankili I in 1565. He became king in 1561 following a local uprising aga ...
was killed and his son
Ethirimanna Cinkam
Ethirimanna Cinkam ( ta, எதிர்மன்னசிங்கம்) (died 1617) was the penultimate ruler of the Aryacakravarti line of Kings of the Jaffna Kingdom in northern Sri Lanka. He came to power due to the second Portuguese expedi ...
was installed as the monarch. This arrangement gave the Catholic missionaries freedom and a monopoly in elephant exports to the Portuguese,
[de Silva, ''A History of Sri Lanka'', p. 166] which the incumbent king however resisted.
He helped the
Kandyan kingdom
The Kingdom of Kandy was a monarchy on the island of Sri Lanka, located in the central and eastern portion of the island. It was founded in the late 15th century and endured until the early 19th century.
Initially a client kingdom of the Kin ...
under kings
Vimaladharmasuriya I
Vimaladharmasūriya I was a king of Kandy from 1590 to 1604. His reputation was built when he successfully repulsed two major Portuguese offensives on Kandy, the Battle of Danture in 1594 and the Battle of Balana in 1602, in both of which the P ...
and Senarat during the period 1593–1635 with the intent of securing help from South India to resist the Portuguese. He however maintained autonomy of the kingdom without overly provoking the Portuguese.
[Abeysinghe, T. ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', p. 3]
Cankili II the usurper
With the death of Ethirimana Cinkam in 1617, his 3-year-old son was the proclaimed king with the late king's brother ''Arasakesari'' as
regent
A regent (from Latin : ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state '' pro tempore'' (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy ...
.
Cankili II
Cankili II ( ta, சங்கிலி குமாரன், translit=Caṅkili Kumāraṉ; died 1619) was the last king of the Jaffna kingdom and was a usurper who came to throne with a palace massacre of the royal prince and the regent Ara ...
, a usurper, and nephew of the late king killed all the princes of royal blood including ''Arasakesari'' and the powerful chief ''Periya Pillai Arachchi''.
[Abeysinghe, T. ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', pp. 58–63] His cruel actions made him unpopular leading to a revolt by the nominal Christian
Mudaliyars
Thuluva Vellalar (Thondamandala Tuluva Vellalar), also known as Agamudaya Mudaliars and Arcot Mudaliars, is a caste found in northern Tamil Nadu, southern Andhra Pradesh and southern Karnataka, India. They were originally significant lando ...
Dom Pedro and Dom Luis (also known as
Migapulle Arachchi Migapulle Arachchi ( or ) also known as ''Chinna Migapillai'', was a feudal lord from the Jaffna Kingdom who became a rebel leader just after its annexation by the Portuguese Empire in 1619. His title ''Arachchi'', is a title given to the commanders ...
, the son of Periya Pillai Arachchi) and drove Cankili to hide in
Kayts
Kayts ( ta, ஊர்காவற்துறை, translit=Ūrkāvaṟtuṟai'','' ), is one of the important villages in Velanai Island which is a small island off the coast of the Jaffna Peninsula in northern Sri Lanka. There are number of oth ...
in August–September 1618.
Unable to secure Portuguese acceptance of his kingship and to suppress the revolt, Cankili II invited military aid from the
Thanjavur Nayaks
The Thanjavur Nayak kingdom or Thanjavur Nayak dynasty were the rulers of Thanjavur in the 15th and 17th centuries. The Nayaks of the Balija social group, were originally appointed as provincial governors by the Vijayanagara Emperor in the 15th ...
who sent a troop of 5000 men under the military commander
Varunakulattan
Varunakulattan (also identified as Khem Nayak or Chem Nayak) was a 17th-century feudal lord and military commander from the Jaffna Kingdom. He led a rebellion as the military commander of Thanjavur Nayak against the Portuguese in their conquest o ...
.
[De Queyroz, ''The Temporal and Spiritual Conquest of Ceylon'', pp. 51, 468]
Cankili II was supported by the Kandy rulers. After the fall of the Jaffna kingdom, the two unnamed princesses of Jaffna had been married to Senarat's stepsons, Kumarasingha and Vijayapala.
Cankili II expectably received military aid from the Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom. On his part,
Raghunatha Nayak
Raghunatha Nayak was the most powerful king of the Thanjavur Nayak Dynasty. He was the third ruler of Thanjavur, southern India, from the Nayak dynasty. He ruled from 1600 to 1634 and is noted for the attainments of Thanjavur in literature, art, ...
of Thanjavur made attempts to recover the Jaffna Kingdom for his protege, the Prince of Rameshwaram.
However, all attempts to recover the Jaffna Kingdom from the Portuguese met with failure.
By June 1619, there were two Portuguese expeditions: a naval expedition that was repulsed by the
Karaiyar
Karaiyar is a Sri Lankan Tamil caste found mainly on the northern and eastern coastal areas of Sri Lanka, and globally among the Tamil diaspora.
They are traditionally a seafaring community that is engaged in fishing, shipment and seaborne t ...
s and another expedition by
Filipe de Oliveira and his 5,000 strong land army which was able to inflict defeat on Cankili II.
Cankili, along with every surviving member of the royal family were captured and taken to
Goa
Goa () is a state on the southwestern coast of India within the Konkan region, geographically separated from the Deccan highlands by the Western Ghats. It is located between the Indian states of Maharashtra to the north and Karnataka to the ...
, where he was hanged. The remaining captives were encouraged to become monks or nuns in the holy orders, and as most obliged, it avoided further claimants to the Jaffna throne.
In 1620
Migapulle Arachchi Migapulle Arachchi ( or ) also known as ''Chinna Migapillai'', was a feudal lord from the Jaffna Kingdom who became a rebel leader just after its annexation by the Portuguese Empire in 1619. His title ''Arachchi'', is a title given to the commanders ...
, with a troop of Thanjavur soldiers, revolted against the Portuguese and was defeated. A second rebellion was led by a chieftain called ''
Varunakulattan
Varunakulattan (also identified as Khem Nayak or Chem Nayak) was a 17th-century feudal lord and military commander from the Jaffna Kingdom. He led a rebellion as the military commander of Thanjavur Nayak against the Portuguese in their conquest o ...
'' with the support of
Raghunatha Nayak
Raghunatha Nayak was the most powerful king of the Thanjavur Nayak Dynasty. He was the third ruler of Thanjavur, southern India, from the Nayak dynasty. He ruled from 1600 to 1634 and is noted for the attainments of Thanjavur in literature, art, ...
.
Administration
According to
Ibn Batuta
Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battutah (, ; 24 February 13041368/1369),; fully: ; Arabic: commonly known as Ibn Battuta, was a Berber Maghrebi scholar and explorer who travelled extensively in the lands of Afro-Eurasia, largely in the Muslim wor ...
, a traveling
Moroccan historian of note, by 1344, the kingdom had two capitals: one in
Nallur in the north and the other in
Puttalam
Puttalam ( si, පුත්තලම, translit=Puttalama; ta, புத்தளம், translit=Puttaḷam) is the largest town in Puttalam District, North Western Province, Sri Lanka. Puttalam is the administrative capital of the Puttalam ...
in the west during the pearling season.
The kingdom proper, that is the Jaffna peninsula, was divided into various provinces with subdivisions of ''parrus'' meaning property or larger territorial units and ''ur'' or villages, the smallest unit, was administered on a hierarchical and regional basis.
At the summit was the king whose kingship was hereditary; he was usually succeeded by his eldest son. Next in the hierarchy stood the ''adikaris'' who were the provincial administrators.
Then came the ''
mudaliyars
Thuluva Vellalar (Thondamandala Tuluva Vellalar), also known as Agamudaya Mudaliars and Arcot Mudaliars, is a caste found in northern Tamil Nadu, southern Andhra Pradesh and southern Karnataka, India. They were originally significant lando ...
'' who functioned as judges and interpreters of the laws and customs of the land.
It was also their duty to gather information of whatever was happening in the provinces and report to higher authorities. The title was bestowed on the
Karaiyar
Karaiyar is a Sri Lankan Tamil caste found mainly on the northern and eastern coastal areas of Sri Lanka, and globally among the Tamil diaspora.
They are traditionally a seafaring community that is engaged in fishing, shipment and seaborne t ...
generals who commanded the navy and also on
Vellalar
Vellalar is a generic Tamil term used primarily to refer to various castes who traditionally pursued agriculture as a profession in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and northeastern parts of Sri Lanka. The Vellalar are members of several ...
chiefs. Administrators of revenues called ''kankanis'' or superintendents and ''kanakkappillais'' or
accountants
An accountant is a practitioner of accounting or accountancy.
Accountants who have demonstrated competency through their professional associations' certification exams are certified to use titles such as Chartered Accountant, Chartered Certif ...
came next in line. These were also known as ''pandarapillai''. They had to keep records and maintain accounts.
The royal
herald
A herald, or a herald of arms, is an officer of arms, ranking between pursuivant and king of arms. The title is commonly applied more broadly to all officers of arms.
Heralds were originally messengers sent by monarchs or noblemen to ...
s whose duty was to convey messages or proclamations came from the
Paraiyar
Paraiyar, or Parayar or Maraiyar (formerly anglicised as Pariah and Paree), is a caste group found in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, and Sri Lanka.
Etymology
Robert Caldwell, a nineteenth-century missionary and grammarian who ...
community.
''Maniyam'' was the chief of the ''parrus''.
He was assisted by ''mudaliyars'' who were in turn assisted by ''udaiyars'', persons of authority over a village or a group of villages.
They were the custodians of law and order and gave assistance to survey land and collect revenues in the area under their control.
The village headman was called ''talaiyari'', ''pattankaddi'' or ''adappanar'' and he assisted in the collection of taxes and was responsible for the maintenance of order in his territorial unit.
The Adappanar were the headmen of the ports. The Pattankaddi and Adappanar were from the maritime
Karaiyar
Karaiyar is a Sri Lankan Tamil caste found mainly on the northern and eastern coastal areas of Sri Lanka, and globally among the Tamil diaspora.
They are traditionally a seafaring community that is engaged in fishing, shipment and seaborne t ...
and
Paravar
Paravar (also known as Bharathar or Bharathakula and sometimes colloquially as 'Fernando') is a Tamil maritime community, mainly living in the state of Tamil Nadu in India and in Sri Lanka. Pandyas aka Bharathavars are the Ancient Sea Farers and ...
communities.
In addition, each
caste
Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultura ...
had a chief who supervised the performance of caste obligations and duties.
[Gunasingam, M. ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p. 58]
;Relationship with feudatories
Vannimai
The Vanni chieftaincies or Vanni principalities was a region between Anuradhapura and Jaffna, but also extending to along the eastern coast to Panama and Yala, during the Transitional and Kandyan periods of Sri Lanka. The heavily forested land ...
s were regions south of the Jaffna peninsula in the present-day North Central and Eastern provinces and were sparsely settled by people. They were ruled by petty chiefs calling themselves
Vanniar
The Vanniyar, also spelled Vanniya, formerly known as the Palli, are a Dravidian community or '' jāti'' found in the northern part of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. From the 19th century, peasant castes typically classified under Shudra ca ...
.
Vannimais just south of the Jaffna peninsula and in the eastern
Trincomalee
Trincomalee (; ta, திருகோணமலை, translit=Tirukōṇamalai; si, ත්රිකුණාමළය, translit= Trikuṇāmaḷaya), also known as Gokanna and Gokarna, is the administrative headquarters of the Trincomalee Dis ...
district usually paid an annual tribute to the Jaffna kingdom instead of taxes.
The tribute was in cash, grains,
honey
Honey is a sweet and viscous substance made by several bees, the best-known of which are honey bees. Honey is made and stored to nourish bee colonies. Bees produce honey by gathering and then refining the sugary secretions of plants (primar ...
,
elephants
Elephants are the largest existing land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant. They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae and ...
, and
ivory
Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals is ...
. The annual tribute system was enforced due to the greater distance from Jaffna.
During the early and middle part of the 14th century, the Sinhalese kingdoms in western, southern and central part of the island also became feudatories until the kingdom itself was briefly occupied by the forces of Parakramabahu VI around 1450 for about 17 years. Around the early 17th century, the kingdom also administered an
exclave
An enclave is a territory (or a small territory apart of a larger one) that is entirely surrounded by the territory of one other state or entity. Enclaves may also exist within territorial waters. ''Enclave'' is sometimes used improperly to deno ...
in Southern India called Madalacotta.
Economy
The economy of the Kingdom was almost exclusively based on
subsistence agriculture
Subsistence agriculture occurs when farmers grow food crops to meet the needs of themselves and their families on smallholdings. Subsistence agriculturalists target farm output for survival and for mostly local requirements, with little or no su ...
until the 15th century. After the 15th century, however, the economy became diversified and commercialized as it became incorporated into the expanding
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by th ...
.
Ibn Batuta
Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battutah (, ; 24 February 13041368/1369),; fully: ; Arabic: commonly known as Ibn Battuta, was a Berber Maghrebi scholar and explorer who travelled extensively in the lands of Afro-Eurasia, largely in the Muslim wor ...
, during his visit in 1344, observed that the kingdom of Jaffna was a major trading kingdom with extensive overseas contacts, who described that the kingdom had a "considerable forces by the sea", testifying to their strong reputed navy. The Kingdom's trades were oriented towards maritime
South India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...
, with which it developed a commercial interdependence. The non-agriculture tradition of the kingdom became strong as a result of large coastal fishing and boating population and growing opportunities for seaborne commerce. Influential commercial groups, drawn mainly from south Indian mercantile groups as well as other, resided in the royal capital, port, and market centers. Artisan settlements were also established and groups of skilled tradesmen—carpenters, stonemasons, wavers, dryers, gold and silver smiths—resided in urban centers. Thus, a pluralistic socio-economic tradition of agriculture marine activities, commerce and handicraft production was well established.
[Pfaffenberger, B .''The Sri Lankan Tamils'', pp. 30–31]
Jaffna kingdom was less feudalized than other kingdoms in Sri Lanka, such as Kotte and Kandy.
Its economy was based on more money transactions than transactions on land or its produce. The Jaffna defense forces were not feudal levies; soldiers in the kings service were paid in cash.
The king's officials, namely ''Mudaliayars'', were also paid in cash and the numerous Hindu temples seem not to have owned extensive properties, unlike the Buddhist establishments in the South. Temples and the administrators depended on the king and the worshippers for their upkeep.
Royal and Army officials were thus a salaried class and these three institutions consumed over 60% of the revenues of the kingdom and 85% of the government expenditures.
Much of the kingdom's revenues also came from cash except the Elephants from the
Vanni feudatories.
At the time of the conquest by the Portuguese in 1620, the kingdom which was truncated in size and restricted to the Jaffna peninsula had revenues of 11,700 ''pardaos'' of which 97% came from land or sources connected to the land. One was called land rent and another called paddy tax called ''arretane''.
Apart from the land related taxes, there were other taxes, such as ''Garden tax'' from compounds where, among others,
plantain
Plantain may refer to:
Plants and fruits
* Cooking banana, banana cultivars in the genus ''Musa'' whose fruits are generally used in cooking
** True plantains, a group of cultivars of the genus ''Musa''
* ''Plantaginaceae'', a family of flowerin ...
,
coconut
The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family ( Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the ...
and
arecanut palms were grown and irrigated by water from the well. ''Tree tax'' on trees such as
palmyrah
''Borassus'' (palmyra palm) is a genus of five species of fan palms, native to tropical regions of Africa, Asia and Papua New Guinea.
Description
These massive palms can grow up to high and have robust trunks with distinct leaf scars; in so ...
,
margosa
''Azadirachta indica'', commonly known as neem, nimtree or Indian lilac, is a tree in the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is one of two species in the genus ''Azadirachta'', and is native to the Indian subcontinent and most of the countries in Afri ...
and ''iluppai'' and ''Poll tax'' equivalent to a personal tax from each. ''Professional tax'' was collected from members of each
caste
Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultura ...
or
guild
A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular area. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradesmen belonging to a professional association. They sometimes ...
and ''commercial taxes'' consisting of, among others, ''stamp duty'' on clothes (clothes could not be sold privately and had to have official stamp), ''Taraku'' or levy on items of food, and ''Port and customs duties''.
Columbuthurai
Colombuthurai ( ta, கொழும்புத்துறை, translit=Koḻumputtuṟai; si, කොලොම්තර ''Kolomtara'') is a suburb of the city of Jaffna in northern Sri Lanka. Colombuthurai means "the port at the bending point" i ...
, which connected the Peninsula with the mainland at
Poonakari with its boat services, was one of the chief port, and there were customs check posts at the sand passes of
Pachilaippalai.
Elephants from the southern Sinhalese kingdoms and the Vanni region were brought to Jaffna to be sold to foreign buyers. They were shipped abroad from a bay called Urukathurai, which is now called
Kayts
Kayts ( ta, ஊர்காவற்துறை, translit=Ūrkāvaṟtuṟai'','' ), is one of the important villages in Velanai Island which is a small island off the coast of the Jaffna Peninsula in northern Sri Lanka. There are number of oth ...
—a shortened form of Portuguese ''Caes dos elephantess'' (Bay of Elephants).
Perhaps a peculiarity of Jaffna was the levy of license fee for the
cremation
Cremation is a method of Disposal of human corpses, final disposition of a Cadaver, dead body through Combustion, burning.
Cremation may serve as a funeral or post-funeral rite and as an alternative to burial. In some countries, including India ...
of the dead.
Not all payments in kind were converted to cash, offerings of rice,
bananas
A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus ''Musa''. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called "plantains", distinguis ...
, milk,
dried fish
Fresh fish rapidly deteriorates unless some way can be found to preserve it. Drying (food), Drying is a method of food preservation that works by removing water from the food, which inhibits the growth of microorganisms. Open air drying using sun ...
, game meat and
curd
Curd is obtained by coagulating milk in a sequential process called curdling. It can be a final dairy product or the first stage in cheesemaking. The coagulation can be caused by adding rennet or any edible acidic substance such as lemon ...
persisted.
Some inhabitants also had to render unpaid personal services called ''
uliyam''.
[Abeysinghe, T. ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', pp. 29–30]
The kings also issued many types of coins for circulation. Several types of coins categorized as ''
Sethu Bull'' coins issued from 1284 to 1410 are found in large quantities in the northern part of Sri Lanka. The obverse of these coins have a human figure flanked by lamps and the reverse has the
Nandi (bull)
Nandi ( sa, नन्दि), also known as Nandikeshwara or Nandideva, is the bull vahana of the Hindu god Shiva. He is also the guardian deity of Kailash, the abode of Shiva. Almost all Shiva temples display stone-images of a seated Nandi, ge ...
symbol, the legend ''Setu'' in
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
with a crescent moon above.
Culture
Religion
Saivism
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangin ...
(a denomination of
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
) in Sri Lanka has had continuous history from the early period of settlers from India. Hindu worship was widely accepted even as part of the
Buddhist
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
religious practices. During the
Chola
The Chola dynasty was a Tamils, Tamil thalassocratic Tamil Dynasties, empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated ...
period in Sri Lanka, around the 9th and 10th century, Hinduism gained status as an official religion in the island kingdom.
Kalinga Magha
Kalinga Magha or Gangaraja Kalinga Vijayabahu ( ta, கலிங்க மாகன் / கலிங்க மாகோன் / கங்கராஜ காலிங்க விஜயவாகு மகன் , si, කාලිංග මාඝ, ...
, whose rule followed that of the Cholas is remembered as a Hindu revivalist by the native literature of that period.
As the state religion, Hinduism enjoyed all the prerogatives of the establishment during the period of the Jaffna kingdom. The Aryacakravarti dynasty was very conscious of its duties as a patron towards Hinduism because of the patronage given by its ancestors to the
Rameswaram
Rameswaram (; also transliterated as Ramesvaram, Rameshwaram) is a municipality in the Ramanathapuram district of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is on Pamban Island separated from mainland India by the Pamban channel and is about 40 kilo ...
temple, a well-known pilgrimage center of Indian Hinduism. As noted, one of the titles assumed by the kings was ''Setukavalan'' or protector of ''Setu'' another name for Rameswaram. ''Setu'' was used in their coins as well as in inscriptions as marker of the dynasty.
[Gunasingam, M. ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p. 63]
Sapumal Kumaraya
Bhuvanekabahu VI of Kotte (, ), also known as Sapumal Kumaraya and Chempaka Perumal, was an adopted son of Parakramabahu VI, whose principal achievement was the conquest of Jaffna Kingdom in 1447 or 1450.Gnanaprakasar, S ''A critical history of ...
(also known as ''Chempaha Perumal'' in
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
), who ruled the Jaffna kingdom on behalf of the Kotte kingdom is credited with either building or renovating the
Nallur Kandaswamy temple
Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil ( ta, நல்லூர் கந்தசுவாமி கோவில் si, නල්ලුරුව ස්කන්ධ කුමාර කෝවිල) is a significant Hindu temple, located in Nallur, Northe ...
.
Singai Pararasasegaram
Singai Pararasasegaram ( ta, சிங்கைப் பரராசசேகரன்) (died 1519), was one of the most well known kings of the later Aryacakravarti kings of the Jaffna kingdom. He was the father of Cankili I.
Biography
Singai P ...
is credited with building the Sattanathar temple, the Vaikuntha Pillaiyar temple and the Veerakaliamman temple. He built a pond called Yamuneri and filled it with water from the
Yamuna
The Yamuna (Hindustani language, Hindustani: ), also spelt Jumna, is the second-largest tributary river of the Ganges by discharge and the longest tributary in List of major rivers of India, India. Originating from the Yamunotri Glacier at a ...
river of
North India
North India is a loosely defined region consisting of the northern part of India. The dominant geographical features of North India are the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Himalayas, which demarcate the region from the Tibetan Plateau and Central ...
, which is considered holy by Hindus.
[Kunarasa, K. ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', pp. 73–74] He was a frequent the visitor of the
Koneswaram temple, as was his son and successor King
Cankili I
Cankili I ( ta, சங்கிலியன்) (died 1565), also known as Segarasasekaram (Jaga Rajasekharam), is the most remembered Jaffna kingdom king in the Sri Lankan Tamil history. He was very active in resisting Portuguese colonial inroads ...
.
King
Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan had the traditional history of the temple compiled as a chronicle in verse, entitled ''Dakshina Kailasa Puranam'', known today as the ''Sthala Puranam of Koneshwaram Temple''.
Major temples were normally maintained by the kings and a salary was paid from the royal treasury to those who worked in the temple, unlike in India and rest of Sri Lanka, where religious establishments were autonomous entities with large endowments of land and related revenue.
Most accepted Lord
Shiva
Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
as the primary deity and the
lingam
A lingam ( sa, लिङ्ग , lit. "sign, symbol or mark"), sometimes referred to as linga or Shiva linga, is an abstract or aniconic representation of the Hindu god Shiva in Shaivism. It is typically the primary ''murti'' or devotional im ...
, the universal symbol of Shiva, was consecrated in shrines dedicated to him. The other Hindu gods of the pantheon such as
Murugan
Kartikeya ( sa, कार्त्तिकेय, Kārttikeya), also known as Skanda, Subrahmanya, Shanmukha (), and Murugan ( ta, முருகன்), is the Hindu god of war. He is the son of Parvati and Shiva, the brother of Ganesha ...
,
Pillaiyar
Ganesha ( sa, गणेश, ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in Ganapatya sect. His image is found throughout India. Hindu d ...
,
Kali
Kali (; sa, काली, ), also referred to as Mahakali, Bhadrakali, and Kalika ( sa, कालिका), is a Hinduism, Hindu goddess who is considered to be the goddess of ultimate power, time, destruction and change in Shaktism. In t ...
were also worshipped. At the village level,
village deities were popular along with the worship of
Kannaki
Kannagi ( ta, கண்ணகி) sometimes spelled Kannaki, is a legendary Tamil woman who forms the central character of the Tamil epic ''Cilappatikaram''. Kannagi is described as the chaste woman who stays with her husband despite his unfai ...
whose veneration was common amongst the
Sinhalese
Sinhala may refer to:
* Something of or related to the Sinhalese people of Sri Lanka
* Sinhalese people
* Sinhala language, one of the three official languages used in Sri Lanka
* Sinhala script, a writing system for the Sinhala language
** Sinha ...
in the south as well. Belief in
charm
Charm may refer to:
Social science
* Charisma, a person or thing's pronounced ability to attract others
* Superficial charm, flattery, telling people what they want to hear
Science and technology
* Charm quark, a type of elementary particle
* Ch ...
and
evil spirits
A demon is a malevolent supernatural entity. Historically, belief in demons, or stories about demons, occurs in religion, occultism, literature, fiction, mythology, and folklore; as well as in media such as comics, video games, movies, anime, ...
existed, just as in the rest of
South Asia
South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The region consists of the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.;;;;;;;; ...
.
There were many Hindu temples within the Kingdom. Some were of great historic importance, such as the
Koneswaram temple in
Trincomalee
Trincomalee (; ta, திருகோணமலை, translit=Tirukōṇamalai; si, ත්රිකුණාමළය, translit= Trikuṇāmaḷaya), also known as Gokanna and Gokarna, is the administrative headquarters of the Trincomalee Dis ...
,
Ketheeswaram temple in
Mannar Mannar may refer to the following places:
India
* Mannar, Alappuzha, a town in Chengannur Taluk, Kerala
Sri Lanka
* Mannar District, one of 25 districts in Sri Lanka
** Mannar Island, an island within the district
**Mannar Bridge, a bridge connect ...
,
Naguleswaram
Keerimalai Naguleswaram temple ( ta, கீரிமலை நகுலேஸ்வரம் கோயில்), historically known also as the Thirutambaleswaram Kovil of Keerimalai, is a famous Hindu temple in Keerimalai, located north of Ja ...
temple in Keerimalai along with hundreds of other temples that were scattered over the region. The ceremonies and festivals were similar to those in modern
South India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...
, with some slight changes in emphasis. The
Tamil devotional literature of
Saiva saints was used in worship. The Hindu New Year falling on the middle of April was more elaborately celebrated and festivals, such as ''
Navarattiri'', ''
Deepavali
Diwali (), Dewali, Divali, or Deepavali (IAST: ''dīpāvalī''), also known as the Festival of Lights, related to Jain Diwali, Bandi Chhor Divas, Tihar, Swanti, Sohrai, and Bandna, is a religious celebration in Indian religions. It is on ...
'', ''
Sivarattiri'', and ''
Thaiponkal'', along with marriages, deaths and coming of age ceremonies were part of the daily life.
Until ca. 1550, when
Cankili I
Cankili I ( ta, சங்கிலியன்) (died 1565), also known as Segarasasekaram (Jaga Rajasekharam), is the most remembered Jaffna kingdom king in the Sri Lankan Tamil history. He was very active in resisting Portuguese colonial inroads ...
expelled the Buddhists of Jaffna, who were all Sinhalese, and destroyed their many places of worship, Buddhism prevailed in the Jaffna kingdom, among the Sinhalese who had remained in the territory. Some important places of Buddhist worship in the Jaffna kingdom, which are mentioned in the Nampota are: Naga-divayina (Nagadipa, modern Nainativu), Telipola, Mallagama, Minuvangomu-viharaya and
Kadurugoda (modern Kantharodai),
[Indrapala, Karthigesu ''Evolution of an Ethnic Identity'', (2005), p. 210] of these only the Buddhist temple at Nagadipa survive today.
Society
;Caste structure
The social organization of the people of the Jaffna kingdom was based on a
caste system
Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultura ...
and a
matrilineal
Matrilineality is the tracing of kinship through the female line. It may also correlate with a social system in which each person is identified with their matriline – their mother's Lineage (anthropology), lineage – and which can in ...
''kudi'' (
clan
A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship
and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clans may claim descent from founding member or apical ancestor. Clans, in indigenous societies, tend to be endogamous, meaning ...
) system similar to the caste structure of
South India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...
. The Aryacakravarti kings and their immediate family claimed ''Brahma-Kshatriya'' status, meaning ''
Brahmins
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru o ...
'' who took to
martial
Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial ; March, between 38 and 41 AD – between 102 and 104 AD) was a Roman poet from Hispania (modern Spain) best known for his twelve books of ''Epigrams'', published in Rome between AD 86 and ...
life. The ''
Madapalli
Madapalli () is a caste found mainly in the northern part of Sri Lanka. Found today as a subcaste of the Sri Lankan Vellalar, the Madapallis were considered an independent caste until recently.
Originally serving as Cook (domestic worker), cooks ...
'' were the palace
stewards
Steward may refer to:
Positions or roles
* Steward (office), a representative of a monarch
* Steward (Methodism), a leader in a congregation and/or district
* Steward, a person responsible for supplies of food to a college, club, or other inst ...
and
cooks, the ''Akampadayar''
's formed the palace servants, the
Paraiyar
Paraiyar, or Parayar or Maraiyar (formerly anglicised as Pariah and Paree), is a caste group found in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, and Sri Lanka.
Etymology
Robert Caldwell, a nineteenth-century missionary and grammarian who ...
were the royal
herald
A herald, or a herald of arms, is an officer of arms, ranking between pursuivant and king of arms. The title is commonly applied more broadly to all officers of arms.
Heralds were originally messengers sent by monarchs or noblemen to ...
s and the ''
Siviyar
Siviyar (, also written ''Chiviar'' and ) is a caste found in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. They were traditionally Litter (vehicle), palanquin bearers. They are a single community in Sri Lanka, but are however a subcaste of the Ko ...
'' were the royal
palanquin bearers.
The army and
navy
A navy, naval force, or maritime force is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval warfare, naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral zone, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and ...
generals were from the ''
Karaiyar
Karaiyar is a Sri Lankan Tamil caste found mainly on the northern and eastern coastal areas of Sri Lanka, and globally among the Tamil diaspora.
They are traditionally a seafaring community that is engaged in fishing, shipment and seaborne t ...
'' caste, who also controlled the
pearl trade and whose chiefs were known as ''Mudaliyar'', ''Paddankatti'' and ''Adapannar''. The ''
Mukkuvar
Mukkuvar is a maritime ethnic group found in the Indian states of Kerala , Tamil Nadu and the Eastern and North Western coastal regions of Sri Lanka. They are mostly found on the Malabar Coast, South Travancore Coast and Kanyakumari district, Tam ...
'' and ''
Thimilar
Thimilar (Tamil: திமிலர்) is a Sri Lankan Tamil caste found in the northern and eastern coastal areas of Sri Lanka, and globally among the Tamil diaspora. They are traditional artisanal fishers primarily engaged in shallow-water fish ...
'' were also engaged in the pearl fishery. The ''Udayars'' or village headmen and landlords of agriculture societies were mostly drawn from the
''Vellalar'' caste.
The service providing communities were known as ''Kudimakkal'' and consisted of various groups such as the
''Ambattar'', ''
Vannar
Vannar is a Tamil caste found primarily in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and northeastern parts of Sri Lanka. The community has traditionally been involved in laundry. also agricultural workers
They are in Tamil Nadu classified as Most Backwar ...
'', ''
Kadaiyar
Devendrakula Velalar is an agricultural community native to the Pandya Nadu, southern, Chola Nadu, central and Kongu Nadu, western districts of Tamil Nadu, India. The seven subcastes of Devendrakula Velalar are Devendra Kulathar, Kudum ...
'', ''
Pallar
The Pallar, who prefer to be called Mallar, are an agricultural community from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The Pallars traditionally inhabited the fertile wetland area referred to as ''Marutham'' in the literary devices of the Sangam landsc ...
'', ''
Nalavar
Nalavar () is a Tamil caste found in Sri Lanka. They were traditionally occupied in palm tree climbing and toddy tapping.
Etymology
According to a folk etymology is the name Nalavar a corrupted form of ''Naluvinavar'' (those who decamped), wh ...
'',
''Paraiyar'', ''
Koviyar (, also known as Covia) is a Tamil caste found in Sri Lanka. They are traditional agriculturalists and temple workers. ''Kattavarayan'' as caste deity is observed by the Koviar.
Etymology
The Yalpana Vaipava Malai states that the term ''Koviyar ...
'' and
''Brahmin''. The Kudimakkal had ritual importance in the temples and at funerals and weddings. The ''
Chetty
Chettiar (also spelt as Chetti and Chetty)is a title used by many traders, weaving, agricultural and land-owning castes in South India, especially in the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.
They are a subgroup of the Tamil communit ...
s'' were well known as traders and owners of Hindu temples and the
Pallar
The Pallar, who prefer to be called Mallar, are an agricultural community from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The Pallars traditionally inhabited the fertile wetland area referred to as ''Marutham'' in the literary devices of the Sangam landsc ...
and
Nalavar
Nalavar () is a Tamil caste found in Sri Lanka. They were traditionally occupied in palm tree climbing and toddy tapping.
Etymology
According to a folk etymology is the name Nalavar a corrupted form of ''Naluvinavar'' (those who decamped), wh ...
castes composed of the agriculturist labours who tilled the land.
The weavers were the Paraiyars and
Sengunthar
Sengunthar (), also known as the Kaikolar and Senguntha Mudaliyar is a Tamil caste commonly found in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and also in some other parts of South India and the neighboring country Sri Lanka. They were traditional weavers ...
who gave importance to the textile trade.
The
artisan
An artisan (from french: artisan, it, artigiano) is a skilled craft worker who makes or creates material objects partly or entirely by hand. These objects may be functional or strictly decorative, for example furniture, decorative art ...
s also known as
''Kammalar'' were formed by the ''Kollar'', ''Thattar'', ''Tatchar'', ''Kaltatchar'' and the ''Kannar''.
;Foreign mercenaries & traders
Mercenaries of various ethnic and caste backgrounds from India, such as the
Telugus
Telugu people ( te, తెలుగువారు, Teluguvāru), or Telugus, or Telugu vaaru, are the largest of the four major Dravidian ethnolinguistic groups in terms of population. Telugus are native to the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh ...
(known locally as ''Vadugas'') and
Malayalees
The Malayali people () (also spelt Malayalee and also known by the demonym Keralite) are a Dravidian ethnolinguistic group originating from the present-day state of Kerala in India, occupying its southwestern Malabar coast. They are predomina ...
from the Kerala region were also employed by the king as soldiers.
[Gunasingam, M. ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p. 62] Muslim
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
traders and sea pirates of
Mapilla and
Moor
Moor or Moors may refer to:
Nature and ecology
* Moorland, a habitat characterized by low-growing vegetation and acidic soils.
Ethnic and religious groups
* Moors, Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, Iberian Peninsula, Sicily, and Malta during ...
ethnicities as well as Sinhalese were in the Kingdom.
The kingdom also functioned as a refuge for rebels from the south seeking shelter after failed political coups. According to the earliest historiographical literature of the Kingdom of Jaffna, ''Vaiyaapaadal'', datable to 14th–15th century, in verse 77 lists the community of ''Papparavar'' (
Berbers
, image = File:Berber_flag.svg
, caption = The Berber ethnic flag
, population = 36 million
, region1 = Morocco
, pop1 = 14 million to 18 million
, region2 = Algeria
, pop2 ...
specifically and
Africans in general) along with ''Kuchchiliyar'' (
Gujaratis
The Gujarati people or Gujaratis, are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group who reside in or can trace their ancestry or heritage to the present-day western Indian state of Gujarat. They primarily speak Gujarati, an Indo-Aryan language. While G ...
) and ''Choanar'' (
Arabs
The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Wester ...
) and places them under the caste category of ''Pa’l’luvili'' who are believed to be
cavalrymen
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who Horses in warfare, fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating a ...
of
Muslim
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
faith . The caste of ''Pa’l’luvili'' or ''Pa’l’livili'' is peculiar to Jaffna. A Dutch census taken in 1790 in Jaffna records 196 male adults belonging to Pa’l’livili caste as taxpayers. That means the identity and profession existed until Dutch times. But, Choanakar, with 492 male adults and probably by this time generally meaning the Muslims, is found mentioned as a separate community in this census.
;Laws
During the rule of the Aryacakravarti rulers, the laws governing the society was based on a compromise between a
matriarchal
Matriarchy is a social system in which women hold the primary power positions in roles of authority. In a broader sense it can also extend to moral authority, social privilege and control of property.
While those definitions apply in general E ...
system of society that seemed to have had deeper roots overlaid with a
patriarchal
Patriarchy is a social system in which positions of Dominance hierarchy, dominance and Social privilege, privilege are primarily held by men. It is used, both as a technical Anthropology, anthropological term for families or clans controll ...
system of governance. These laws seemed to have existed side by side as customary laws to be interpreted by the local ''Mudaliars''. In some aspects such as in inheritance the similarity to ''
Marumakattayam'' law of present-day
Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
and ''
Aliyasanatana'' of modern
Tulunadu
Tulunad or Tulu Nadu, also called Bermere sristi or Parashurama Srishti, is a region and a proposed state on the southwestern coast of India. The Tulu people, known as 'Tuluva' (plural 'Tuluver'), speakers of Tulu, a Dravidian language, are ...
was noted by later scholars. Further
Islamic jurisprudence
''Fiqh'' (; ar, فقه ) is Islamic jurisprudence. Muhammad-> Companions-> Followers-> Fiqh.
The commands and prohibitions chosen by God were revealed through the agency of the Prophet in both the Quran and the Sunnah (words, deeds, and e ...
and
Hindu law
Hindu law, as a historical term, refers to the code of laws applied to Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs in British India. Hindu law, in modern scholarship, also refers to the legal theory, jurisprudence and philosophical reflections on the nat ...
s of neighboring India also seemed to have affected the customary laws. These customary laws were later codified and put to print during the
Dutch colonial rule as ''
Thesavalamai
Thesavalamai is the traditional law of the Sri Lankan Tamil inhabitants Jaffna peninsula, codified by the Dutch during their colonial rule in 1707. The Thesawalamai is a collection of the Customs of the Malabar Inhabitants of the Province of Jaffn ...
'' in 1707.
[Tambiah, ''Laws and customs of Tamils of Jaffna'', pp. 18–20.] The rule under earlier customs seemed to have been females succeeded females. But when the structure of the society came to be based on patriarchal system, a corresponding rule was recognized, that males succeeded males. Thus, we see the devolution of ''muthusam'' (paternal inheritance) was on the sons, and the devolution of the ''chidenam'' (
dowry
A dowry is a payment, such as property or money, paid by the bride's family to the groom or his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price and dower. While bride price or bride service is a payment b ...
or maternal inheritance) was on the females. Just as one dowried sister succeeded another, we had the corresponding rule that if one's brother died instate, his properties devolved upon his brothers to the exclusion of his sisters. The reason being that in a patriarchal family each brother formed a family unit, but all the brothers being
agnates
Patrilineality, also known as the male line, the spear side or agnatic kinship, is a common kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is recorded through their father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritan ...
, when one of them died his property devolved upon his agnates.
Literature
The kings of the dynasty provided patronage to literature and education. Temple schools and traditional ''
gurukul
Education in India is primarily managed by state-run public education system, which fall under the command of the government at three levels: central, state and local. Under various articles of the Indian Constitution and the Right of Childre ...
am'' classes in
verandah
A veranda or verandah is a roofed, open-air gallery or porch, attached to the outside of a building. A veranda is often partly enclosed by a railing and frequently extends across the front and sides of the structure.
Although the form ''veran ...
s (known as ''Thinnai Pallikoodam'' in
Tamil language
Tamil (; ' , ) is a Dravidian language natively spoken by the Tamil people of South Asia. Tamil is an official language of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, the sovereign nations of Sri Lanka and Singapore, and the Indian territory of Pudu ...
) spread basic education in languages such as Tamil language and
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
and religion to the upper classes.
During the reign of
Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan rule, a work on medical science (''Segarajasekaram''), on
astrology
Astrology is a range of Divination, divinatory practices, recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century, that claim to discern information about human affairs and terrestrial events by studying the apparent positions of Celestial o ...
(''Segarajasekaramalai'')
[Coddrington, H. ''Ceylon Coins and Currency'', p. 74] and on mathematics (''Kanakathikaram'') were authored by Karivaiya.
During the rule of
Gunaveera Cinkaiariyan
Gunaveera Cinkaiariyan ( ta, குணவீர சிங்கையாரியன்) was an Aryacakravarti
The Arya Chakravarti dynasty ( ta, ஆரியச் சக்கரவர்த்திகள் வம்சம், Sinhalese la ...
, a work on medical sciences, known as ''Pararajasekaram'', was completed.
During
Singai Pararasasegaram
Singai Pararasasegaram ( ta, சிங்கைப் பரராசசேகரன்) (died 1519), was one of the most well known kings of the later Aryacakravarti kings of the Jaffna kingdom. He was the father of Cankili I.
Biography
Singai P ...
's rule, an academy for Tamil language propagation on the model of ancient
Tamil Sangam
The Tamil Sangams (Tamil: சங்கம் ''caṅkam'', Old Tamil 𑀘𑀗𑁆𑀓𑀫𑁆, from Sanskrit ''saṅgha'') were assemblies of Tamil scholars and poets that, according to traditional Tamil accounts, occurred in the remote past. ...
s was established in Nallur. This academy performed a useful service in collecting and preserving ancient Tamil works in
manuscripts
A manuscript (abbreviated MS for singular and MSS for plural) was, traditionally, any document written by hand – or, once practical typewriters became available, typewritten – as opposed to mechanically printed or reproduced in ...
form in a library called ''Saraswathy Mahal''.
Singai Pararasasekaran's cousin ''Arasakesari'' was credited with translating the Sanskrit classic
Raghuvamsa into Tamil.
Pararasasekaran's brother ''Segarajasekaran'' and Arasakesari collected manuscripts from
Madurai
Madurai ( , also , ) is a major city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the cultural capital of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Madurai District. As of the 2011 census, it was the third largest Urban agglomeration in ...
and other regions for the Saraswathy Mahal library.
Among other literary works of historic importance compiled before the arrival of European colonizers, ''Vaiyapatal'', written by Vaiyapuri Aiyar, is well known.
[Gunasingam, M. ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', pp. 64–65][Nadarajan, V. ''History of Ceylon Tamils'', pp. 80–84]
Architecture
There were periodic waves of
South Indian
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...
influence over Sri Lankan art and architecture, though the prolific age of monumental art and architecture seemed to have declined by the 13th century.
Temples built by the
Tamils
The Tamil people, also known as Tamilar ( ta, தமிழர், Tamiḻar, translit-std=ISO, in the singular or ta, தமிழர்கள், Tamiḻarkaḷ, translit-std=ISO, label=none, in the plural), or simply Tamils (), are a Drav ...
of Indian origin from the 10th century belonged to the
Madurai variant of
Vijayanagar
The Vijayanagara Empire, also called the Karnata Kingdom, was a Hinduism, Hindu empire based in the region of South India, which consisted the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa and some parts of Telangana an ...
period.
A prominent feature of the Madurai style was the ornate and heavily sculptured tower or ''
gopuram
A ''gopuram'' or ''gopura'' ( Tamil: கோபுரம், Malayalam: ഗോപുരം, Kannada: ಗೋಪುರ, Telugu: గోపురం) is a monumental entrance tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of a Hindu temple, in the South I ...
'' over the entrance of temple.
None of the important religious constructions of this style within the territory that formed the Jaffna kingdom survived the destructive hostility of the Portuguese.
[Gunasingam, M. ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p. 64]
Nallur, the capital was built with four entrances with gates.
There were two main roadways and four temples at the four gateways.
The rebuilt temples that exist now do not match their original locations which instead are occupied by churches erected by the Portuguese.
The center of the city was ''Muthirai Santhai'' (market place) and was surrounded by a square fortification around it.
There were courtly buildings for the Kings, Brahmin priests, soldiers and other service providers.
The old Nallur Kandaswamy temple functioned as a defensive fort with high walls.
In general, the city was laid out like the traditional temple town according to Hindu traditions.
See also
*
Jaffna Palace ruins
Ruins of Jaffna kingdom refer to the remains of the Remaining building structures of Jaffna kingdom, the royal abode and structure of the ruling dynasty of the Kingdom of Jaffna, Nallur, Jaffna in Northern Sri Lanka.
History and Inception
The ...
*
Sangiliyan Statue
The Sangiliyan statue was dedicated to Cankili II, a Tamil martyr and the last king of Jaffna Kingdom. The statue is seen as a landmark of the city of Jaffna. The Sangiliyan statue was built 1974 at Muthirai junction Nallur and declared open by t ...
*
List of Jaffna monarchs
*
Sri Lankan Tamil people
Sri Lankan Tamils ( or ), also known as Ceylon Tamils or Eelam Tamils, are Tamils native to the South Asian island state of Sri Lanka. Today, they constitute a majority in the Northern Province, live in significant numbers in the Eastern Pro ...
Notes
References
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{{Coord missing, Sri Lanka
1624 disestablishments in Asia
17th-century disestablishments in Sri Lanka
States and territories established in 1215
Medieval Hindu kingdoms
Indianized kingdoms
Former countries in South Asia
Former monarchies of South Asia
Former Portuguese colonies
Kingdoms of Sri Lanka
1215 establishments in Asia
13th-century establishments in Sri Lanka
Transitional period of Sri Lanka
Historical Hindu kingdoms