![Kinesin walking](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Kinesin_walking.gif)
A kinesin is a protein belonging to a class of
motor protein
Motor proteins are a class of molecular motors that can move along the cytoplasm of cells. They convert chemical energy into mechanical work by the hydrolysis of ATP. Flagellar rotation, however, is powered by a proton pump.
Cellular functions ...
s found in
eukaryotic
Eukaryotes () are organisms whose cells have a nucleus. All animals, plants, fungi, and many unicellular organisms, are Eukaryotes. They belong to the group of organisms Eukaryota or Eukarya, which is one of the three domains of life. Bacte ...
cells.
Kinesins move along
microtubule
Microtubules are polymers of tubulin that form part of the cytoskeleton and provide structure and shape to eukaryotic cells. Microtubules can be as long as 50 micrometres, as wide as 23 to 27 nm and have an inner diameter between 11 an ...
(MT) filaments and are powered by the hydrolysis of
adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an organic compound that provides energy to drive many processes in living cells, such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, condensate dissolution, and chemical synthesis. Found in all known forms of ...
(ATP) (thus kinesins are
ATPase
ATPases (, Adenosine 5'-TriPhosphatase, adenylpyrophosphatase, ATP monophosphatase, triphosphatase, SV40 T-antigen, ATP hydrolase, complex V (mitochondrial electron transport), (Ca2+ + Mg2+)-ATPase, HCO3−-ATPase, adenosine triphosphatase) are ...
s, a type of enzyme). The active movement of kinesins supports several cellular functions including
mitosis
In cell biology, mitosis () is a part of the cell cycle in which replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division by mitosis gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is mainta ...
,
meiosis
Meiosis (; , since it is a reductional division) is a special type of cell division of germ cells in sexually-reproducing organisms that produces the gametes, such as sperm or egg cells. It involves two rounds of division that ultimately resu ...
and transport of cellular cargo, such as in
axonal transport
Axonal transport, also called axoplasmic transport or axoplasmic flow, is a cellular process responsible for movement of mitochondria, lipids, synaptic vesicles, proteins, and other organelles to and from a neuron's cell body, through the cytopla ...
, and
intraflagellar transport
Intraflagellar transport (IFT) is a bidirectional motility along axoneme microtubules that is essential for the formation (ciliogenesis) and maintenance of most eukaryotic cilia and flagella. It is thought to be required to build all cilia that ass ...
. Most kinesins walk towards the plus end of a microtubule, which, in most cells, entails transporting cargo such as protein and membrane components from the center of the cell towards the periphery. This form of transport is known as
anterograde transport. In contrast,
dyneins are motor proteins that move toward the minus end of a microtubule in
retrograde transport
Axonal transport, also called axoplasmic transport or axoplasmic flow, is a cellular process responsible for movement of mitochondria, lipids, synaptic vesicles, proteins, and other organelles to and from a neuron's cell body, through the cytoplas ...
.
Discovery
Kinesins were discovered in 1985, based on their motility in cytoplasm extruded from the giant axon of the squid.
They turned out as MT-based anterograde intracellular transport motors.
The founding member of this superfamily, kinesin-1, was isolated as a
heterotetrameric
A tetrameric protein is a protein with a quaternary structure of four subunits (tetrameric). Homotetramers have four identical subunits (such as glutathione S-transferase), and heterotetramers are complexes of different subunits. A tetramer ...
fast axonal organelle transport motor consisting of 2 identical motor subunits (KHC) and 2 "light chains" (KLC) via microtubule affinity purification from neuronal cell extracts.
Subsequently, a different, heterotrimeric plus-end-directed MT-based motor named kinesin-2, consisting of 2 distinct KHC-related motor subunits and an accessory "KAP" subunit, was purified from echinoderm egg/embryo extracts
and is best known for its role in transporting protein complexes (
intraflagellar transport
Intraflagellar transport (IFT) is a bidirectional motility along axoneme microtubules that is essential for the formation (ciliogenesis) and maintenance of most eukaryotic cilia and flagella. It is thought to be required to build all cilia that ass ...
particles) along
axoneme
An axoneme, also called an axial filament is the microtubule-based cytoskeletal structure that forms the core of a cilium or flagellum. Cilia and flagella are found on many cells, organisms, and microorganisms, to provide motility. The axonem ...
s during
ciliogenesis
Ciliogenesis is defined as the building of the cell's antenna (primary cilia) or extracellular fluid mediation mechanism (motile cilium). It includes the assembly and disassembly of the cilia during the cell cycle. Cilia are important organelles ...
.
Molecular genetic and genomic approaches have led to the recognition that the kinesins form a diverse superfamily of motors that are responsible for multiple intracellular motility events in eukaryotic cells.
For example, the genomes of mammals encode more than 40 kinesin proteins,
organized into at least 14 families named kinesin-1 through kinesin-14.
Structure
Overall structure
Members of the kinesin superfamily vary in shape but the prototypical kinesin-1 motor consists of two Kinesin Heavy Chain (KHC) molecules which form a
protein dimer
In biochemistry, a protein dimer is a macromolecular complex formed by two protein monomers, or single proteins, which are usually non-covalently bound. Many macromolecules, such as proteins or nucleic acids, form dimers. The word ''dimer'' ha ...
(molecule pair) that binds two light chains (KLCs), which are unique for different cargos.
The heavy chain of kinesin-1 comprises a globular head (the motor domain) at the amino terminal end connected via a short, flexible neck linker to the stalk – a long, central alpha-helical
coiled coil
A coiled coil is a structural motif in proteins in which 2–7
alpha-helices are coiled together like the strands of a rope. (Dimers and trimers are the most common types.) Many coiled coil-type proteins are involved in important biological fun ...
domain – that ends in a carboxy terminal tail domain which associates with the light-chains. The stalks of two KHCs intertwine to form a
coiled coil
A coiled coil is a structural motif in proteins in which 2–7
alpha-helices are coiled together like the strands of a rope. (Dimers and trimers are the most common types.) Many coiled coil-type proteins are involved in important biological fun ...
that directs dimerization of the two KHCs. In most cases transported cargo binds to the kinesin light chains, at the
TPR motif sequence of the KLC, but in some cases cargo binds to the C-terminal domains of the heavy chains.
Kinesin motor domain
The head is the signature of kinesin and its amino acid sequence is well conserved among various kinesins. Each head has two separate
binding site
In biochemistry and molecular biology, a binding site is a region on a macromolecule such as a protein that binds to another molecule with specificity. The binding partner of the macromolecule is often referred to as a ligand. Ligands may inclu ...
s: one for the microtubule and the other for ATP. ATP binding and hydrolysis as well as
ADP release change the conformation of the microtubule-binding domains and the orientation of the neck linker with respect to the head; this results in the motion of the kinesin. Several structural elements in the Head, including a central
beta-sheet
The beta sheet, (β-sheet) (also β-pleated sheet) is a common motif of the regular protein secondary structure. Beta sheets consist of beta strands (β-strands) connected laterally by at least two or three backbone hydrogen bonds, forming a g ...
domain and the Switch I and II domains, have been implicated as mediating the interactions between the two binding sites and the neck domain. Kinesins are structurally related to
G proteins
G proteins, also known as guanine nucleotide-binding proteins, are a family of proteins that act as molecular switches inside cells, and are involved in transmitting signals from a variety of stimuli outside a cell to its interior. Their act ...
, which hydrolyze
GTP instead of ATP. Several structural elements are shared between the two families, notably the Switch I and Switch II domain.
Basic kinesin regulation
Kinesins tend to have low basal enzymatic activity which becomes significant when microtubule-activated.
In addition, many members of the kinesin superfamily can be self-inhibited by the binding of tail domain to the motor domain.
Such self-inhibition can then be relieved via additional regulation such as binding to cargo or cargo adapters.
Cargo transport
In the cell, small molecules, such as gases and
glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar with the molecular formula . Glucose is overall the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. Glucose is mainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using ...
,
diffuse
Diffusion is the net movement of anything (for example, atoms, ions, molecules, energy) generally from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusion is driven by a gradient in Gibbs free energy or chemical p ...
to where they are needed. Large molecules synthesised in the cell body, intracellular components such as
vesicle
Vesicle may refer to:
; In cellular biology or chemistry
* Vesicle (biology and chemistry), a supramolecular assembly of lipid molecules, like a cell membrane
* Synaptic vesicle
; In human embryology
* Vesicle (embryology), bulge-like features o ...
s and organelles such as
mitochondria
A mitochondrion (; ) is an organelle found in the Cell (biology), cells of most Eukaryotes, such as animals, plants and Fungus, fungi. Mitochondria have a double lipid bilayer, membrane structure and use aerobic respiration to generate adenosi ...
are too large (and the
cytosol
The cytosol, also known as cytoplasmic matrix or groundplasm, is one of the liquids found inside cells (intracellular fluid (ICF)). It is separated into compartments by membranes. For example, the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondri ...
too crowded) to be able to diffuse to their destinations. Motor proteins fulfill the role of transporting large cargo about the cell to their required destinations. Kinesins are motor proteins that transport such cargo by walking unidirectionally along
microtubule
Microtubules are polymers of tubulin that form part of the cytoskeleton and provide structure and shape to eukaryotic cells. Microtubules can be as long as 50 micrometres, as wide as 23 to 27 nm and have an inner diameter between 11 an ...
tracks hydrolysing one molecule of
adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an organic compound that provides energy to drive many processes in living cells, such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, condensate dissolution, and chemical synthesis. Found in all known forms of ...
(ATP) at each step.
It was thought that ATP
hydrolysis
Hydrolysis (; ) is any chemical reaction in which a molecule of water breaks one or more chemical bonds. The term is used broadly for substitution reaction, substitution, elimination reaction, elimination, and solvation reactions in which water ...
powered each step, the energy released propelling the head forwards to the next binding site.
However, it has been proposed that the head diffuses forward and the force of binding to the microtubule is what pulls the cargo along.
In addition viruses, HIV for example, exploit kinesins to allow virus particle shuttling after assembly.
There is significant evidence that cargoes in-vivo are transported by multiple motors.
Direction of motion
Motor proteins travel in a specific direction along a microtubule. Microtubules are polar; meaning, the heads only bind to the microtubule in one orientation, while ATP binding gives each step its direction through a process known as neck linker zippering.
It has been previously known that kinesin move cargo towards the plus (+) end of a microtubule, also known as anterograde transport/orthograde transport.
However, it has been recently discovered that in budding yeast cells kinesin Cin8 (a member of the Kinesin-5 family) can move toward the minus end as well, or retrograde transport. This means, these unique yeast kinesin homotetramers have the novel ability to move bi-directionally. Kinesin, so far, has only been shown to move toward the minus end when in a group, with motors sliding in the antiparallel direction in an attempt to separate microtubules.
This dual directionality has been observed in identical conditions where free Cin8 molecules move towards the minus end, but cross-linking Cin8 move toward the plus ends of each cross-linked microtubule. One specific study tested the speed at which Cin8 motors moved, their results yielded a range of about 25-55 nm/s, in the direction of the spindle poles.
On an individual basis it has been found that by varying ionic conditions Cin8 motors can become as fast as 380 nm/s.
It is suggested that the bidirectionality of yeast kinesin-5 motors such as Cin8 and Cut7 is a result of coupling with other Cin8 motors and helps to fulfill the role of dynein in budding yeast, as opposed to the human homologue of these motors, the plus directed Eg5. This discovery in kinesin-14 family proteins (such as ''
Drosophila melanogaster
''Drosophila melanogaster'' is a species of fly (the taxonomic order Diptera) in the family Drosophilidae. The species is often referred to as the fruit fly or lesser fruit fly, or less commonly the "vinegar fly" or "pomace fly". Starting with Ch ...
'' NCD, budding yeast KAR3, and ''
Arabidopsis thaliana
''Arabidopsis thaliana'', the thale cress, mouse-ear cress or arabidopsis, is a small flowering plant native to Eurasia and Africa. ''A. thaliana'' is considered a weed; it is found along the shoulders of roads and in disturbed land.
A winter a ...
'' ATK5) allows kinesin to walk in the opposite direction, toward microtubule minus end. This is not typical of kinesin, rather, an exception to the normal direction of movement.
Another type of motor protein, known as
dyneins, move towards the minus end of the microtubule. Thus, they transport cargo from the periphery of the cell towards the center. An example of this would be transport occurring from the terminal boutons of a neuronal axon to the cell body (soma). This is known as ''retrograde transport''.
Proposed mechanisms of movement
Kinesin accomplishes transport by "walking" along a microtubule. Two mechanisms have been proposed to account for this movement.
* In the "hand-over-hand" mechanism, the kinesin heads step past one another, alternating the lead position.
* In the "inchworm" mechanism, one kinesin head always leads, moving forward a step before the trailing head catches up.
Despite some remaining controversy, mounting experimental evidence points towards the hand-over-hand mechanism as being more likely.
ATP binding and hydrolysis cause kinesin to travel via a "seesaw mechanism" about a pivot point.
This seesaw mechanism accounts for observations that the binding of the ATP to the no-nucleotide, microtubule-bound state results in a tilting of the kinesin motor domain relative to the microtubule. Critically, prior to this tilting the neck linker is unable to adopt its motor-head docked, forward-facing conformation. The ATP-induced tilting provides the opportunity for the neck linker to dock in this forward-facing conformation. This model is based on CRYO-EM models of the microtubule-bound kinesin structure which represent the beginning and end states of the process, but cannot resolve the precise details of the transition between the structures.
Theoretical modeling
A number of theoretical models of the molecular motor protein kinesin have been proposed.
Many challenges are encountered in theoretical investigations given the remaining uncertainties about the roles of protein structures, the precise way energy from ATP is transformed into mechanical work, and the roles played by thermal fluctuations. This is a rather active area of research. There is a need especially for approaches which better make a link with the molecular architecture of the protein and data obtained from experimental investigations.
The single-molecule dynamics are already well described
but it seems that these nano scale machines typically work in large teams.
Single-molecule dynamics are based on the distinct chemical states of the motor and observations about its mechanical steps.
For small concentrations of adenosine diphosphate, the motor’s behaviour is governed by the competition of two chemomechanical motor cycles which determine the motor’s stall force. A third cycle becomes important for large ADP concentrations.
Models with a single cycle have been discussed too. Seiferth et al. demonstrated how quantities such as the velocity or the
entropy production
Entropy production (or generation) is the amount of entropy which is produced in any irreversible processes such as heat and mass transfer processes including motion of bodies, heat exchange, fluid flow, substances expanding or mixing, anelastic d ...
of a motor change when adjacent states are merged in a multi-cyclic model until eventually the number of cycles is reduced.
Recent experimental research has shown that kinesins, while moving along microtubules, interact with each other,
the interactions being short range and weak attractive (1.6±0.5 K
BT). One model that has been developed takes into account these particle interactions,
where the dynamic rates change accordingly with the energy of interaction. If the energy is positive the rate of creating bonds (q) will be higher while the rate of breaking bonds (r) will be lower. One can understand that the rates of entrance and exit in the microtubule will be changed as well by the energy (See figure 1 in reference 30). If the second site is occupied the rate of entrance will be α*q and if the last but one site is occupied the rate of exit will be β*r. This theoretical approach agrees with the results of Monte Carlo simulations for this model, especially for the limiting case of very large negative energy. The normal totally asymmetric simple exclusion process for (or TASEP) results can be recovered from this model making the energy equal to zero.
:
Mitosis
In recent years, it has been found that microtubule-based molecular motors (including a number of kinesins) have a role in
mitosis
In cell biology, mitosis () is a part of the cell cycle in which replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division by mitosis gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is mainta ...
(cell division). Kinesins are important for proper spindle length and are involved in sliding microtubules apart within the spindle during prometaphase and metaphase, as well as depolymerizing microtubule minus ends at centrosomes during anaphase.
Specifically, Kinesin-5 family proteins act within the spindle to slide microtubules apart, while the
Kinesin 13
The Kinesin-13 Family are a subfamily of motor proteins known as kinesins. Most kinesins transport materials or cargo around the cell while traversing along microtubule polymer tracks with the help of ATP-hydrolysis-created energy.
Structure
Th ...
family act to depolymerize microtubules.
Kinesin superfamily
Human kinesin superfamily members include the following proteins, which in the standardized nomenclature developed by the community of kinesin researchers, are organized into 14 families named kinesin-1 through kinesin-14:
* 1A –
KIF1A, 1B –
KIF1B
Kinesin-like protein KIF1B is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KIF1B'' gene.
Clinical significance
It is associated with Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease, type 2A1.
Interactions
KIF1B has been shown to interact with GIPC1
GIPC PDZ ...
, 1C –
KIF1C
Kinesin-like protein KIF1C is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KIF1C'' gene.
Kif1C is a fast, plus-end directed microtubule motor. Kif1C transports α5β1-integrins in human cells. Kif1C has been shown to be non-essential in mouse wit ...
= kinesin-3
* 2A –
KIF2A, 2C –
KIF2C
Kinesin-like protein KIF2C is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KIF2C'' gene.
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of kinesin-like protein family. Most proteins of this family are microtubule-dependent molecular motors that tra ...
= kinesin-13
* 3B –
KIF3B
Kinesin-like protein KIF3B is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KIF3B'' gene. KIF3B is an N-type protein that complexes with two other kinesin proteins to form two-headed anterograde motors. First, KIF3B forms a heterodimer with KIF3A ...
or 3C –
KIF3C ,3A -
KIF3A
Kinesin-like protein KIF3A is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KIF3A'' gene.
Function
KIF3A is one subunit of the heterotrimeric motor protein, kinesin-2, that was initially isolated from sea urchin egg/embryo cytosol using microtu ...
= kinesin-2
* 4A –
KIF4A
Kinesin family member 4A is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KIF4A'' gene.
Function
Kinesins, such as KIF4A, are microtubule-based motor proteins that generate directional movement along microtubules. They are involved in many cru ...
, 4B –
KIF4B = kinesin-4
* 5A –
KIF5A
Kinesin family member 5A is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KIF5A'' gene.
This gene encodes a member of the kinesin family of proteins. Members of this family are part of a multi-subunit complex that functions as a microtubule motor ...
, 5B –
KIF5B
Kinesin family member 5B (KIF5B) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KIF5B'' gene.
Interactions
KIF5B has been shown to interact with:
* KLC1,
* KLC2,
* SNAP-25,
* SNAP23, and
* YWHAH
14-3-3 protein eta also referred to as 14 ...
, 5C –
KIF5C
Kinesin heavy chain isoform 5C is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KIF5C'' gene
In biology, the word gene (from , ; "...Wilhelm Johannsen coined the word gene to describe the Mendelian units of heredity..." meaning ''generation ...
= kinesin-1
* 6 –
KIF6
Kinesin family member 6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the KIF6 gene. This gene encodes a member of the kinesin family of proteins. Members of this family are part of a multisubunit complex that functions as a microtubule
Microtubu ...
= kinesin-9
* 7 –
KIF7
Kinesin family member 7 (KIF7), also known as kinesin-4, is a human protein encoded by the gene KIF7. It is part of the kinesin family of motor proteins.
Function
KIF7 depolymerises the growing plus-end of microtubules, and is involved in regula ...
= kinesin-4
* 9 –
KIF9
Kinesin family member 9 (KIF9), also known as kinesin-9, is a human protein encoded by the KIF9 gene. It is part of the kinesin family of Motor protein, motor proteins.
Function
The beating of the flagella in sperm is regulated by KIF9 activity. ...
= kinesin-9
* 11 –
KIF11 = kinesin-5
* 12 –
KIF12 = kinesin-12
* 13A –
KIF13A
Kinesin-like protein KIF13A is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KIF13A'' gene.
Interactions
KIF13A has been shown to interact with AP1B1
AP-1 complex subunit beta-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''AP1B1'' gene.
A ...
, 13B –
KIF13B = kinesin-3
* 14 –
KIF14 = kinesin-3
* 15 –
KIF15 = kinesin-12
* 16B –
KIF16B
Kinesin family member 16B, also known as KIF16B, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the ''KIF16B'' gene.
See also
* Kinesin
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
PDBe-KB
provides an overview of all ...
= kinesin-3
* 17 –
KIF17 = kinesin-2
* 18A –
KIF18A
Kinesin family member KIF18A is a human protein encoded by the ''KIF18A'' gene. It is part of the kinesin
A kinesin is a protein belonging to a class of motor proteins found in eukaryotic cells.
Kinesins move along microtubule (MT) filaments ...
, 18B –
KIF18B = kinesin-8
* 19 –
KIF19 = kinesin-8
* 20A –
KIF20A, 20B –
KIF20B = kinesin-6
* 21A –
KIF21A, 21B –
KIF21B = kinesin-4
* 22 –
KIF22
Kinesin-like protein KIF22 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KIF22'' gene.
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of kinesin-like protein family. This family of proteins are microtubule-dependent molecular motors that transpor ...
= kinesin-10
* 23 –
KIF23
Kinesin-like protein KIF23 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KIF23'' gene.
Function
In cell division
KIF23 (also known as Kinesin-6, CHO1/MKLP1, C. elegans ZEN-4 and Drosophila Pavarotti) is a member of kinesin-like protein f ...
= kinesin-6
* 24 –
KIF24 = kinesin-13
* 25 –
KIF25 = kinesin-14
* 26A –
KIF26A
Kinesin family member 26A (KIF26A), also known as kinesin-11, is a human protein encoded by the KIF26A gene. It is part of the kinesin
A kinesin is a protein belonging to a class of motor proteins found in eukaryotic cells.
Kinesins move along ...
, 26B –
KIF26B = kinesin-11
* 27 –
KIF27 = kinesin-4
* C1 –
KIFC1, C2 –
KIFC2, C3 –
KIFC3 = kinesin-14
kinesin-1 light chains:
* 1 –
KLC1
Kinesin light chain 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KLC1'' gene.
Conventional kinesin is a tetrameric molecule composed of two heavy chains and two light chains, and transports various cargos along microtubules toward their plus ...
, 2 –
KLC2
Kinesin light chain 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KLC2'' gene.
Interactions
KLC2 has been shown to interact with MAPK8IP3 and KIF5B.
Model organisms
Model organisms have been used in the study of KLC2 function. A cond ...
, 3 –
KLC3
Kinesin light chain 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KLC3'' gene.
Function
This gene encodes a member of the kinesin light chain gene family. Kinesins are molecular motors involved in the transport of cargo along microtubules, ...
, 4 –
KLC4
kinesin-2 associated protein:
*
KIFAP3
Kinesin-associated protein 3 (KAP3) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''KIFAP3'' gene. It is a non-motor, accessory subunit which co-oligomerizes with the motor subunits KIF3A and KIF3B or KIF3C, to form heterotrimeric kinesin-2 moto ...
(also known as KAP-1, KAP3)
See also
*
Axonal transport
Axonal transport, also called axoplasmic transport or axoplasmic flow, is a cellular process responsible for movement of mitochondria, lipids, synaptic vesicles, proteins, and other organelles to and from a neuron's cell body, through the cytopla ...
*
Dynein
*
Intraflagellar transport
Intraflagellar transport (IFT) is a bidirectional motility along axoneme microtubules that is essential for the formation (ciliogenesis) and maintenance of most eukaryotic cilia and flagella. It is thought to be required to build all cilia that ass ...
along
cilia
The cilium, plural cilia (), is a membrane-bound organelle found on most types of eukaryotic cell, and certain microorganisms known as ciliates. Cilia are absent in bacteria and archaea. The cilium has the shape of a slender threadlike projecti ...
*
Kinesin 8
The Kinesin 8 Family are a subfamily of the molecular motor proteins known as kinesins. Most kinesins transport materials or cargo around the cell while traversing along microtubule polymer tracks with the help of ATP-hydrolysis-created energy. T ...
*
Kinesin 13
The Kinesin-13 Family are a subfamily of motor proteins known as kinesins. Most kinesins transport materials or cargo around the cell while traversing along microtubule polymer tracks with the help of ATP-hydrolysis-created energy.
Structure
Th ...
*
KRP
*
Molecular motor
Molecular motors are natural (biological) or artificial molecular machines that are the essential agents of movement in living organisms. In general terms, a motor is a device that consumes energy in one form and converts it into motion or mech ...
*
Transport by multiple-motor proteins Transport by molecular motor proteins (Kinesin
A kinesin is a protein belonging to a class of motor proteins found in eukaryotic cells.
Kinesins move along microtubule (MT) filaments and are powered by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate ( ...
References
Further reading
*
External links
MBInfo - Kinesin transports cargo along microtubulesAnimated model of kinesin walkingRon Vale's Seminar: "Molecular Motor Proteins"Animation of kinesin movementASCB image library
*
*
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20150906060933/http://labs.cellbio.duke.edu/kinesin/ The Kinesin Homepage*
*
*
3D electron microscopy structures of kinesin from the EM Data Bank(EMDB)
{{ATPases
Motor proteins