''Kejawèn'' ( jv, ꦏꦗꦮꦺꦤ꧀, Kajawèn) or Javanism, also called Kebatinan, ''Agama Jawa'', and ''
Kepercayaan'', is a
Java
Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's List ...
nese religious tradition, consisting of an amalgam of
animistic
Animism (from Latin: ' meaning 'breath, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence. Potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, hum ...
,
Buddhist
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
, and
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
aspects. It is rooted in
Javanese history and religiosity,
syncretizing aspects of different religions.
Definitions
![Wayang Kulit of Semar](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Wayang_Kulit_of_Semar.jpg)
The term ''kebatinan'' is being used interchangeably with ''kejawèn'', ''Agama Jawa'' and ''
Kepercayaan'', although they are not exactly the same:
* Kebatinan: "the science of the inner", "inwardness", derived from the Arabic word ''batin'', meaning "inner" or "hidden".
* Kejawèn: "Javanism", the culture and religious beliefs and practices of the
Javanese people
The Javanese ( id, Orang Jawa; jv, ꦮꦺꦴꦁꦗꦮ, ''Wong Jawa'' ; , ''Tiyang Jawi'' ) are an ethnic group native to the central and eastern part of the Indonesian island of Java. With approximately 100 million people, Javanese people ...
of
Central Java
Central Java ( id, Jawa Tengah) is a province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogyakarta in t ...
and
East Java
East Java ( id, Jawa Timur) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the easternmost hemisphere of Java island. It has a land border only with the province of Central Java to the west; the Java Sea and the Indian Ocean bord ...
. It is "not a religious category, but refers to an ethic and a style of life that is inspired by Javanist thinking".
* Agama Jawa: "the Javanese religion"
*
Kepercayaan: "belief", "faith", full term: ''Kepercayaan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa'',
[Indonesia: East Java native religion called Aliran Kepercayaan or Kepercayaan Kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, aka ''Pangistu''; its status and treatment of its members by Muslim fundamentalists (2003-June 2004)](_blank)
/ref> "Believer in One Mighty God". "Kepercayaan" is an official cover term for various forms of mysticism in Indonesia. According to Caldarola, it "is not an apt characterization of what the mystical groups have in common". It includes ''kebatinan'', ''kejiwan'' and ''kerohanian''.
''Kebatinan'' is the inward cultivation of inner peace, rooted in pre-Islamic traditions, whereas ''kejawèn'' is outward and community-oriented, manifesting in rituals and practices.
History
Java has been a melting pot of religions and cultures, which has created a broad range of religious belief, including animism, spirit cults, and cosmology.
Hinduism and Buddhism
![COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajangfiguur van karbouwenhuid de mythische vogel Garuda voorstellend TMnr 1772-697](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Wajangfiguur_van_karbouwenhuid_de_mythische_vogel_Garuda_voorstellend_TMnr_1772-697.jpg)
Indian
Indian or Indians may refer to:
Peoples South Asia
* Indian people, people of Indian nationality, or people who have an Indian ancestor
** Non-resident Indian, a citizen of India who has temporarily emigrated to another country
* South Asia ...
influences came firstly in the form of Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
, which reached the Indonesian Archipelago
The islands of Indonesia, also known as the Indonesian Archipelago ( id, Kepulauan Indonesia) or Nusantara, may refer either to the islands comprising the country of Indonesia or to the geographical groups which include its islands.
History ...
as early as the first century. By the fourth century, the kingdom of Kutai
Kutai is a historical region in what is now known as East Kalimantan, Indonesia on the island of Borneo and is also the name of the native ethnic group of the region (known as ''Urang Kutai'' or "the Kutai people"), numbering around 300,000 who ...
in East Kalimantan
East Kalimantan (Indonesian: ) is a province of Indonesia. Its territory comprises the eastern portion of Borneo. It had a population of about 3.03 million at the 2010 census (within the current boundary), 3.42 million at the 2015 census, and 3. ...
, Tarumanagara
Tarumanagara or Taruma Kingdom or just Taruma is an early Sundanese Indianised kingdom, located in western Java, whose 5th-century ruler, Purnawarman, produced the earliest known inscriptions in Java, which are estimated to date from arou ...
in West Java
West Java ( id, Jawa Barat, su, ᮏᮝ ᮊᮥᮜᮧᮔ᮪, romanized ''Jawa Kulon'') is a province of Indonesia on the western part of the island of Java, with its provincial capital in Bandung. West Java is bordered by the province of Banten ...
, and Holing (Kalingga
Kalingga ( jv, Karajan Kalingga; 訶陵 ''Hēlíng'' or 闍婆 ''She-pó / She-bó'' in Chinese sources) was a 6th-century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central ...
) in Central Java
Central Java ( id, Jawa Tengah) is a province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogyakarta in t ...
, were among the early Hindu states established in the region. Several notable ancient Indonesian Hindu kingdoms are Mataram, famous for the construction of the majestic Prambanan
Prambanan ( id, Candi Prambanan, jv, ꦫꦫꦗꦺꦴꦁꦒꦿꦁ, Rara Jonggrang) is a 9th-century Hindu temple compound in Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, dedicated to the Trimūrti, the expression of God as the Creator (Brahma), the P ...
temple, followed by Kediri and Singhasari
Singhasari ( jv, ꦏꦫꦠꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦔ꧀ꦲꦱꦫꦶ, translit=Karaton Singhasari or , id, Kerajaan Singasari) was a Javanese Hindu kingdom located in east Java between 1222 and 1292. The kingdom succeeded the Kingdom of Kediri as ...
. Since then Hinduism, along with Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
, spread across the archipelago and reached the peak of its influence in the fourteenth century. The last and largest of the Hindu-Buddhist Javanese empires, that of the Majapahit
Majapahit ( jv, ꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀; ), also known as Wilwatikta ( jv, ꦮꦶꦭ꧀ꦮꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦠ; ), was a Javanese people, Javanese Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhism, Buddhist thalassocracy, thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia that was ba ...
, influenced the entire Indonesian archipelago.
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
and Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
penetrated deeply into all aspects of society, blending with the indigenous tradition and culture. One conduit
Conduit may refer to:
Engineering systems
* Conduit (fluid conveyance), a pipe suitable for carrying either open-channel or pressurized liquids
* Electrical conduit, a protective cover, tube or piping system for electric cables
* Conduit curre ...
for this were the ascetic
Asceticism (; from the el, ἄσκησις, áskesis, exercise', 'training) is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from sensual pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their p ...
s, called "resi," (Sanskrit rishi
''Rishi'' () is a term for an accomplished and enlightened person. They find mentions in various Vedic texts. Rishis are believed to have composed hymns of the Vedas. The Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the rishis as "great yogis" or ...
) who taught a variety of mystical practices. A resi lived surrounded by students, who took care of their master's daily needs. Resi's authorities were merely ceremonial. At the courts, Brahmin
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru ...
clerics and ''pudjangga'' (sacred literati) legitimized rulers and linked Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
cosmology to their political needs. Presently, small Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
enclaves are scattered throughout Java, but there is a large Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
population along the eastern coast nearest Bali
Bali () is a province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan, and Nu ...
, especially around the town of Banyuwangi
Banyuwangi, previously known as Banjoewangi, is the administrative capital of Banyuwangi Regency at the far eastern end of the island of Java, Indonesia. It had a population of 106,000 at the 2010 Census and 117,558 at the 2020 Census.
The town ...
.
Islam
Java adopted Islam around 1500 CE. Islam was first accepted by the elites and upper echelons of society, which contributed to the further spread and acceptance. Sufism and other versions of Folk Islam
In religious studies and folkloristics, folk religion, popular religion, traditional religion or vernacular religion comprises various forms and expressions of religion that are distinct from the official doctrines and practices of organized rel ...
were most easily integrated into the existing folk religion of Java. The learned versions of Sufi Islam and Shari`a-oriented Islam were integrated at the courts, blending with the rituals and myths of the existing Hindu-Buddhist culture. Clifford Geertz described this as abangan
The ''Abangan'' are Javanese people who are Muslims and practice a much more syncretic version of Islam than the more orthodox santri. The term, apparently derived from the Javanese language word for red, ''abang'', was first developed by Clif ...
and priyayi
''Priyayi'' (former spelling: ''Prijaji'') was the Dutch East Indies, Dutch-era class of the nobles of the robe, as opposed to royal nobility or ''ningrat'' (Javanese language, Javanese), in Java, Indonesia, the List of islands by population, wor ...
; "the lower class and elite varieties of Javanese syncretism".
The Kyai
A kyai ( ) is an expert in Islam, usually used among the ethnic Javanese people.
Origins
The word is of Javanese origin. Sometimes it is spelled kiai. Traditionally, students of Islam in Indonesia would study in a boarding school known as a ...
, the Muslim scholar of the writ became the new religious elite as Hindu influences receded. Islam recognises no hierarchy of religious leaders nor a formal priesthood, but the Dutch colonial government established an elaborate rank order for mosque and other Islamic preaching schools. In Javanese ''pesantren
''Pesantren'', or ''pondok pesantren'', are Islamic boarding schools in Indonesia. They consist of pondok, mosque, santri, teaching of classical Islamic texts and Kyai.Zamakhsyari Dhofie''The Pesantren Tradition: A Study of the Role of the Kyai ...
'' (Islamic schools), The ''Kyai'' perpetuated the tradition of the ''resi''. Students around him provided his needs, even peasant
A peasant is a pre-industrial agricultural laborer or a farmer with limited land-ownership, especially one living in the Middle Ages under feudalism and paying rent, tax, fees, or services to a landlord. In Europe, three classes of peasants ...
s around the school.
Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
was brought to Java by Portuguese traders and missionaries, from the Dutch Reformed Church
The Dutch Reformed Church (, abbreviated NHK) was the largest Christian denomination in the Netherlands from the onset of the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century until 1930. It was the original denomination of the Dutch Royal Family and ...
, and in the 20th century also by Roman Catholics, such as the Jesuits
The Society of Jesus ( la, Societas Iesu; abbreviation: SJ), also known as the Jesuits (; la, Iesuitæ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
and the Divine Word Missionaries
The Society of the Divine Word ( la, Societas Verbi Divini), abbreviated SVD and popularly called the Verbites or the Divine Word Missionaries, and sometimes the Steyler Missionaries, is a Catholic clerical religious congregation of Pontifical Ri ...
. Nowadays there are Christian
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
communities, mostly Reformed in the larger cities, though some rural areas of south-central Java are strongly Roman Catholic
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
.
Theosophy
Kejawèn is also influenced by Theosophy
Theosophy is a religion established in the United States during the late 19th century. It was founded primarily by the Russian Helena Blavatsky and draws its teachings predominantly from Blavatsky's writings. Categorized by scholars of religion a ...
. Theosophy was a very popular religion among Dutch residents in the Dutch East Indies in the early 20th century. Also many influential Indonesians joined the Theosophical Society. The Theosophical Society "played a role in the growth" of Kejawèn in the early and mid twentieth century, and several kebatinan groups were founded by Theosophists. The kebatinan Budi Setia group, founded in 1949, considered "its formal transformation into a theosophical lodge".[Sedgwick, M. J. (2017). Western Sufism: From the Abbasids to the new age.]
Islam and kebatinan
Although Java is predominately Muslim, ''kejawen'' the syncretic Javanese culture, still plays a cultural undercurrent among some Javanese.
Some Javanese texts relate stories about Syekh Siti Jenar (also known as Syekh Lemah Abang) who had conflicts with Wali Sanga
The Wali Songo (also transcribed as Wali Sanga) are revered saints of Islam in Indonesia, especially on the island of Java, because of their historic role in the spread of Islam in Indonesia. The word ''wali'' is Arabic for "trusted one" ("gua ...
, the nine Islamic scholars in Java, and the Sultanate of Demak.
With the Islamisation of Java there emerged a loosely structured society of religious leadership, revolving around kyai
A kyai ( ) is an expert in Islam, usually used among the ethnic Javanese people.
Origins
The word is of Javanese origin. Sometimes it is spelled kiai. Traditionally, students of Islam in Indonesia would study in a boarding school known as a ...
s, Islamic experts possessing various degrees of proficiency in pre-Islamic and Islamic lore
Lore may refer to:
* Folklore, acquired knowledge or traditional beliefs
* Oral lore or oral tradition, orally conveyed cultural knowledge and traditions
Places
* Loré, former French commune
* Loré (East Timor), a city and subdistrict in Lau ...
, belief
A belief is an attitude that something is the case, or that some proposition is true. In epistemology, philosophers use the term "belief" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either true or false. To believe something is to take i ...
and practice. The Kyais are the principal intermediaries between the villages masses and the realm of the supernatural
Supernatural refers to phenomena or entities that are beyond the laws of nature. The term is derived from Medieval Latin , from Latin (above, beyond, or outside of) + (nature) Though the corollary term "nature", has had multiple meanings si ...
. However, this very looseness of Kyai leadership structure has promoted schism. There were often sharp divisions between orthodox kyais, who merely instructed in Islamic law, with those who taught mysticism
Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight in u ...
and those who sought reformed Islam with modern scientific concepts.
As a result, the Javanese recognize two broad streams of religious commitment:
# ''Santri
In Indonesia, ''santri'' is a term for someone who follows Islamic religious education in ''pesantren'' (Islamic boarding schools). Santri usually stay in the place until their education is complete. After completing their study period, some of ...
'' or ''putihan'' ("pure ones"), what majority of Javanese people tend to follow are those who pray, performing the five obligatory daily ritual prayers. They are more orthodox in their Islamic belief and practice, and oppose the ''abangan'', who they consider to be heterodox.
# ''Abangan
The ''Abangan'' are Javanese people who are Muslims and practice a much more syncretic version of Islam than the more orthodox santri. The term, apparently derived from the Javanese language word for red, ''abang'', was first developed by Clif ...
'', "the red ones", who do not strictly observe the Islamic rituals. They have mixed pre-Islamic animistic
Animism (from Latin: ' meaning 'breath, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence. Potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, hum ...
and Hindu-Buddhist concepts with a superficial acceptance of Islamic belief, and emphasize the importance of the purity of the inner person, the ''batin''.
This distinction between "the High Islam or scripturalist, shari`a-oriented Islam of the `ulama" and "living local Islam" or "Folk Islam
In religious studies and folkloristics, folk religion, popular religion, traditional religion or vernacular religion comprises various forms and expressions of religion that are distinct from the official doctrines and practices of organized rel ...
" or "popular Islam" is not restricted to Java, but can be found in other Islamic countries as well.
Ernest Gellner
Ernest André Gellner FRAI (9 December 1925 – 5 November 1995) was a British-Czech philosopher and social anthropologist described by ''The Daily Telegraph'', when he died, as one of the world's most vigorous intellectuals, and by ''The Ind ...
has developed an influential model of Muslim society, in which this dichotomy is central:
Bruinessen finds this too limited, and distinguishes three overlapping spheres:
# Shari`a-oriented Islam,
# Sufism (mystical Islam, which has its learned and popular variants),
# The periphery of local rituals, local shrines, local spirit cults and heterodox beliefs and practices in general.
Javanese syncretistic religiousness has a strong popular base, outnumbering the santri and the support for Islamic political parties. Choy relates this to a Javanese apparent openness to new religions, but filtering out only those elements which fit into the Javanese culture. Choy mentions several reasons for this nominal Islamic identity:
# The Islamic scholars in Java have been trained in curricula which were geared for social conditions of two or three centuries ago, lacking the ability to impart the spirit and sense of Islam;
# The inability to summarise the principles of Islam in understandable basic points which can be applied to daily life;
# Kebatinan can be learned and understood without the need to learn Arabic.
In the early 20th century, several groups became formalised, developing systematised teachings and rituals, thus offering a 'high' form of ''abangan'' religiosity, as an alternative to the 'high' Islam. Bruinessen opines that the kebatinan-movements is a deliberate rejection of scriptural Islam, which arose out of "folk Islam
In religious studies and folkloristics, folk religion, popular religion, traditional religion or vernacular religion comprises various forms and expressions of religion that are distinct from the official doctrines and practices of organized rel ...
".
Characteristics
Aim
''Kebatinan'' is derived from the Arabic word ''batin'', meaning "inner" or "hidden", or "inner self". It is a metaphysical search for harmony within one's inner self, connection with the universe, and with an Almighty God. ''Kebatinan'' believe in a "super-consciousness" which can be contacted through meditation.
Beliefs
''Kebatinan'' is a combination of metaphysics, mysticism and other esoteric doctrines from Animistic, Hinduistic, Buddhist and Islamic origins. Although the Javanese culture is tolerant, and open to new religions, only those qualities are accepted and filtered which fit into the Javanese culture, character and personality. Javanese ideals combine human wisdom (''wicaksana''), psyche (''waskita'') and perfection (''sempurna''). The follower must control their passions, eschewing earthly riches and comforts, so that they may one day reach enlightened harmony and union with the spirit of the universe.
According to Choy, the ''Kebatinan'' have no certain prophet, sacred book, nor distinct religious festivals and rituals. Nevertheless, various kebatinan-movements have their own foundational writings and founders.
A ''kebatinan'' practitioner can identify with one of the six officially recognized religions, while still subscribe to the ''kebatinan'' belief and way of life.
Membership
Although ''kebatinan'' is a predominantly Javanese tradition, it has also attracted practitioners from other ethnic and religious groups, such as Chinese and Buddhists, and foreigners from Australia and Europe. President Suharto
Suharto (; ; 8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesian army officer and politician, who served as the second and the longest serving president of Indonesia. Widely regarded as a military dictator by international observers, Suharto ...
counted himself as one of its adherents. Their total membership is difficult to estimate as many of their adherents identify themselves with one of the official religions.
Official recognition
Although Pancasila, Indonesia's national philosophical foundation, recognizes only the "belief in the one and only God"—which is often justified as the sole recognition of monotheism
Monotheism is the belief that there is only one deity, an all-supreme being that is universally referred to as God. Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Monotheism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford ...
in the country—religions not recognized by the government are also tolerated. A broad plurality of religions and sects exist. In the middle of 1956, the Yogyakarta
Yogyakarta (; jv, ꦔꦪꦺꦴꦒꦾꦏꦂꦠ ; pey, Jogjakarta) is the capital city of Special Region of Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the south-central part of the island of Java. As the only Indonesian royal city still ruled by a monarchy, ...
representative of the Department of Religious Affairs reported 63 religious sects in Java other than the official Indonesian religions. Of these, 22 were in West Java
West Java ( id, Jawa Barat, su, ᮏᮝ ᮊᮥᮜᮧᮔ᮪, romanized ''Jawa Kulon'') is a province of Indonesia on the western part of the island of Java, with its provincial capital in Bandung. West Java is bordered by the province of Banten ...
, 35 were in Central Java
Central Java ( id, Jawa Tengah) is a province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogyakarta in t ...
, and 6 in East Java
East Java ( id, Jawa Timur) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the easternmost hemisphere of Java island. It has a land border only with the province of Central Java to the west; the Java Sea and the Indian Ocean bord ...
.
These include also kebatinan-groups, such as Sumarah. This loosely organized current of thought and practice was legitimized in the 1945 constitution, but failed to attain official recognition as a religion. In 1973 it was recognized as ''Kepercayaan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa'' (Indonesian: Belief in One Mighty God), but withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Religion and placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and Culture.
Practices
A variety of practices is being used in kebatinan to acquire ''ilmu'', namely ''tiraka'' and ''tapa'' or ''tapabrata''.
Many Kebatinan followers practice in their own way to seek spiritual and emotional relief. These practices are not performed in churches or mosques, but at home or in caves or on mountain perches. Meditation in Javanese culture is a search for inner self wisdom and to gain physical strength. This tradition is passed down from generation to generation.
Meditation
There are several ''tapa'':
* tapa Ngalong (meditation by hanging from a tree)
* tapa Kungkum (meditation under a small waterfall or meeting point of 2-3 rivers / ''Tempuran'' / ''Tjampuhan'')
Fasting
Fasting is a common practice employed by Javanese spiritualists in order to attain discipline of mind and body to get rid of material and emotional desires:
* pasa Mutih (abstention from eating anything that is salted and sweetened, only eating/drinking pure water & rice)
* pasa Senen-Kemis (fasting on Monday-Thursday)
* pasa Ngebleng (fasting for a longer period, usually 3-5-7 days)
Animistic worship
''Kebatinan'' often implies animistic worship, because it encourages sacrifices and devotions to local and ancestral spirits. These spirits are believed to inhabit natural objects, human beings, artifacts, and grave sites of important wali (Muslim saints). Illness and other misfortunes are traced to such spirits, and if sacrifices or pilgrimages fail to placate angry deities, the advice of a ''dukun'' or healer is sought.
Other practices
Other practices include:
* tapa Pati-Geni (avoiding fire or light for a day or days and isolating oneself in dark rooms),
* tapa Ngadam (stand/walk on foot from sunset till sunset, 24 hours in Silence)
Historical texts
Kebatinan and ''kejawen'' practices are extensively written about in texts that are held in the Sonobudoyo library in Yogyakarta
Yogyakarta (; jv, ꦔꦪꦺꦴꦒꦾꦏꦂꦠ ; pey, Jogjakarta) is the capital city of Special Region of Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the south-central part of the island of Java. As the only Indonesian royal city still ruled by a monarchy, ...
, and the main Kraton Libraries of Surakarta
Surakarta ( jv, ꦯꦸꦫꦏꦂꦠ), known colloquially as Solo ( jv, ꦱꦭ; ), is a city in Central Java, Indonesia. The 44 km2 (16.2 sq mi) city adjoins Karanganyar Regency and Boyolali Regency to the north, Karanganyar Regency and Sukoh ...
and Yogyakarta. Many of the texts are deliberately elliptical so that those who do not work with either initiates or teachers are unable to ascertain or understand the esoteric doctrines and practices. In quite a few cases codified texts with secret systems to "unlock" the meanings are employed.
But according to Bruinessen, the writing down of kebatinan teachings was a novelty which appeared with the institutionalisation of the kebatinan-movements in the beginning of the 20th century.
Kebatinan organisations
The appearance of formal kebatinan movements reflects the modernisation of Indonesia. Kebatinan movements appeared early in the 1900s in urban traditional elite circles, together with the rise of nationalism and the Muhammadiyah
Muhammadiyah ( ar, محمدية; 'followers of Muhammad'); also known as the Muhammadiyah Society ( id, Persyarikatan Muhammadiyah) is a major Islamic non-governmental organization in Indonesia.A. Jalil HamidTackle the rising cost of living longer ...
, a modernist Islamic movement. Hardopusoro, one of the earliest kebatinan-movements, had strong links with the Theosophical Society
The Theosophical Society, founded in 1875, is a worldwide body with the aim to advance the ideas of Theosophy in continuation of previous Theosophists, especially the Greek and Alexandrian Neo-Platonic philosophers dating back to 3rd century CE ...
. Some remained very elitist, while others also accepted lower urban and rural followings, thereby popularising abangan, or syncretistic Islam, as an alternative to shari`a-oriented Islam.
After Indonesia gained independence in 1945, the kebatinan received political support and attracted large followings. Kebatinan-movements were seen by secular nationalistic elites as allies against the rise of political Islam
Political Islam is any interpretation of Islam as a source of political identity and action. It can refer to a wide range of individuals and/or groups who advocate the formation of state and society according to their understanding of Islamic pri ...
. The political struggle between the Muslim parties and the Communists and Nationalists lead to a sharper demarcation between syncretistic and shari`a-oriented Islam, whereby most kebatinan movements affiliated with the Communist or Nationalist Parties.
Umbrella organisations representing several hundred kebatinan organisations, lobbied to attain legitimacy and recognition as an official religion. They are registered at the HKP (Himpunan Penghayat Kepercayaan), which is controlled by the PAKEM (Pengawas Aliran Kepercayaan Masyarakat). After the Suharto-era (1967-1998), the kebatinan-movements lost political support, and have become less dynamic, their adherents avoiding public engagement.
Altogether several hundred kebatinan-groups are or have been registered, the best-known of which are:
* Subud
* Sumarah
* Pangestu
* Sapta Dharma
* Majapahit Pancasila
Subud
Subud was founded in the 1920s by Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo. The name Subud was first used in the late 1940s when Subud was legally registered in Indonesia. The basis of Subud is a spiritual exercise commonly referred to as the '' latihan kejiwaan'', which was said by Muhammad Subuh to be guidance from "the Power of God" or "the Great Life Force". The aim of Subud is to attain perfection of character according to the will of God. Only when passion, heart and mind are separated from the inner feeling is it possible to make contact with the "Great Life Force" which permeates everywhere.
Muhammad Subuh saw the present age as one that demands personal evidence and proof of religious or spiritual realities, as people no longer just believe in words. He claimed that Subud is not a new teaching or religion but only that the latihan kejiwaan itself is the kind of proof that humanity is looking for. He also rejected the classification of Subud as a kebatinan organization. There are now Subud groups in about 83 countries, with a worldwide membership of about 10,000.
The name ''Subud'' is said to be formed from the Sanskrit words ''susila'' ("the good character of man"), ''bodhi
The English term enlightenment is the Western translation of various Buddhist terms, most notably bodhi and vimutti. The abstract noun ''bodhi'' (; Sanskrit: बोधि; Pali: ''bodhi''), means the knowledge or wisdom, or awakened intellect ...
'' ("the force of the inner self") and ''dharma
Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...
'' ("trust in God").[SubudBritain, ''About Subud''](_blank)
/ref>
Sumarah
Sumarah was formed in the 1930s by Pak Hardo, Pak Soekino and Pak Sutadi, without a formal organisation. In those early days, the younger members were taught ''kanoman'', occult practices including invulnerability for knives and guns. This was regarded as essential in the struggle against the Dutch colonial powers. Around 1950, when Indonesia became an independent nation, Sumarah was streamlined and organised by Dr. Surono. The emphasis shifted from magic to "surrender to God". From 1957 on internal struggles surfaced between dr. Surono and the founders Pak Hardo and Pak Sadina, leading to a change in leadership by dr. Ary Muthy in 1967.
Sumarah theology maintains that humankind's soul is like the holy spirit, a spark from the Divine Essence, which means that we are in essence similar to God. In other words, "One can find God within oneself," a belief similar to the " I=God
In monotheism, monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator deity, creator, and principal object of Faith#Religious views, faith.Richard Swinburne, Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Ted Honderich, Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Ox ...
" theory found in Hindu-Javanese literature.
According to Sumarah theology, man and his physical and spiritual world are divided into three parts:
* The physical body and brain. One section, ''Sukusma'', governs the passions. In the brain, the faculty of thinking has two functions:
** To record memories
** To serve as a means of communion with God
* The invisible world, which is situated within the chest. It is the Jiwa, the ineffable soul, which provides the driving forces governing thought and reason. It is here that the deeper feeling (''Rasa'') is located.
* The more elusive and sublime world. The most elusive and sublime world is hidden somewhere near the anatomical heart.
Sumarah's conception of God is different from Islam. It has a pantheistic
Pantheism is the belief that reality, the universe and the cosmos are identical with divinity and a supreme supernatural being or entity, pointing to the universe as being an immanent creator deity still expanding and creating, which has ex ...
vision of reality, considering God to be present in all living beings.
Pangestu
Pangestu was founded in 1949. Its doctrine was revealed in 1932 to Sunarto Mertowarjoyo, and written down in the ''Setat Sasangka Djati'' by R.T. Harjoparakowo and R. Trihardono Sumodiharjo Pangastu. It describes the way to obtain ''wahyu'', the blessing of God.
Sapta Dharma
Sapta Dharma was founded in 1952 by Harjo Sapura, after he received a revelation. According to Sri Pawenang, it was God's wish to provide the Indonesian people with a new spirituality in atime of crisis. Its aim is to free man of his passions.
According to Sapta Dharma teachings, ''suji'' (meditation) is necessary to pierce through different layers of obstacles to reach Semar
Semar is a character in Javanese mythology who frequently appears in wayang shadow plays. He is one of the punokawan (clowns), but is in fact divine and very wise. He is the dhanyang (guardian spirit) of Java,Geertz, 23. and is regarded by som ...
, the guardian spirit of Java. Theory and practice resemble Hindu Kundalini yoga, aiming at awakening the Kundalini energy and guiding it through the chakra
Chakras (, ; sa , text=चक्र , translit=cakra , translit-std=IAST , lit=wheel, circle; pi, cakka) are various focal points used in a variety of ancient meditation practices, collectively denominated as Tantra, or the esoteric or ...
s.
Majapahit Pancasila
Majapahit
Majapahit ( jv, ꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀; ), also known as Wilwatikta ( jv, ꦮꦶꦭ꧀ꦮꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦠ; ), was a Javanese people, Javanese Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhism, Buddhist thalassocracy, thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia that was ba ...
Pancasila was founded by W. Hardjanta Pardjapangarsa. It is based in Javanese Hindu-yogic practices, c.q. Kundalini yoga, rather than Balinese ritual practice as is prevalent in Parisada Hindu Dharma
Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia (''Indonesian Hindu Dharma Society'') is a major reform movement and organization that assisted in the revival of Hinduism in Indonesia. It was started in 1959 by Ida Bagus Mantra and led by Gedong Bagus Oka.
Cr ...
. According to Hardjanta, his meditation practices also lead to invulnerability for knives, daggers and other weapons.
Spread of kebatinan
Malaysia
Kebatinan beliefs have spread to some parts of Malaysia, wherein certain individuals have combined it with Islamic concepts (e.g. proclaiming themselves to be new-age Islamic prophets, but delivering messages that are a combination of Islamic and kebatinan beliefs). This has led to the Malaysian Islamic authorities declaring elements of kebatinan to be "syirik" ( shirk) and un-Islamic. Kebatinan interpretations of Islam are widespread in Malaysia among practitioners of silat
is the collective term for a class of indigenous martial arts from the Nusantara and surrounding geocultural areas of Southeast Asia. It is traditionally practised in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Southern Thailand, Southern Phil ...
, traditional healers, and some preachers (such as Ariffin Mohammed and other self-proclaimed Islamic prophets).
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the former colonial power in Indonesia, some kebatinan-groups are active.
Singapore
Since the majority of Singaporean Malays are of Indonesian descent, particularly from Java, many of Kebatinan are still practiced usually among older people. However, the practice is still widespread among some Javanese Silat and Kuda Kepang groups, and also traditional shamans.
Suriname
It was brought to Suriname
Suriname (; srn, Sranankondre or ), officially the Republic of Suriname ( nl, Republiek Suriname , srn, Ripolik fu Sranan), is a country on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north ...
by Javanese workers in the late 19th century.
See also
Belief systems
* Aliran Kepercayaan
* Balinese Hinduism
Balinese Hinduism ( id, Agama Hindu Dharma; Agama Tirtha; Agama Air Suci; Agama Hindu Bali) is the form of Hinduism practised by the majority of the population of Bali.McDaniel, June (2013), A Modern Hindu Monotheism: Indonesian Hindus as ‘P ...
* Hinduism in Java
Hinduism has historically been a major religious and cultural influence in Java. In recent years, it has also been enjoying something of a resurgence, particularly in the eastern part of the island.
History
Both Java and Sumatra were subject t ...
* Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia refers to the traditions of Esoteric Buddhism found in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in the 7th century along the maritime trade routes and port cities of the In ...
* Kaharingan
''Kaharingan'' is an indigenous animistic folk religion of the Katingan, Lawangan, Ma'anyan, Ngaju, and Ot Danum people native to the Central Kalimantan region in Indonesia.
The word means something like ''Way of the life'', and this belie ...
* Kapitayan
Kapitayan (from jv, ꦏꦥꦶꦠꦪꦤ꧀) is a belief of ancient people on Java island, namely those who belong to the Javanese ethnic group since the paleolithic, mesolithic, neolithic and megalithic eras. The Kapitayan religion is a form of ...
* Marapu
The Marapu religion (also known as Marafu in Sumba) is a form of ancestral religion that is practiced mainly in the island of Sumba in Indonesia. Marapu is also practiced in many more remote areas of Sumba and Flores. Both the Christians and Mu ...
* Mythology of Indonesia
The mythology of Indonesia is very diverse, the Indonesian people consisting of hundreds of ethnic groups, each with their own myths and legends that explain the origin of their people, the tales of their ancestors and the demons or deities in ...
* Parmalim The term Parmalim or malim describes the followers of the '' Malim religion'' (''Ugamo Malim'' or Batak nation religion), the modern form of the traditional Batak religion. People who are not familiar with the Batak language may erroneously assume P ...
* Saminism Movement
* Sunda Wiwitan
(from su, ᮞᮥᮔ᮪ᮓ ᮝᮤᮝᮤᮒᮔ᮪, Sunda Wiwitan, aboriginal Pasundan) Sunda Wiwitan is a folk religion and ancient beliefs adhered to by the Sundanese (including Baduy people, Bantenese, Cirebonese) in the western part of Java. ...
Gods and rituals
* Dewi Sri
Dewi Sri or Shridevi (Javanese language, Javanese: ꦢꦺꦮꦶꦱꦿꦶ, Balinese language, Balinese: ᬤᬾᬯᬶᬲ᭄ᬭᬶ, Dewi Sri)(Sundanese language, Sundanese: ᮑᮄ ᮕᮧᮠᮎᮤ ᮞᮀᮠᮡᮀ ᮃᮞᮢᮤ, Nyai Pohaci Sanghyang ...
* Hyang
''Hyang'' ( Kawi, Sundanese, Javanese, and Balinese) is a representation of the Supreme Being, in ancient Java and Bali mythology. This spiritual entity can be either divine or ancestral. The reverence for this spiritual entity can be found ...
* Javanese sacred places
Javanese sacred places are locations on the Island of Java, Indonesia that have significance from either village level through to national level as sacred, and in most cases deserve visitation--usually within the context of ziarah regardless of th ...
* Kuda Lumping
* Nyai Roro Kidul
''Kanjeng Ratu Kidul'' Sundanese: ᮑᮤ ᮛᮛ ᮊᮤᮓᮥᮜ᮪, Nyai Rara Kidul) ( Javanese: ꦚꦻꦫꦫꦏꦶꦢꦸꦭ꧀, Nyi Rara Kidul) ( Balinese: ᬜᬶᬭᭀᬭᭀᬓᬶᬤᬸᬮ᭄, Nyi Rara Kidul) is a supernatural being in In ...
* Slametan
The slametan (or selametan, slamatan, and selamatan) is the communal feast from Java, symbolizing the social unity of those participating in it. Clifford Geertz considered it the core ritual in Javanese religion, in particular the abangan variant ...
Notes
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External links
Kejawen, a Javanese traditional spiritual teaching - Joglosemar Online
A center for Javanese Metaphysics and Kundalini Yoga
SUMARAH: A STUDY OF THE ART OF LIVING
IndaNehsia.com, ''Religion at Java''
{{DEFAULTSORT:Javanese Beliefs
Javanese culture
Javanese spiritual movements
Javanese mythology
Islam in Indonesia
Religion in Indonesia
Religious syncretism in Asia