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Karasahr or Karashar ( ug, قاراشەھەر, Qarasheher, 6=Қарашәһәр), which was originally known, in the Tocharian languages as ''Ārśi'' (or Arshi) and Agni or the Chinese derivative Yanqi ( zh, s=焉耆, p=Yānqí, w=Yen-ch'i), is an ancient town on the
Silk Road The Silk Road () was a network of Eurasian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles), it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and reli ...
and the capital of Yanqi Hui Autonomous County in the Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang. it had a population of 29,000,www.xzqh.org
growing to 31,773 persons in 2006; 16,032 persons of which were Han, 7781 people Hui, 7154 people Uyghur, 628 Mongol and 178 other ethnicities and an agricultural population of 1078 people. The town has a strategic location, being located on the Kaidu River (known in ancient times as the Liusha), China National Highway 314 and the Southern Xinjiang Railway and is an important material distribution center and regional business hub. The town administers ten communities. It has a predominately
Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
population and contains many mosques.


Geography

The modern town of Yanqi is situated about west of the shallow
Lake Bosten Bosten Lake (, Uyghur: / / ''Baghrash Köli / Baƣrax Kɵli'', Chagatai: ''Bostang'') is a freshwater lake on the northeastern rim of the Tarim Basin, about east of Yanqi and northeast of Korla, Xinjiang, China in the Bayin'gholin Mongol ...
. The lake is about east to west and north to south with a surface area of about , making it one of the largest lakes in Xinjiang. It has been noted since Han times for its abundance of fish. The lake is fed by the Kaidu River and the Konqi River flows out of it past Korla and across the Taklamakan Desert to
Lop Nur Lop Nur or Lop Nor (from a Mongolian name meaning "Lop Lake", where "Lop" is a toponym of unknown origin) is a former salt lake, now largely dried up, located in the eastern fringe of the Tarim Basin, between the Taklamakan and Kumtag deserts ...
. There are numerous other small lakes in the region. The city, referred to in classical Chinese sources as Yanqi, was located on the branch of the Silk Route that ran along the northern edge of the Taklamakan Desert in the Tarim Basin.


History

The earliest known inhabitants of the area were an Indo-European people who apparently referred to themselves and the city as ''Ārśi'' (pronounced "Arshi"). Their language, since it was rediscovered in the early 20th century, has been known as " Tocharian A" (a
misnomer A misnomer is a name that is incorrectly or unsuitably applied. Misnomers often arise because something was named long before its correct nature was known, or because an earlier form of something has been replaced by a later form to which the name ...
resulting from an assumed relationship to the
Tukhara The Tocharians, or Tokharians ( US: or ; UK: ), were speakers of Tocharian languages, Indo-European languages known from around 7600 documents from around 400 to 1200 AD, found on the northern edge of the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, Chi ...
of Bactria). The people and city were also known as ''Agni'', although this may have been a later exonym, derived from the word for "fire" in an
Indo-Iranian language The Indo-Iranian languages (also Indo-Iranic languages or Aryan languages) constitute the largest and southeasternmost extant branch of the Indo-European language family (with over 400 languages), predominantly spoken in the geographical subre ...
such as Sanskrit (cognate to English "ignite"). The 7th century Buddhist monk Xuanzang transliterated ''Agni'' into Chinese as ''O-ki-ni'' 阿耆尼 ( MC ZS: *''ʔɑ-ɡiɪ-ɳˠiɪ'' standard: ''Āqíní''). ''Ārśi'' was bordered by related Tocharian cultures, many of which also spoke related languages: ''Kuča'' (or ''Kucha''), ''Gumo'' (later ''Aksu'') to the west, '' Turfan'' (''Turpan'') to the east and to the south, ''Krorän'' (''Loulan''). In China, Han dynasty sources describe Yanqi (''Ārśi'' / ''Agni'') as a relatively large and important neighboring kingdom. According to '' Book of Han'', the various states of the " Western Regions", including Yanqi, were controlled by the nomadic
Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 209 ...
, but later came under the influence of the Han dynasty, following a Han show of force against Dayuan ( Fergana) in the late 2nd century BCE. From the 1st century BCE onwards, many populations in the Tarim Basin, including the ''Ārśi'' underwent conversion to Buddhism and, consequently, linguistic influence from Indo-Iranian languages, such as Pali, Sanskrit, Bactrian,
Gandhari Gandhari may refer to: * Gandhari (Mahabharata), a character in the Indian epic ''Mahabharata'' * Gandhari khilla, a hill fort near Bokkalagutta, Telangana, India * Gandhari language, north-western prakrit spoken in Gāndhāra **Kharosthi, or Gan ...
and Khotanese (Saka). The city of ''Ārśi'' became commonly known as ''Agni'', almost certainly derived from the Sanskrit अग्नि "fire". Names such as ''Agnideśa'' (अग्निदेश) and ''Agni-visaya'', both of which are Sanskrit for "city of fire", are also recorded in Buddhist scriptures. According to the ''
Book of the Later Han The ''Book of the Later Han'', also known as the ''History of the Later Han'' and by its Chinese name ''Hou Hanshu'' (), is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Later ...
'', General
Ban Chao Ban Chao (; 32–102 CE), courtesy name Zhongsheng, was a Chinese diplomat, explorer, and military general of the Eastern Han Dynasty. He was born in Fufeng, now Xianyang, Shaanxi. Three of his family members—father Ban Biao, elder brother ...
went on a punitive campaign against Yanqi in 94 CE after they attacked and killed the Protector General Chen Mu and Vice Commandant Guo Xun in 75 CE. The king of Yanqi was decapitated and his head displayed in the capital. Later rebellions were subdued by Ban Chao's son Ban Yong in 127 CE. :It has "15,000 households, 52,000 individuals, and more than 20,000 men able to bear arms. It has high mountains on all four sides. There are hazardous passes on the route to Qiuci ( Kucha) that are easy to defend. The water of a lake winds between the four mountains, and surrounds the town for more than 30 '' li'' 2.5 km" ''Agnideśa'' became a tributary state of Tang China in 632 CE. In 644, during the Tang expansion into the Tarim Basin, Emperor Taizong of Tang launched a military campaign against Yanqi after the kingdom allied itself with the Turks. The
Four Garrisons of Anxi The Four Garrisons of Anxi were Chinese military garrisons installed by the Tang dynasty between 648 and 658. They were stationed at the Indo-European city-states of Qiuci (Kucha), Yutian (Hotan), Shule (Kashgar) and Yanqi (Karashahr). The P ...
was established with one based at Yanqi. According to '' Book of Zhou'' (636 CE) the kingdom of Yanqi (Karashahr) was a small country with poor people and nine walled towns, and described the country and their custom thus: : Marriage is about the same as among the Chinese. All the deceased are cremated and then buried. They wear mourning for seven full days, after which they put it off. The adult men all trim their hair to make a head decoration. Their written characters are the same as those of India. : : It is their custom to serve "Heavenly God(s)" but they also show reverence and trust in the doctrines of the
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in ...
. They especially celebrate these days: The eighth day of the second month, and the eighth day of the fourth month. All the country abstains and does penance according to the teachings of
Śākya Shakya (Pāḷi: ; sa, शाक्य, translit=Śākya) was an ancient eastern sub-Himalayan ethnicity and clan of north-eastern region of the Indian subcontinent, whose existence is attested during the Iron Age. The Shakyas were organised ...
, and follows His Way. : : The climate is cold, and the land good and fertile. For cereals, they have rice, millet, pulse, wheat, and barley. For animals, they have camels, horses, cows, and sheep. They raise silk-worms but do not make silk, merely using
he silk fiber He or HE may refer to: Language * He (pronoun), an English pronoun * He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ * He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets * He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' ...
for padding. It is their custom to relish grape wine, and also to love music. It is some ten ''li'' north of a body of water, and has an abundance of fish, salt, and rushes. In the fourth year of the period Pao-ting, its king sent an envoy to present its renowned horses. By the mid-9th century, the area had been conquered by the Uyghur Khaganate and the Tocharian languages were fading from use. ''Agnideśa'' became widely known by the Uyghur Turkic name ''Karasahr'' (or ''Karashar''), meaning "black city". The influence of
Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
grew, while older religions such as Buddhism and Manichaenism declined. Between the mid-13th century and the 18th century, Karasahr was part of the Mongol Chagatai Khanate. Karashahr may have been known to late medieval Europeans as ''Cialis'', ''Chalis'', or ''Chialis'', although ''Korla'', ''Krorän'', and other city names are instead favored by some scholars. In the early 17th century, the Portuguese
Jesuit , image = Ihs-logo.svg , image_size = 175px , caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits , abbreviation = SJ , nickname = Jesuits , formation = , founders ...
lay brother Bento de Góis visited the Tarim Basin on his way from India to China (via Kabul and
Kashgar Kashgar ( ug, قەشقەر, Qeshqer) or Kashi ( zh, c=喀什) is an oasis city in the Tarim Basin region of Southern Xinjiang. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, near the border with Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Pakistan ...
). De Góis and his traveling companions spent several months in the "Kingdom of Cialis", while crossing it with a caravan of
Kashgar Kashgar ( ug, قەشقەر, Qeshqer) or Kashi ( zh, c=喀什) is an oasis city in the Tarim Basin region of Southern Xinjiang. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, near the border with Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Pakistan ...
ian merchants (ostensibly, tribute bearers) on their way to
Ming China The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peop ...
. The travelers stayed in Cialis City for three months in 1605, and then continued, via Turpan and Hami (all parts of the "Kingdom of Cialis", according to de Góis), to the Ming border at
Jiayuguan Jiayuguan (嘉峪关) may refer to two locations in Gansu, China: *Jiayuguan (pass), pass of the Great Wall of China *Jiayuguan City Jiayuguan (, ) is a prefecture-level city in northwestern Gansu province, with a population of 312,663 as of th ...
. The British traveller Francis Younghusband briefly visited Karasahr in 1887 on his overland journey from
Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...
to India. He described it as being "like all the towns hereabouts, is surrounded by a mud wall, and the gateways are surmounted by the usual pagoda-like towers. There is a musketry wall round outside the main wall, but it is now almost in ruins. Inside the wall are some yamens, but only a few houses. Outside, to the south, are a few shops and inns." An early-20th-century traveler described the situation in Karashahr as follows: :"The whole of this district round Kara-shahr and Korla is, from a geographical and political point of view, both interesting and important; for whilst all other parts of Chinese Turkestan can only be reached either by climbing high and difficult passes—the lowest of which has the same elevation as Mont Blanc—or traversing extensive and dangerous waterless deserts of sand-hills, here we find the one and only convenient approach to the land through the valleys of several rivers in the neighbourhood of Ili, where plentiful water abounds in the mountain streams on all sides, and where a rich vegetation makes life possible for wandering tribes. Such Kalmuck tribes still come from the north-west to Tal. They are Torgut nomads who pitch their yurts round about Kara-shahr and live a hard life with their herds ... :Just as these Mongols wander about here at the present day, so the nomadic tribes of an earlier period must have used this district as their entrance and exit gate. The Tochari (Yue-chi) inyin: Yuezhi on their way from China, undoubtedly at that time passed through this gate to get into the Ili valley ..."


Rulers

(Names are in modern Mandarin pronunciations based on ancient Chinese records) *Shun (舜) 58 *Zhong (忠) 88 *Guang (廣) 91 *Yuan Meng (元孟) 94–127 *Long An (龍安) 280 *Long Hui (龍會) 289 *Long Xi (龍熙) 306 *Long Jiushibeina (龍鳩屍卑那) 385 *Tang He (唐和) 448 *Che Xie (車歇) 449 *Qu Jia (麴嘉) 497 *Long Tuqizhi (龍突騎支) 605 *Long Lipozhun (龍栗婆准) 644 *Long Xuepoanazhi (龍薛婆阿那支) 645 *Long Xiannazhun (龍先那准) 649 *Long Tuqizhi (龍突騎支) 650 *Long Nentu (龍嫩突) 651 *Long Yantufuyan (龍焉吐拂延) 719 *Long Chang'an (龍長安) 737 *Long Tuqishi (龍突騎施) 745 *Long Rulin (龍如林) 767–789? / Tang general – Yang Riyou 789


See also

*
Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Buddhism entered Han China via the Silk Road, beginning in the 1st or 2nd century CE. The first documented translation efforts by Buddhist monks in China were in the 2nd century CE via the Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory bordering the ...


Footnotes


References


Sources

* Hill, John E. (2004). ''The Peoples of the West from the Weilue'' 魏略 ''by Yu Huan'' 魚豢'': A third century Chinese account composed between 239 and 265 CE''
Draft annotated English translation
* * Puri, B.N. (2000)
987 Year 987 ( CMLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events By place Byzantine Empire * February 7 – Bardas Phokas (the Younger) and Bardas Skleros, two membe ...
''Buddhism in Central Asia''. (reprint ed.) Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. * * Stein, Aurel M. (1990)
912 Year 912 ( CMXII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. __NOTOC__ Events By place Byzantine Empire * May 11 – Emperor Leo VI (the Wise) dies after a 26-year reign in wh ...
''Ruins of Desert Cathay: Personal narrative of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China'', 2 vols. (reprint ed.) Delhi, IN: Low Price Publications. * Stein, Aurel M. (1980)
921 __NOTOC__ Year 921 ( CMXXI) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events By place Byzantine Empire * March – Battle of Pegae: Bulgarian forces under ''kavhan'' (first ...
''Serindia: Detailed report of explorations in central Asia and westernmost China'', 5 vols. (orig ed.) London & Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. (reprint ed.) Delhi, IN: Motilal Banarsidas

* Stein Aurel M. (1981) 928 ''Innermost Asia: Detailed report of explorations in central Asia, Kan-su and eastern Iran'', 5 vols. (orig ed.) Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. (reprint ed.) New Delhi, IN: Cosmo Publications. *


External links


Silk Road Seattle - University of Washington
(The Silk Road Seattle website contains many useful resources including a number of full-text historical works, maps, photos, etc.) {{DEFAULTSORT:Karasahr County seats in Xinjiang Central Asian Buddhist kingdoms Central Asian Buddhist sites Populated places along the Silk Road Populated places in Xinjiang Ancient peoples of China Former countries in Chinese history Township-level divisions of Xinjiang Tocharians Yanqi Hui Autonomous County