Kanesatake (''Kanehsatà:ke'' in

Mohawk Mohawk may refer to: Related to Native Americans * Mohawk people, an indigenous people of North America (Canada and New York) *Mohawk language, the language spoken by the Mohawk people * Mohawk hairstyle, from a hairstyle once thought to have been ...

) is a

(''Kanien'kéha:ka'' in Mohawk) settlement on the shore of the

Lake of Two Mountains Lake of Two Mountains (French: ''Lac des Deux Montagnes'') is part of the river delta widening of the Ottawa River in Quebec, Canada, at its confluence with the St. Lawrence River. Lake of Two Mountains has four outflows: Rivière des Mille Île ...

in southwestern

Quebec Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirtee ...

, Canada, at the confluence of the

Ottawa Ottawa (, ; Canadian French: ) is the capital city of Canada. It is located at the confluence of the Ottawa River and the Rideau River in the southern portion of the province of Ontario. Ottawa borders Gatineau, Quebec, and forms the core ...

and

Saint Lawrence Saint Lawrence or Laurence ( la, Laurentius, lit. "Laurel wreath, laurelled"; 31 December AD 225 – 10 August 258) was one of the seven deacons of the city of Rome under Pope Sixtus II who were martyred in the Persecution of Christians, perse ...

rivers and about west of

Montreal Montreal ( ; officially Montréal, ) is the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-most populous city in Canada and List of towns in Quebec, most populous city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian ...

. People who reside in ''Kanehsatà:ke'' are referred to as

Mohawks of Kanesatake The Mohawk people ( moh, Kanienʼkehá꞉ka) are the most easterly section of the Haudenosaunee, or Iroquois Confederacy. They are an Iroquoian-speaking Indigenous people of North America, with communities in southeastern Canada and northern N ...

(''Kanehsata'kehró:non'' in Mohawk). As of 2022, the total registered population was 2,751, with a total of about 1,364 persons living on the territory. Both they and the Mohawk of

Kahnawake, Quebec The Kahnawake Mohawk people, Mohawk Territory (french: Territoire Mohawk de Kahnawake, in the Mohawk language, ''Kahnawáˀkye'' in Tuscarora language, Tuscarora) is a First Nations in Canada, First Nations reserve of the Mohawks of Kahnawá:ke ...

(''Kahnawà:ke'' in Mohawk), a reserve located south of the river from Montreal, also control and have hunting and fishing rights to Doncaster 17 Indian Reserve (''Tiowéro:ton'' in Mohawk)."Mohawks of Kanesatake"
, ''Aboriginal Communities'', Government of Canada The Mohawk people historically were the most easterly nation of the ''

Haudenosaunee The Iroquois ( or ), officially the Haudenosaunee ( meaning "people of the longhouse"), are an Iroquoian Peoples, Iroquoian-speaking Confederation#Indigenous confederations in North America, confederacy of First Nations in Canada, First Natio ...

'' (Six Nations Iroquois). By 1730, this confederacy was made up of six Iroquoian-speaking nations who were based mostly east and south of the

Great Lakes The Great Lakes, also called the Great Lakes of North America, are a series of large interconnected freshwater lakes in the mid-east region of North America that connect to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence River. There are five lakes ...

, in present-day

New York New York most commonly refers to: * New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York * New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States New York may also refer to: Film and television * '' ...

along the

Mohawk River The Mohawk River is a U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline dataThe National Map accessed October 3, 2011 river in the U.S. state of New York. It is the largest tributary of the Hudson River. The Mohawk f ...

west of the Hudson, and in

Pennsylvania Pennsylvania (; ( Pennsylvania Dutch: )), officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state spanning the Mid-Atlantic, Northeastern, Appalachian, and Great Lakes regions of the United States. It borders Delaware to its southeast, ...

. They also controlled hunting territory by right of conquest that extended into the

Ohio Ohio () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States. Of the fifty U.S. states, it is the 34th-largest by area, and with a population of nearly 11.8 million, is the seventh-most populous and tenth-most densely populated. The sta ...

and Shenandoah valleys. After French exploration and its beginnings of colonial developments, its traders worked with the Mohawk in villages in the Mohawk Valley. Jesuit missionaries evangelized their people. Some Mohawk moved closer for trade with French colonists in what became

, Canada, or settled in nearby mission villages. In the mid-nineteenth century, after Great Britain had taken over former French territory east of the Mississippi River following its defeat of France in the

Seven Years' War The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict that involved most of the European Great Powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. Other concurrent conflicts include the French and Indian War (1754� ...

, its colonial government formally recognized the people of ''Kanehsatà:ke'' as one of the Seven Nations of Canada. These were First Nations who were allies of the British. Today this territory, classified by the federal government as an interim land base, is one of several major settlements in Canada where the Mohawk are self-governing; the others are classified under the ''

Indian Act The ''Indian Act'' (, long name ''An Act to amend and consolidate the laws respecting Indians'') is a Canadian act of Parliament that concerns registered Indians, their bands, and the system of Indian reserves. First passed in 1876 and still ...

'' as reserves. The reserves include

Kahnawake The Kahnawake Mohawk Territory (french: Territoire Mohawk de Kahnawake, in the Mohawk language, ''Kahnawáˀkye'' in Tuscarora) is a First Nations reserve of the Mohawks of Kahnawá:ke on the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River in Quebec, C ...

and

Akwesasne The Mohawk Nation at Akwesasne ( ; french: Nation Mohawk à Akwesasne; moh, Ahkwesáhsne) is a Mohawk Nation (''Kanienʼkehá:ka'') territory that straddles the intersection of international (United States and Canada) borders and provincial (Ont ...

along the

St. Lawrence River The St. Lawrence River (french: Fleuve Saint-Laurent, ) is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. Its headwaters begin flowing from Lake Ontario in a (roughly) northeasterly direction, into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, connecting ...

, both formed during the French colonial period; the

Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation Six Nations (or Six Nations of the Grand River, french: Réserve des Six Nations, see, Ye:i’ Níónöëdzage:h) is demographically the largest First Nations reserve in Canada. As of the end of 2017, it has a total of 27,276 members, 12,848 of w ...

, a reserve organized after the

American Revolutionary War The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a major war of the American Revolution. Widely considered as the war that secured the independence of t ...

by the Crown to provide the Iroquois with land in compensation for what they lost of their former territories in the Thirteen Colonies; and Tyendinaga, where the Mohawk constitute the majority of residents.

History

By the 14th century, some

Iroquoian The Iroquoian languages are a language family of indigenous peoples of North America. They are known for their general lack of labial consonants. The Iroquoian languages are polysynthetic and head-marking. As of 2020, all surviving Iroquoian la ...

-speaking peoples, later called the

St. Lawrence Iroquoians The St. Lawrence Iroquoians were an Iroquoian Indigenous people who existed from the 14th century to about 1580. They concentrated along the shores of the St. Lawrence River in present-day Quebec and Ontario, Canada, and in the American states o ...

, had created

fortified A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin ''fortis'' ("strong") and ''facere'' ...

villages along the fertile valley of what is now called the

. They spoke a discrete

Laurentian language Laurentian, or St. Lawrence Iroquoian, was an Iroquoian language spoken until the late 16th century along the shores of the Saint Lawrence River in present-day Quebec and Ontario, Canada. It is believed to have disappeared with the extinction ...

. Among their villages were ''

Stadacona Stadacona was a 16th-century St. Lawrence Iroquoian village not far from where Quebec City was founded in 1608. History French explorer and navigator Jacques Cartier, while travelling and charting the Saint Lawrence River, reached the villag ...

'' and '' Hochelaga'', recorded as visited in 1535–1536 by French

explorer Exploration refers to the historical practice of discovering remote lands. It is studied by geographers and historians. Two major eras of exploration occurred in human history: one of convergence, and one of divergence. The first, covering most ...

Jacques Cartier Jacques Cartier ( , also , , ; br, Jakez Karter; 31 December 14911 September 1557) was a French-Breton maritime explorer for France. Jacques Cartier was the first European to describe and map the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the shores of th ...

. By the time

Samuel de Champlain Samuel de Champlain (; Fichier OrigineFor a detailed analysis of his baptismal record, see RitchThe baptism act does not contain information about the age of Samuel, neither his birth date nor his place of birth. – 25 December 1635) was a Fre ...

explored the same area 75 years later, the villages had disappeared. The ''Kanienkehaka'' (Mohawk), based in other Iroquoian territories, used the valley for hunting grounds and routes for war parties.

Historians A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the stu ...

are continuing to examine the St. Lawrence Iroquoian culture, but theorize that the stronger ''Kanienkehaka'' (Mohawk) waged war against this people to get control of the

fur trade The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of a world fur market in the early modern period, furs of boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals have been the mos ...

and hunting along the valley downriver from

Tadoussac Tadoussac () is a village in Quebec, Canada, at the confluence of the Saguenay and Saint Lawrence rivers. The indigenous Innu call the place ''Totouskak'' (plural for ''totouswk'' or ''totochak'') meaning "bosom", probably in reference to the t ...

. (The Montagnais controlled Tadoussac, which was closer to the Atlantic coast.) For a period the

Wyandot people The Wyandot people, or Wyandotte and Waⁿdát, are Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands. The Wyandot are Iroquoian Indigenous peoples of North America who emerged as a confederacy of tribes around the north shore of Lake Ontario ...

(also known as Huron), another Iroquoian-speaking people based north of Lake Ontario, may also have hunted here. As noted above, by 1600, the Mohawk of the Iroquois Confederacy, based largely in present-day New York and Pennsylvania south of the Great Lakes, used the St. Lawrence Valley for hunting grounds. The Mohawk were the easternmost of the Five Nations. While the Mohawk and contemporary Iroquoian nations shared certain culture with the earlier Iroquoian groups,

archeological Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscape ...

and

linguistic Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Linguis ...

studies since the 1950s have demonstrated that the Mohawk and

were distinctly separate peoples.

Historian A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the stu ...

s and

anthropologist An anthropologist is a person engaged in the practice of anthropology. Anthropology is the study of aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology, cultural anthropology and philosophical anthropology study the norms and ...

s believe the Mohawk pushed out or destroyed the St. Lawrence Iroquoians. In the colonial period, the French established trading posts and missions with the Mohawk. They also had intermittent conflict with the tribe and raiding took place between them. Some Mohawk moved near or in

for trading and protection at mission villages, located south of the St. Lawrence River. In 1717, the King of France granted the Mohawk in Quebec a tract of land 9 miles long by 9 miles wide about 40 miles to the northwest of Montreal, under the condition that they leave the island of Montreal. The settlement of Kanesatake was formally founded as a Catholic

mission Mission (from Latin ''missio'' "the act of sending out") may refer to: Organised activities Religion *Christian mission, an organized effort to spread Christianity *Mission (LDS Church), an administrative area of The Church of Jesus Christ of ...

, a

seigneury ''Seigneur'' is an originally feudal title in France before the Revolution, in New France and British North America until 1854, and in the Channel Islands to this day. A seigneur refers to the person or collective who owned a ''seigneurie'' (o ...

under the supervision of the

Sulpician Order The Society of Priests of Saint-Sulpice (french: Compagnie des Prêtres de Saint-Sulpice), abbreviated PSS also known as the Sulpicians is a society of apostolic life of Pontifical Right for men, named after the Church of Saint-Sulpice, Paris ...

for 300 Christian Mohawk, about 100

Algonquin Algonquin or Algonquian—and the variation Algonki(a)n—may refer to: Languages and peoples *Algonquian languages, a large subfamily of Native American languages in a wide swath of eastern North America from Canada to Virginia **Algonquin la ...

, and approximately 250 Nipissing peoples in their care. Over time the Sulpicians claimed total control of the land, gaining a deed that gave them legal title. But the Mohawk had believed that this land was being held in trust for them.Alanis Obomsawin, ''Kanehsatake: 270 Years of Resistance''
National Film Board of Canada, 1993, accessed 30 January 2010 The Sulpician mission village of Lake of Two Mountains (Lac des Deux Montagnes), west of Montreal, became known both by its Algonquin name ''Oka'' (meaning "pickerel"), and the Mohawk language ''Kanehsatà:ke'' ("sandy place"); however, the Algonquin also called the village ''Ganashtaageng'' after the Mohawk-language name. During the colonial period, a majority of the Mohawk in Quebec converted to Catholicism. They grew wary of the Sulpicians due to mistreatment and unjust dealings with regard to their right to the land. The Sulpicians sold some of it for settlement, and the village of Oka developed around the Kanesatake reserve. In 1787 Chief Aughneeta complained by letter to Sir John Johnson, the British superintendent general of Indian Affairs, that the Mohawk had moved to Kanesatake only after being promised a deed to the land by the King of France., accessed 13 October 2015

By 1851, the Mohawk made seven other protests about the land to the government. Mohawk dissent increased, and their conversion to Protestantism in 1851 was avoided only when the Sulpicians excommunicated 15 activists. In 1868 the Mohawk selected Sosé Onasakenrat as chief at the age of 22. Baptized as Joseph, he had been educated by the Sulpicians in a Catholic seminary and worked with them afterward at Oka. That year he traveled to Montreal to present the Mohawk land claim to the seigneury, but to no avail. Later that year, he and many other Mohawk converted to the Protestant

Methodist Episcopal Church The Methodist Episcopal Church (MEC) was the oldest and largest Methodist denomination in the United States from its founding in 1784 until 1939. It was also the first religious denomination in the US to organize itself on a national basis. In ...

, as they were outraged by their treatment by the Catholic Church. In 1880 Onasakenrat was ordained and became a Methodist missionary to the Mohawk-dominated communities at

and

. These later were designated as

First Nations reserves In Canada, an Indian reserve (french: réserve indienne) is specified by the ''Indian Act'' as a "tract of land, the legal title to which is vested in Monarchy of Canada, Her Majesty, that has been set apart by Her Majesty for the use and benef ...

, primarily occupied by Mohawk. He began to urge moderation and acceptance of a Sulpician offer to buy land for the Mohawk away from Oka and to pay for their move. He lost the support of many followers by this change in position and died in 1881 at age 35. Six months later, when the Sulpicians had completed arrangements for the relocation, only 20 percent of the Mohawk left ''Kanehsatà:ke'' to relocate to present-day

Wahta Mohawk Territory The Wahta Mohawks are a Mohawk First Nation in Ontario. The Wahta Mohawk Territory is their territory (reserve) in the District Municipality of Muskoka, Ontario, Canada near Bala. It is bounded on the west by Highway 400, a major north–south ...

near

Muskoka, Ontario The District Municipality of Muskoka, more generally referred to as the District of Muskoka or Muskoka, is a regional municipality in Central Ontario, Canada. Muskoka extends from Georgian Bay in the west, to the northern tip of Lake Couchiching ...

. In 1910 the Sulpician Order claim to the land was upheld by the Canadian Supreme Court. Kanesatake has been defined by the federal government as an 'interim land base', unlike the reserves, which are a creation of the

Governance

The Mohawk at ''Kanehsatà:ke'' continued "custom", or the traditional practice of having

clan A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clans may claim descent from founding member or apical ancestor. Clans, in indigenous societies, tend to be endogamous, meaning ...

mothers select chiefs from

s with hereditary leadership responsibility. Clan mothers made the selection and could remove their support from a chief whose actions displeased them, causing him to step down. Like the other Iroquois nations and many other Native American tribes, the Mohawk had a

matrilineal Matrilineality is the tracing of kinship through the female line. It may also correlate with a social system in which each person is identified with their matriline – their mother's Lineage (anthropology), lineage – and which can in ...

kinship system In anthropology, kinship is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the lives of all humans in all societies, although its exact meanings even within this discipline are often debated. Anthropologist Robin Fox says that ...

, with inheritance and property passed through the maternal line. In the late 20th century, the Mohawk renewed a

land claim A land claim is defined as "the pursuit of recognized territorial ownership by a group or individual". The phrase is usually only used with respect to disputed or unresolved land claims. Some types of land claims include aboriginal land claims, A ...

case to recover their property at Kanesatake. The courts ruled against them on technical issues. The settlement is surrounded by the city of

Oka, Quebec Oka is a small village on the northern bank of the Ottawa River (''Rivière des Outaouais'' in French), northwest of Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Located in the Laurentian Mountains, Laurentians valley on Lake of Two Mountains, where the Ottawa has ...

. In 2001 Parliament passed S-24, to clarify the relationship between Kanesatake and the federal government, and make the band's relationship with provincial and federal governments comparable to those of the governments of reserves. Different members of the community have disputed the interpretation of the intent and implementation of this act. Disagreements over this legislation added to internal tensions among different groups on the reserve.

Oka crisis

''Kanehsatà:ke'' is the oldest continuing Mohawk community today and existed pre-European contact. It was the first community to accept ''kaianera'kó:wa'' (the 'great law of peace'), and is mentioned in the

condolence ceremony The condolence ceremony or condolence council is a part of the Haudenosaunee Great Law of Peace. It governs succession to political offices after a leader dies. The ceremony is held in the community whose leader has died. Attendees are divided int ...

(''hi hi'') of a chief and clan mother. The town of Oka developed along the Lake of Two Mountains through the fraudulent sale of land of the Mohawk community of ''Kanehsatà:ke'' by the Sulpician order. The Sulpicians sold off land to French settlers and were the biggest landowners in the region. Since 1717, when the Sulpician priests arrived with their Mohawk, Nippising, and Algonquin Christian converts, the Mohawk have contested the Sulpician land claim. They argue that the King of France,

Louis XIV , house = Bourbon , father = Louis XIII , mother = Anne of Austria , birth_date = , birth_place = Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France , death_date = , death_place = Palace of Vers ...

, never owned the land and thus the Crown did not have the right to grant the land to the Sulpician Order. Included in this territory is a pine forest and cemetery that was long used by the Mohawk. It is still accessible, although it is not part of the Kanesatake reserve. The Mohawks of Kanesatake have tried many times to resolve the land dispute (as part of their

against the government and Sulpician mission), but were rejected by the Crown on technical issues. In 1990, the town of Oka unilaterally approved plans to expand their 9-hole golf course to an 18-hole course and related buildings. The Mohawk protested formally because the development would affect the historic cemetery, and they considered the land to be sacred. The city persisted in letting the developer proceed in spite of protests from the community. In response, the Mohawk barricaded a secondary dirt road leading into the pines slated for development, in order to prevent the developers from cutting any trees. After the city gained three injunctions against the barricade, and the Mohawk had tried to gain a moratorium on development, the provincial ''

Sûreté du Québec The (SQ; , ) is the provincial police service for the Canadian province of Quebec. No official English name exists, but the agency's name is sometimes translated to 'Quebec Provincial Police' or QPP in English-language sources. The headquarters ...

'' (SQ) police raided the barricade in the early morning hours of July 11, 1990. Oka requested support from the SQ, which barricaded Route 344 leading to ''Kanehsatà:ke''. In the first days of the confrontation, a police officer was killed in an exchange of gunfire with the protesters. The SQ were joined by a

paramilitary A paramilitary is an organization whose structure, tactics, training, subculture, and (often) function are similar to those of a professional military, but is not part of a country's official or legitimate armed forces. Paramilitary units carr ...

squad of Canadian army and

police. The Quebec government requested support from the Canadian Army, which sent in 3700 troops. This was the beginning of a 78-day standoff between the Mohawk Nation and their allies (both aboriginal and non-aboriginal) against the SQ and Canadian Army. The sister community of

erected a barricade on the Mercier Bridge at the South Shore of Montreal, in order to protect the people of ''Kanehsatà:ke'' from a second raid. Non-Mohawk residents of the area became enraged about traffic delays in trying to get through the area and across the river. Provincial and national leaders participated in negotiations between the Mohawk and the provincial government. Negotiations between the Mohawk nation and the Quebec and the Canadian governments did not resolve the land issue. The International Federation of Human Rights, based in

Paris Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. S ...

, France, investigated and concluded that neither the provincial nor federal governments acted in good faith during negotiations. But the Mohawk at ''Kanehsatà:ke'' were forced by the Canadian Army to remove their barricades. Police and military forces pushed the remaining protesters back until they were confined to the Onentokon Treatment Centre and surrounded by the military. In the end, the Mohawk chose to leave the treatment center, although they did not formally surrender. Those who remained at the treatment center were immediately arrested, with the men and the women separated and sent to the Farnham army base. Other Mohawk activists were ultimately arrested for criminal acts committed before the army moved into the community. These Mohawk were convicted. All the Mohawk arrested at the treatment center on the issue of the barricades were acquitted. A separate trial was held for individual Mohawks, who were charged. As of 2019, the land dispute is still ongoing.

Representation in other media

*Some of the events and history are explored in

Alanis Obomsawin Alanis Obomsawin, (born August 31, 1932) is an Abenaki American Canadian filmmaker, singer, artist, and activist primarily known for her documentary films. Born in New Hampshire, United States and raised primarily in Quebec, Canada, she has writ ...

's documentary film, '' Kanehsatake: 270 Years of Resistance'' (1993). *''

Beans A bean is the seed of several plants in the family Fabaceae, which are used as vegetables for human or animal food. They can be cooked in many different ways, including boiling, frying, and baking, and are used in many traditional dishes th ...

'', a fictional semi-autobiographical film written and directed by

Tracey Deer Tracey Penelope ''Tekahentakwa'' Deer (born February 28, 1978, Mohawk nation, Mohawk) is a screenwriter, film director and newspaper publisher based in Kahnawake, Quebec. Deer has written and directed several award-winning documentaries for Rezol ...

, was featured in the 2021

New York International Children's Film Festival New York International Children's Film Festival (NYICFF) Established in 1997, NYICFF’s mission is rooted in the belief of film as a path for young people to understand themselves and others. All programs are designed to celebrate the beauty and po ...

. Set during the Oka crisis, the film features a lead role played by Kiawenti'io Tarbell, a young Mohawk actress from

Electoral changes

In 1991, the people adopted an electoral political system for the first time (see Governance below). Because they do not come under the

, their choice was still considered "custom." There has continued to be internal division over how chiefs are selected. In the first election, Jerry Peltier was elected as grand chief and served two terms into 1996. In 2013 the ''Kanehsatà:ke'' Health Centre Inc. was the first Indigenous health centre in North America to receive a Baby Friendly Accreditation. That same year, the local Pikwadin group, a funded initiative of the First Nations Human Resource and Development Commission of Quebec, began a re-vamp of the local radio station CKHQ 101.7 FM. It had become idle after its previous manager died in 2003. In 2004, the station failed to renew its broadcasting licence with the CRTC. The radio station was running under a

pirate radio Pirate radio or a pirate radio station is a radio station that broadcasts without a valid license. In some cases, radio stations are considered legal where the signal is transmitted, but illegal where the signals are received—especially w ...

status pending a licence renewal until it was accepted on June 17, 2014. The Montréal-based non-profit organization Exeko assisted with the licensing process through their idAction program. The band has had a traditional form of governance under the

longhouse A longhouse or long house is a type of long, proportionately narrow, single-room building for communal dwelling. It has been built in various parts of the world including Asia, Europe, and North America. Many were built from timber and often rep ...

, a system that existed pre-contact. This is still practiced by much of the community. Canada refuses to recognize the longhouse and excludes its leaders from any form of decision-making on land rights.

Governance

Following the Oka Crisis, the Mohawk of ''Kanehsatà:ke'' altered their method of governance, under provisions of the Indian Act. In 1991, citizens held the first general elections for grand chief and six council chiefs. Chiefs previously had traditional hereditary claims to positions through their

clans A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clans may claim descent from founding member or apical ancestor. Clans, in indigenous societies, tend to be endogamous, meaning ...

under the

, in which inheritance and property were passed through the maternal lines. Chiefs were nominated and could be unseated by

mothers. In 1991, Jerry Peltier was elected as grand chief and served until 1996.Jeff Heinrich, "Wide-open race in Kanesatake"
''The Gazette'', 27 June 2008, La Nation Autochthone du Quebec, accessed 29 January 2010 He also served as Chairman for the Quebec First Nations Education Council. In the 1990s, the nation began to exercise more autonomy and established its own police force.Aubin, Benoit (March 23, 2004)
"Kanesatake Chief in Exile"
, ''Maclean's Magazine,'' online at ''The Canadian Encyclopedia,'' Retrieved on: July 12. 2008. In 2004 and 2005, disputes over the governance practices of Grand Chief James Gabriel, who had been elected three times in succession, resulted in violence and political disruption in ''Kanehsatà:ke''. Chiefs

Pearl Bonspille A pearl is a hard, glistening object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a living shelled mollusk or another animal, such as fossil conulariid Conulariida is a poorly understood fossil group that has possible aff ...

Steven Bonspille Steven Bonspille (Mohawk) is a political leader; he was Grand Chief (2005–2008) of the Kanesatake community located northwest of Montreal, Quebec, Canada. History Bonspille is a traditionalist, elected to the chiefs' council in 2001. The co ...

and John Harding (''Sha ko hen the tha'') opposed Gabriel. They and other opponents effectively ended Gabriel's tenure as grand chief. John Harding and fellow council chiefs Steven Bonspille (who was elected to the council in 2001) and Pearl Bonspille said they opposed Gabriel's attempt to control policing. In January 2004, in concert with

Quebec provincial police Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirtee ...

, Gabriel brought in more than 60 officers from other reserves and forces for a drug raid. These three chiefs considered Gabriel's action to be an unlawful attempt to usurp the power of the Police Commission. After 200 community members surrounded the police station, the 67 special constables were forced to take shelter there. Gabriel lost his home when it was burned in an alleged

arson Arson is the crime of willfully and deliberately setting fire to or charring property. Although the act of arson typically involves buildings, the term can also refer to the intentional burning of other things, such as motor vehicles, wat ...

incident; he left the community for Montreal. Following his departure, "A long criminal trial resulted in multiple convictions of Kanesatake residents for arson, rioting and other offences." Meanwhile, the reserve organized a Community Watch team to counter the lack of a police force. A liaison team was established with the SQ. Political communication lines were opened up with the Quebec government to prevent another crisis like the one in 1990 at Oka. Following the overthrow of Gabriel, elections were held on June 26, 2005.

defeated Gabriel in the election for grand chief. Harding and Pearl Bonspille were both replaced as chiefs on the council when six Gabriel allies were elected to the open posts. The Nation operated under a federal trusteeship, while an investigation was conducted of alleged spending excesses under Gabriel. Findings were not conclusive. Tribal engagement in politics has remained high. In 2008 some 25 candidates ran for seven seats on the council. Steven Bonspille did not run for re-election, having moved off the reserve to Oka. More than 2300 Kanesatake voters were registered: 1685 who live on the reserve territory and 664 outside. As of 2015, the grand chief of Kanesatake was Serge Otsi Simon. Soon after his election, he spoke in an interview with the ''

Montreal Gazette The ''Montreal Gazette'', formerly titled ''The Gazette'', is the only English-language daily newspaper published in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Three other daily English-language newspapers shuttered at various times during the second half of th ...

'' about the Oka Crisis.

Education

The French school board is ''

Commission scolaire de la Seigneurie-des-Mille-Îles The Commission scolaire de la Seigneurie-des-Mille-Îles (CSSMI) is a former francophone school district in the Canadian province of Quebec. It comprises several primary schools and high schools across municipalities in the Laurentides region. The ...

''. The zoned schools are: * École des Pins (

Oka Oka or OKA may refer to: Cars * Oka (automobile), a small car designed by AvtoVAZ and produced by ZMA and SeAZ * OKA 4wd, a large 4-wheel-drive vehicle made in Western Australia by OKA Military * 2B1 Oka, Soviet 420 mm self-propelled mor ...

) *

École secondaire d'Oka École secondaire d'Oka (ESO) is a public Francophone secondary school in Oka, Quebec, operated by the Commission scolaire de la Seigneurie-des-Mille-Îles (CSSMI). It serves Oka, Kanesatake, Saint-Joseph-du-Lac, Saint-Placide, parts of Mirabel ...

(Oka) The area English school board is the

Sir Wilfrid Laurier School Board The Sir Wilfrid Laurier School Board (SWLSB, french: Commission scolaire Sir-Wilfrid-Laurier, CSSWL) is a school board headquartered in Rosemère, Quebec in Greater Montreal. It officially came into existence in July 1998 when English-language sc ...

. As of 2014, 55 students from Kanesatake choose to attend Lake of Two Mountains High School in Deux-Montagnes.Overview
" Lake of Two Mountains High School. Retrieved on December 8, 2014. Kanesatake is in the attendance boundary of Lake of Two Mountains. Mountainview Elementary School and Saint Jude Elementary School, both in Deux-Montagnes, also serve this community.Saint Jude Elementary School Zone Map
"

. Retrieved on December 8, 2014.

References

External links

Kanesatake First Nation
Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada

Secrétariat aux affaires autochthones du Québec
Photos
Surviving Canada Links re: Policing and governance issues of 2003-2005

''Kanesatake Mohawk Voice''

''The Eastern Door'' (Kahnawake Mohawk Community).
"Mohawk blockade stops traffic near Kanesatake"
CTV.ca

- Judicial review of Council decision re: 2003 By-election (Federal Court of Canada)

Judicial review of Council decision to fire Ross (Federal Court of Canada)
"Mohawks end blockade northwest of Montreal"
Sympatico.ca
"Uprising in Kanesatake"
''Maritimes Independent Media''

{{Greater Montreal Mohawk reserves in Quebec Indian settlements in Quebec Greater Montreal Mohawks of Kanesatake

History

Governance

Oka crisis

Representation in other media

Electoral changes

Governance

Education

See also

References

Further reading

External links