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, officially , were a part of the
Japanese Special Attack Units During World War II, , also called ''shimbu-tai'', were specialized units of the Imperial Japanese Navy and Imperial Japanese Army normally used for suicide missions. They included ''kamikaze'' aircraft, '' fukuryu'' frogmen, and several types of ...
of military aviators who flew suicide attacks for the
Empire of Japan The also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was a historical nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of Japan, 1947 constitu ...
against Allied naval vessels in the closing stages of the Pacific campaign of
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...
, intending to destroy
warship A warship or combatant ship is a naval ship that is built and primarily intended for naval warfare. Usually they belong to the armed forces of a state. As well as being armed, warships are designed to withstand damage and are usually faster ...
s more effectively than with conventional air attacks. About 3,800 ''kamikaze'' pilots died during the war, and more than 7,000 naval personnel were killed by ''kamikaze'' attacks. ''Kamikaze'' aircraft were essentially pilot-guided explosive
missiles In military terminology, a missile is a guided airborne ranged weapon capable of self-propelled flight usually by a jet engine or rocket motor. Missiles are thus also called guided missiles or guided rockets (when a previously unguided rocket i ...
, purpose-built or converted from conventional aircraft. Pilots would attempt to crash their aircraft into enemy ships in what was called a "body attack" (''tai-atari'') in aircraft loaded with bombs,
torpedo A modern torpedo is an underwater ranged weapon launched above or below the water surface, self-propelled towards a target, and with an explosive warhead designed to detonate either on contact with or in proximity to the target. Historically, s ...
es and or other explosives. About 19% of ''kamikaze'' attacks were successful. The Japanese considered the goal of damaging or sinking large numbers of Allied ships to be a just reason for suicide attacks; ''kamikaze'' was more accurate than conventional attacks and often caused more damage. Some ''kamikazes'' were still able to hit their targets even after their aircraft had been crippled. The attacks began in October 1944, at a time when the war was looking increasingly bleak for the Japanese. They had lost several important battles, many of their best pilots had been killed, their aircraft were becoming outdated, and they had lost command of the air. Japan was losing pilots faster than it could train their replacements, and the nation's industrial capacity was diminishing relative to that of the Allies. These factors, along with Japan's unwillingness to surrender, led to the use of ''kamikaze'' tactics as Allied forces advanced towards the
Japanese home islands The Japanese archipelago (Japanese: 日本列島, ''Nihon rettō'') is a group of 6,852 islands that form the country of Japan, as well as the Russian island of Sakhalin. It extends over from the Sea of Okhotsk in the northeast to the East Chin ...
. The tradition of death instead of defeat, capture, and shame was deeply entrenched in Japanese military culture; one of the primary values in the
samurai were the hereditary military nobility and officer caste of medieval and early-modern Japan from the late 12th century until their abolition in 1876. They were the well-paid retainers of the '' daimyo'' (the great feudal landholders). They h ...
life and the '' Bushido'' code was loyalty and
honor Honour (British English) or honor (American English; see spelling differences) is the idea of a bond between an individual and a society as a quality of a person that is both of social teaching and of personal ethos, that manifests itself as a ...
until death.David Powers,
Japan: No Surrender in World War Two
In addition to ''kamikazes'', the Japanese military also used or made plans for non-aerial Japanese Special Attack Units, including those involving Kairyu (submarines),
Kaiten were crewed torpedoes and suicide craft, used by the Imperial Japanese Navy in the final stages of World War II. History In recognition of the unfavorable progress of the war, towards the end of 1943 the Japanese high command considered s ...
human torpedoes, Shinyo speedboats and
Fukuryu were a part of the Japanese Special Attack Units prepared to resist the invasion of the Home islands by Allied forces. The name literally means "crouching dragon," and has also been called " suicide divers" or "kamikaze frogmen" in English te ...
divers.


Definition and origin

The Japanese word ''
kamikaze , officially , were a part of the Japanese Special Attack Units of military aviators who flew suicide attacks for the Empire of Japan against Allied naval vessels in the closing stages of the Pacific campaign of World War II, intending t ...
'' is usually translated as "divine wind" (''
kami are the deities, divinities, spirits, phenomena or "holy powers", that are venerated in the Shinto religion. They can be elements of the landscape, forces of nature, or beings and the qualities that these beings express; they can also be the sp ...
'' is the word for "god", "spirit", or "divinity", and ''kaze'' for "wind"). The word originated from ''
Makurakotoba are figures of speech used in Japanese poetry in association with certain words. The set phrase can be thought of as a "pillow" for the noun or verb it describes, although the actual etymology is not fully known. It can also describe associatio ...
'' of
waka Waka may refer to: Culture and language * Waka (canoe), a Polynesian word for canoe; especially, canoes of the Māori of New Zealand ** Waka ama, a Polynesian outrigger canoe ** Waka hourua, a Polynesian ocean-going canoe ** Waka taua, a Māori w ...
poetry modifying "
Ise Ise may refer to: Places * Ise, Mie, a city in Japan **Ise Grand Shrine, a Shinto shrine located in Ise, Mie * Ise Ekiti, a city in Nigeria *Ise, Norway, a village in Norway *Ise Province, an ancient province of Japan * River Ise, a tributary of th ...
" and has been used since August 1281 to refer to the major typhoons that dispersed Mongol-Koryo fleets who invaded Japan under Kublai Khan in 1274. A Japanese monoplane that made a record-breaking flight from Tokyo to London in 1937 for the
Asahi Asahi (朝日, 旭, or あさひ) means "morning sun" in Japanese and may refer to: Cities * Asahi, Chiba (旭市; ''Asahi-shi'') Wards * Asahi-ku, Osaka (旭区; ''Asahi-ku'') * Asahi-ku, Yokohama (旭; ''Asahi-ku'') Towns * Asahi, Aichi (旭 ...
newspaper group was named ''
Kamikaze , officially , were a part of the Japanese Special Attack Units of military aviators who flew suicide attacks for the Empire of Japan against Allied naval vessels in the closing stages of the Pacific campaign of World War II, intending t ...
''. She was a prototype for the
Mitsubishi Ki-15 The was a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft and a light attack bomber of the Second Sino-Japanese War and Pacific War. It began as a fast civilian mail-plane. It was a single-engine, low-wing, cantilever monoplane with a fixed tailwheel under ...
("Babs"). In Japanese, the formal term used for units carrying out suicide attacks during 1944–1945 is ''tokubetsu kōgekitai'' (特別攻撃隊), which literally means "special attack unit". This is usually abbreviated to ''tokkōtai'' (特攻隊). More specifically, air suicide attack units from the
Imperial Japanese Navy The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN; Kyūjitai: Shinjitai: ' 'Navy of the Greater Japanese Empire', or ''Nippon Kaigun'', 'Japanese Navy') was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1868 to 1945, when it was dissolved following Japan's surrend ...
were officially called ''shinpū tokubetsu kōgeki tai'' (神風特別攻撃隊, "divine wind special attack units"). ''Shinpū'' is the on-reading (''on'yomi'' or Chinese-derived pronunciation) of the same
characters Character or Characters may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Literature * ''Character'' (novel), a 1936 Dutch novel by Ferdinand Bordewijk * ''Characters'' (Theophrastus), a classical Greek set of character sketches attributed to The ...
as the kun-reading (''kun'yomi'' or Japanese pronunciation) ''kamikaze'' in Japanese. During World War II, the pronunciation ''kamikaze'' was used only informally in the Japanese press in relation to suicide attacks, but after the war, this usage gained acceptance worldwide and was re-imported into Japan.


History


Background

Before the formation of ''kamikaze'' units, pilots had made deliberate crashes as a last resort when their aircraft had suffered severe damage and they did not want to risk being captured or wanted to do as much damage to the enemy as possible, since they were crashing anyway. Such situations occurred in both the Axis and Allied air forces. Axell and Kase see these suicides as "individual, impromptu decisions by men who were mentally prepared to die". One example of this may have occurred on 7 December 1941 during the
attack on Pearl Harbor The attack on Pearl HarborAlso known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service upon the United States against the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii ...
.
First Lieutenant First lieutenant is a commissioned officer military rank in many armed forces; in some forces, it is an appointment. The rank of lieutenant has different meanings in different military formations, but in most forces it is sub-divided into a ...
Fusata Iida's aircraft had taken a hit and had started leaking fuel when he apparently used it to make a suicide attack on Naval Air Station Kaneohe. Before taking off, he had told his men that if his aircraft were to become badly damaged he would crash it into a "worthy enemy target". Another possible example occurred at the
Battle of Midway The Battle of Midway was a major naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II that took place on 4–7 June 1942, six months after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea. The U.S. Navy under ...
when a damaged American bomber flew at the 's bridge but missed. But in most cases, little evidence exists that such hits represented more than accidental collisions of the kind that sometimes happen in intense sea or air battles. The carrier battles in 1942, particularly Midway, inflicted irreparable damage on the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service (IJNAS), such that they could no longer put together a large number of fleet carriers with well-trained aircrews. U.S. Naval War College Analysis, p. 1; Parshall and Tully, ''Shattered Sword'', pp. 416–430. Japanese planners had assumed a quick war and lacked comprehensive programs to replace the losses of ships, pilots, and sailors; and Midway; the
Solomon Islands campaign The Solomon Islands campaign was a major campaign of the Pacific War of World War II. The campaign began with Japanese landings and occupation of several areas in the British Solomon Islands and Bougainville, in the Territory of New Guinea, ...
(1942–1945) and the New Guinea campaign (1942–1945), notably the Battles of Eastern Solomons (August 1942); and Santa Cruz (October 1942), decimated the IJNAS veteran aircrews, and replacing their combat experience proved impossible. During 1943–1944, U.S. forces steadily advanced toward Japan. Newer U.S.-made aircraft, especially the
Grumman F6F Hellcat The Grumman F6F Hellcat is an American carrier-based fighter aircraft of World War II. Designed to replace the earlier F4F Wildcat and to counter the Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero, it was the United States Navy's dominant fighter in the second ha ...
and
Vought F4U Corsair The Vought F4U Corsair is an American fighter aircraft which saw service primarily in World War II and the Korean War. Designed and initially manufactured by Chance Vought, the Corsair was soon in great demand; additional production contract ...
, outclassed and soon outnumbered Japan's fighters. Tropical diseases, as well as shortages of spare parts and fuel, made operations more and more difficult for the IJNAS. By the
Battle of the Philippine Sea The Battle of the Philippine Sea (June 19–20, 1944) was a major naval battle of World War II that eliminated the Imperial Japanese Navy's ability to conduct large-scale carrier actions. It took place during the United States' amphibious invas ...
(June 1944), the Japanese had to make do with obsolete aircraft and inexperienced aviators in the fight against better-trained and more experienced US Navy airmen who flew
radar Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to determine the distance ('' ranging''), angle, and radial velocity of objects relative to the site. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, we ...
-directed
combat air patrol Combat air patrol (CAP) is a type of flying mission for fighter aircraft. A combat air patrol is an aircraft patrol provided over an objective area, over the force protected, over the critical area of a combat zone, or over an air defense area, ...
s. The Japanese lost over 400 carrier-based aircraft and pilots in the Battle of the Philippine Sea, effectively putting an end to their carriers' potency. Allied aviators called the action the " Great Marianas Turkey Shoot". On 19 June 1944, aircraft from the carrier approached a US task group. According to some accounts, two made suicide attacks, one of which hit . The important Japanese base of Saipan fell to the Allied forces on 15 July 1944. Its capture provided adequate forward bases that enabled U.S. air forces using the Boeing B-29 Superfortress to strike at the Japanese home islands. After the fall of Saipan, the Japanese High Command predicted that the Allies would try to capture the
Philippines The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no), * bik, Republika kan Filipinas * ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas * cbk, República de Filipinas * hil, Republ ...
, strategically important to Tokyo because of the islands' location between the
oilfield A petroleum reservoir or oil and gas reservoir is a subsurface accumulation of hydrocarbons contained in porous or fractured rock formations. Such reservoirs form when kerogen (ancient plant matter) is created in surrounding rock by the presence ...
s of Southeast Asia and Japan.


Beginnings

Captain
Motoharu Okamura was a Japanese naval aviator who served as a test pilot in the 1930s, and served as the commander of the 341st Tateyama '' Kōkūtai'' (Air Group) for ''kamikaze'' attacks in June 1944. Career In June 1934, Lt. Okamura was flight testing the se ...
, in charge of the
Tateyama Tateyama may refer to: People with the surname * Midori Tateyama, Japanese writer * Shohei Tateyama (born 1981), Japanese baseball player * Yoshinori Tateyama (born 1975), Japanese baseball player * Homarefuji Yoshiyuki (born 1985), Japanese su ...
Base in
Tokyo Tokyo (; ja, 東京, , ), officially the Tokyo Metropolis ( ja, 東京都, label=none, ), is the capital and List of cities in Japan, largest city of Japan. Formerly known as Edo, its metropolitan area () is the most populous in the world, ...
, as well as the 341st Air Group Home, was, according to some sources, the first officer to officially propose ''kamikaze'' attack tactics. With his superiors, he arranged the first investigations into the plausibility and mechanisms of intentional suicide attacks on 15 June 1944. In August 1944, it was announced by the Domei news agency that a flight instructor named Takeo Tagata was training pilots in
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
for suicide missions. One source claims that the first ''kamikaze'' mission occurred on 13 September 1944. A group of pilots from the army's 31st Fighter Squadron on
Negros Island Negros is the fourth largest and third most populous island in the Philippines, with a total land area of . Negros is one of the many islands of the Visayas, in the central part of the country. The predominant inhabitants of the island region a ...
decided to launch a suicide attack the following morning.
First Lieutenant First lieutenant is a commissioned officer military rank in many armed forces; in some forces, it is an appointment. The rank of lieutenant has different meanings in different military formations, but in most forces it is sub-divided into a ...
Takeshi Kosai and a sergeant were selected. Two bombs were attached to two fighters, and the pilots took off before dawn, planning to crash into carriers. They never returned, but there is no record of a Kamikaze hitting an Allied ship that day. According to some sources, on 14 October 1944, was hit by a deliberately crashed Japanese aircraft. Rear Admiral Masafumi Arima, the commander of the 26th Air Flotilla (part of the
11th Air Fleet The was a grouping of naval aviation and surface units. Assignments and Components Commanders Chiefs of Staff Notes References * {{Use dmy dates, date=June 2017 Fleets of the Imperial Japanese Navy Units of the Imperial Japanese N ...
), is sometimes credited with inventing the ''kamikaze'' tactic. Arima personally led an attack by a
Mitsubishi G4M The Mitsubishi G4M was a twin-engine, land-based medium bomber formerly manufactured by the Mitsubishi Aircraft Company, a part of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, and operated by the Imperial Japanese Navy from 1940 to 1945. Its official designat ...
"Betty" twin engined bomber against a large ''Essex''-class aircraft carrier, , near Leyte Gulf, on or about 15 October 1944. Arima was killed and part of an aircraft hit ''Franklin''. The Japanese high command and propagandists seized on Arima's example. He was promoted
posthumous Posthumous may refer to: * Posthumous award - an award, prize or medal granted after the recipient's death * Posthumous publication – material published after the author's death * ''Posthumous'' (album), by Warne Marsh, 1987 * ''Posthumous'' ...
ly to Vice Admiral and was given official credit for making the first ''kamikaze'' attack. It is not clear that this was a planned suicide attack, and official Japanese accounts of Arima's attack bore little resemblance to the actual events. On 17 October 1944, Allied forces assaulted Suluan Island, beginning the Battle of Leyte Gulf. The Imperial Japanese Navy's 1st Air Fleet, based at
Manila Manila ( , ; fil, Maynila, ), officially the City of Manila ( fil, Lungsod ng Maynila, ), is the capital of the Philippines, and its second-most populous city. It is highly urbanized and, as of 2019, was the world's most densely populate ...
, was assigned the task of assisting the Japanese ships that would attempt to destroy Allied forces in Leyte Gulf. That unit had only 41 aircraft: 34
Mitsubishi A6M Zero The Mitsubishi A6M "Zero" is a long-range carrier-based fighter aircraft formerly manufactured by Mitsubishi Aircraft Company, a part of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, and was operated by the Imperial Japanese Navy from 1940 to 1945. The A6M w ...
("Zeke") carrier-based fighters, three
Nakajima B6N The Nakajima B6N ''Tenzan'' ( ja, 中島 B6N 天山, "Heavenly Mountain", Allied reporting name: "Jill") was the Imperial Japanese Navy's standard carrier-borne torpedo bomber during the final years of World War II and the successor to the B5N ...
''Tenzan'' ("Jill")
torpedo bomber A torpedo bomber is a military aircraft designed primarily to attack ships with aerial torpedoes. Torpedo bombers came into existence just before the First World War almost as soon as aircraft were built that were capable of carrying the weight ...
s, one
Mitsubishi G4M The Mitsubishi G4M was a twin-engine, land-based medium bomber formerly manufactured by the Mitsubishi Aircraft Company, a part of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, and operated by the Imperial Japanese Navy from 1940 to 1945. Its official designat ...
("Betty") and two
Yokosuka P1Y The Yokosuka P1Y ''Ginga'' (銀河, "Galaxy") was a twin-engine, land-based bomber developed for the Japanese Imperial Navy in World War II. It was the successor to the Mitsubishi G4M and given the Allied reporting name "Frances". Design and d ...
''Ginga'' ("Frances") land-based bombers, and one additional reconnaissance aircraft. The task facing the Japanese air forces seemed impossible. The 1st Air Fleet commandant, Vice Admiral
Takijirō Ōnishi was an admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II who came to be known as the father of the ''kamikaze''. Early career Ōnishi was a native of Ashida village (part of present-day Tamba City) in Hyōgo Prefecture. He graduated fr ...
, decided to form a suicide offensive force, the Special Attack Unit. In a meeting on 19 October at Mabalacat Airfield (known to the U.S. military as Clark Air Base) near Manila, Onishi told officers of the 201st Flying Group headquarters: "I don't think there would be any other certain way to carry out the operation o hold the Philippinesthan to put a 250 kg bomb on a Zero and let it crash into a U.S. carrier, in order to disable her for a week."


First unit

Commander Asaichi Tamai asked a group of 23 talented student pilots, all of whom he had trained, to volunteer for the special attack force. All of the pilots raised both of their hands, volunteering to join the operation. Later, Tamai asked Lieutenant
Yukio Seki was a Japanese naval aviator of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. As a kamikaze pilot, Lieutenant Seki led one of the three fighter groups of the second official kamikaze attack in World War II (the first official attack was an u ...
to command the special attack force. Seki is said to have closed his eyes, lowered his head, and thought for ten seconds before saying: "Please do appoint me to the post." Seki became the 24th ''kamikaze'' pilot to be chosen. He later said: "Japan's future is bleak if it is forced to kill one of its best pilots" and "I am not going on this mission for the Emperor or for the Empire ... I am going because I was ordered to." The names of the four subunits within the ''Kamikaze'' Special Attack Force were ''Unit Shikishima'', ''Unit Yamato'', ''Unit Asahi'' and ''Unit Yamazakura''. These names were taken from a patriotic
death poem The death poem is a genre of poetry that developed in the literary traditions of East Asian cultures—most prominently in Japan as well as certain periods of Chinese history and Joseon Korea. They tend to offer a reflection on death—both in g ...
, ''Shikishima no Yamato-gokoro wo hito towaba, asahi ni niou yamazakura bana'' by the Japanese classical scholar,
Motoori Norinaga was a Japanese scholar of ''Kokugaku'' active during the Edo period. He is conventionally ranked as one of the Four Great Men of Kokugaku (nativist) studies. Life Norinaga was born in what is now Matsusaka in Ise Province (now part of Mie ...
. The poem reads: A less literal translation is: Ōnishi, addressing this unit, told them that their nobility of spirit would keep the homeland from ruin even in defeat.


Leyte Gulf: the first attacks

Several suicide attacks, carried out during the
invasion of Leyte An invasion is a military offensive in which large numbers of combatants of one geopolitical entity aggressively enter territory owned by another such entity, generally with the objective of either: conquering; liberating or re-establishing con ...
by Japanese pilots from units other than the Special Attack Force, have been described as the first ''kamikaze'' attacks. Early on 21 October 1944, a Japanese aircraft deliberately crashed into the foremast of the heavy cruiser . This aircraft was possibly either an
Aichi D3A The Aichi D3A Type 99 Carrier Bomber ( Allied reporting name "Val") is a World War II carrier-borne dive bomber. It was the primary dive bomber of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and was involved in almost all IJN actions, including the a ...
dive bomber, from an unidentified unit of the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service, or a
Mitsubishi Ki-51 The Mitsubishi Ki-51 (Army designation "Type 99 Assault Plane"; Allied nickname "Sonia") was a light bomber/dive bomber in service with the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II. It first flew in mid-1939. Initially deployed against Chines ...
of the 6th Flying Brigade,
Imperial Japanese Army Air Force The Imperial Japanese Army Air Service (IJAAS) or Imperial Japanese Army Air Force (IJAAF; ja, 大日本帝國陸軍航空部隊, Dainippon Teikoku Rikugun Kōkūbutai, lit=Greater Japan Empire Army Air Corps) was the aviation force of the Im ...
. The attack killed 30 personnel, including the cruiser's captain,
Emile Dechaineux Emile Frank Verlaine Dechaineux, DSC (3 October 1902 – 21 October 1944) was an Australian mariner who reached the rank of Captain in the Royal Australian Navy during World War II. He was killed by a Japanese aircraft in what is believe ...
, and wounded 64, including the Australian force commander, Commodore John Collins. The Australian official history of the war claimed that this was the first ''kamikaze'' attack on an Allied ship. Other sources disagree because it was not a planned attack by a member of the Special Attack Force and was most likely undertaken on the pilot's own initiative. The sinking of the ocean tug on 24 October is listed in some sources as the first ship lost to a ''kamikaze'' strike, but the attack occurred before the first mission of the Special Attack Force (on 25 October) and the aircraft used, a
Mitsubishi G4M The Mitsubishi G4M was a twin-engine, land-based medium bomber formerly manufactured by the Mitsubishi Aircraft Company, a part of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, and operated by the Imperial Japanese Navy from 1940 to 1945. Its official designat ...
, was not flown by the original four Special Attack Squadrons. On 25 October 1944, during the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the ''Kamikaze'' Special Attack Force carried out its first mission. Five A6M Zeros, led by Lieutenant Seki, were escorted to the target by leading Japanese ace
Hiroyoshi Nishizawa was a Japanese naval aviator and an ace of the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service during World War II. Nishizawa was known to his colleagues as 'the Devil' for his breathtaking, brilliant, and unpredictable aerobatics and superb control of his ...
where they attacked several escort carriers. One Zero attempted to hit the bridge of but instead exploded on the port catwalk and cartwheeled into the sea. Two others dived at but were destroyed by anti-aircraft fire. The last two, Seki among them, ran at . Seki however, under heavy fire and trailing smoke, aborted the attack on ''White Plains'' and instead banked toward , diving into the flight deck, where his bomb caused fires that resulted in the bomb magazine exploding, sinking the carrier. By 26 October day's end, 55 ''kamikazes'' from the Special Attack Force had also damaged three large escort carriers: , , and (which had taken a ''kamikaze'' strike forward of its aft elevator the day before); and three smaller escorts: USS ''White Plains'', , and ''Kitkun Bay''. In total, seven carriers were hit, as well as 40 other ships (five sunk, 23 heavily damaged and 12 moderately damaged).


Main wave of attacks

Early successes – such as the sinking of USS ''St. Lo'' – were followed by an immediate expansion of the program, and over the next few months over 2,000 aircraft made such attacks. When Japan began to suffer intense
strategic bombing Strategic bombing is a military strategy used in total war with the goal of defeating the enemy by destroying its morale, its economic ability to produce and transport materiel to the theatres of military operations, or both. It is a systematica ...
by Boeing B-29 Superfortresses, the Japanese military attempted to use suicide attacks against this threat. During the northern hemisphere winter of 1944–45, the IJAAF formed the 47th Air Regiment, also known as the ''Shinten'' Special Unit (''Shinten Seiku Tai'') at Narimasu Airfield,
Nerima, Tokyo is a special ward in Tokyo, Japan. The ward refers to itself as Nerima City. , the ward has an estimated population of 721,858, with 323,296 households and a population density of 15,013 persons per km2, while 15,326 foreign residents are re ...
, to defend the
Tokyo Metropolitan Area The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous metropolitan area in the world, consisting of the Kantō region of Japan (including Tokyo Metropolis and the prefectures of Chiba, Gunma, Ibaraki, Kanagawa, Saitama, and Tochigi) as well as the pre ...
. The unit was equipped with
Nakajima Ki-44 The Nakajima Ki-44 ''Shoki'' (鍾馗, " Devil Queller") was a single-seat fighter- interceptor which was developed by the Nakajima Aircraft Company and operated by the Imperial Japanese Army from 1942 to 1945 during World War II. Its official d ...
''Shoki'' ("Tojo") fighters, whose pilots were instructed to collide with
United States Army Air Forces The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF or AAF) was the major land-based aerial warfare service component of the United States Army and ''de facto'' aerial warfare service branch of the United States during and immediately after World War II ...
(USAAF) B-29s approaching Japan. Targeting the aircraft proved to be much less successful and practical than attacks against warships, as the bombers made for much faster, more maneuverable, and smaller targets. The B-29 also had formidable defensive weaponry, so suicide attacks against B-29s demanded considerable piloting skill to be successful, which worked against the very purpose of using expendable pilots. Even encouraging capable pilots to bail out before impact was ineffective because vital personnel were often lost when they mistimed their exits and were killed as a result. On 11 March, the U.S. carrier was hit and moderately damaged at
Ulithi Atoll Ulithi ( yap, Wulthiy, , or ) is an atoll in the Caroline Islands of the western Pacific Ocean, about east of Yap. Overview Ulithi consists of 40 islets totaling , surrounding a lagoon about long and up to wide—at one of the largest ...
, in the Caroline Islands, by a ''kamikaze'' that had flown almost from Japan, in a mission called Operation Tan No. 2. On 20 March, the submarine survived a hit from an aircraft just off Japan. Purpose-built ''kamikazes'', opposed to converted fighters and dive-bombers, were also being constructed.
Ensign An ensign is the national flag flown on a vessel to indicate nationality. The ensign is the largest flag, generally flown at the stern (rear) of the ship while in port. The naval ensign (also known as war ensign), used on warships, may be diffe ...
Mitsuo Ohta had suggested that piloted glider bombs, carried within range of targets by a mother aircraft, should be developed. The First Naval Air Technical Bureau (''Kugisho'') in
Yokosuka is a city in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. , the city has a population of 409,478, and a population density of . The total area is . Yokosuka is the 11th most populous city in the Greater Tokyo Area, and the 12th in the Kantō region. The city ...
refined Ohta's idea. Yokosuka MXY-7 ''Ohka''
rocket-powered aircraft A rocket-powered aircraft or rocket plane is an aircraft that uses a rocket engine for propulsion, sometimes in addition to airbreathing jet engines. Rocket planes can achieve much higher speeds than similarly sized jet aircraft, but typicall ...
, launched from bombers, were first deployed in ''kamikaze'' attacks from March 1945. U.S. personnel gave them the derisive nickname "''Baka'' Bombs" (''baka'' is Japanese for "idiot" or "stupid"). The
Nakajima Ki-115 The was a one-man ''kamikaze'' aircraft developed by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force in the closing stages of World War II in 1945. The Imperial Japanese Navy called this aircraft Tōka (藤花, "Wisteria Blossom"). Historical context The ...
''Tsurugi'' was a simple, easily built propeller aircraft with a wooden airframe that used engines from existing stocks. Its non-retractable
landing gear Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft that is used for takeoff or landing. For aircraft it is generally needed for both. It was also formerly called ''alighting gear'' by some manufacturers, such as the Glenn L. Martin ...
was jettisoned shortly after takeoff for a suicide mission, recovered, and reused. Obsolete aircraft such as
Yokosuka K5Y The was a two-seat unequal-span biplane trainer that served in the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. Due to its bright orange paint scheme (applied to all Japanese military trainers for visibility), it earned the nickname ''"aka-tomb ...
biplane trainers were also converted to ''kamikazes''. During 1945, the Japanese military began stockpiling ''Tsurugi'', Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka, other aircraft and suicide boats for use against Allied forces expected to invade Japan. The invasion never happened, and few were ever used.


Allied defensive tactics

In early 1945, U.S. Navy aviator Commander
John Thach John Smith Thach (April 19, 1905 – April 15, 1981) was a World War II Naval Aviator, air combat tactician, and United States Navy admiral. Thach developed the Thach Weave, a combat flight formation which could counter enemy fighters of superior ...
, already famous for developing effective aerial tactics against the Japanese such as the Thach Weave, developed a defensive strategy against ''kamikazes'' called the "
big blue blanket The big blue blanket was an air defense system devised by John Thach during World War II for protecting American warships from attack by Japanese kamikazes. History and tactics As the American island hopping campaign got closer to Japan, the Jap ...
" to establish Allied
air supremacy Aerial supremacy (also air superiority) is the degree to which a side in a conflict holds control of air power over opposing forces. There are levels of control of the air in aerial warfare. Control of the air is the aerial equivalent of comm ...
well away from the carrier force. This recommended
combat air patrol Combat air patrol (CAP) is a type of flying mission for fighter aircraft. A combat air patrol is an aircraft patrol provided over an objective area, over the force protected, over the critical area of a combat zone, or over an air defense area, ...
s (CAP) that were larger and operated further from the carriers than before, a line of picket destroyers and
destroyer escort Destroyer escort (DE) was the United States Navy mid-20th-century classification for a warship designed with the endurance necessary to escort mid-ocean convoys of merchant marine ships. Development of the destroyer escort was promoted by th ...
s at least from the main body of the fleet to provide earlier
radar Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to determine the distance ('' ranging''), angle, and radial velocity of objects relative to the site. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, we ...
interception and improved coordination between fighter direction officers on carriers. This plan also called for around-the-clock fighter patrols over Allied fleets. A final element included intensive fighter sweeps over Japanese airfields, and bombing Japanese runways, using delayed-action bombs making repairs more difficult. Late in 1944, the
British Pacific Fleet The British Pacific Fleet (BPF) was a Royal Navy formation that saw action against Japan during the Second World War. The fleet was composed of empire naval vessels. The BPF formally came into being on 22 November 1944 from the remaining ships o ...
(BPF) used the high-altitude performance of its Supermarine Seafires (the naval version of the Spitfire) on combat air patrol duties. Seafires were involved in countering the ''kamikaze'' attacks during the Iwo Jima landings and beyond. The Seafires' best day was 15 August 1945, shooting down eight attacking aircraft with a single loss. Allied pilots were more experienced, better trained and in command of superior aircraft, making the poorly trained ''kamikaze'' pilots easy targets. The U.S.
Fast Carrier Task Force The Fast Carrier Task Force (TF 38 when assigned to Third Fleet, TF 58 when assigned to Fifth Fleet), was the main striking force of the United States Navy in the Pacific War from January 1944 through the end of the war in August 1945. The task ...
alone could bring over 1,000 fighter aircraft into play. Allied pilots became adept at destroying enemy aircraft before they struck ships. Allied gunners had begun to develop techniques to negate ''kamikaze'' attacks. Light rapid-fire anti-aircraft weapons such as the 20 mm Oerlikon autocannons were still useful though the 40 mm Bofors was preferred, and though their high rate of fire and quick training remained advantageous, they lacked the punch to take down a kamikaze bearing down on the ship they defended. It was found that heavy anti-aircraft guns such as the
5"/38 caliber gun The Mark 12 5"/38 caliber gun was a United States dual-purpose naval gun, but also installed in single-purpose mounts on a handful of ships. The 38 caliber barrel was a mid-length compromise between the previous United States standard 5"/51 low ...
(127 mm) were the most effective as they had sufficient firepower to destroy aircraft at a safe range from the ship, which was preferable since even a heavily damaged ''kamikaze'' could reach its target. The speedy ''Ohkas'' presented a very difficult problem for anti-aircraft fire, since their velocity made
fire control Fire control is the practice of reducing the heat output of a fire, reducing the area over which the fire exists, or suppressing or extinguishing the fire by depriving it of fuel, oxygen, or heat (see fire triangle). Fire prevention and control i ...
extremely difficult. By 1945, large numbers of anti-aircraft shells with radiofrequency proximity fuzes, on average seven times more effective than regular shells, became available, and the U.S. Navy recommended their use against ''kamikaze'' attacks.


Final phase

The peak period of ''kamikaze'' attack frequency came during April–June 1945 at the Battle of Okinawa. On 6 April 1945, waves of aircraft made hundreds of attacks in Operation Kikusui ("floating chrysanthemums"). At Okinawa, ''kamikaze'' attacks focused at first on Allied destroyers on picket duty, and then on the carriers in the middle of the fleet. Suicide attacks by aircraft or boats at Okinawa sank or put out of action at least 30 U.S. warshipsNaval Historical Center, 2004
''Casualties: U.S. Navy and Coast Guard Vessels, Sunk or Damaged Beyond Repair during World War II, 7 December 1941 – 1 October 1945''
(U.S. Navy) Access date: 1 December 2007.
and at least three U.S.
merchant ship A merchant ship, merchant vessel, trading vessel, or merchantman is a watercraft that transports cargo or carries passengers for hire. This is in contrast to pleasure craft, which are used for personal recreation, and naval ships, which are ...
s, along with some from other Allied forces. The attacks expended 1,465 aircraft. Many warships of all classes were damaged, some severely, but no aircraft carriers, battleships or cruisers were sunk by ''kamikaze'' at Okinawa. Most of the ships lost were destroyers or smaller vessels, especially those on picket duty. The destroyer earned the nickname "The Ship That Would Not Die" after surviving six ''kamikaze'' attacks and four bomb hits during this battle. U.S. carriers, with their wooden flight decks, appeared to suffer more damage from ''kamikaze'' hits than the armoured-decked carriers from the
British Pacific Fleet The British Pacific Fleet (BPF) was a Royal Navy formation that saw action against Japan during the Second World War. The fleet was composed of empire naval vessels. The BPF formally came into being on 22 November 1944 from the remaining ships o ...
. U.S. carriers also suffered considerably heavier casualties from ''kamikaze'' strikes; for instance, 389 men were killed in one attack on , greater than the combined number of fatalities suffered on all six Royal Navy armoured carriers from all forms of attack during the entire war. ''Bunker Hill'' and ''Franklin'' were both hit (in ''Franklin's'' case, although by a dive bomber and not a kamikaze) while conducting operations with fully fueled and armed aircraft spotted on deck for takeoff, an extremely vulnerable state for any carrier. Eight ''kamikaze'' hits on five British carriers resulted in only 20 deaths while a combined total of 15 bomb hits, most of weight or greater, and one torpedo hit on four carriers caused 193 fatal casualties earlier in the war – striking proof of the protective value of the armoured flight deck. The resilience of well-armoured vessels was shown on 4 May, just after 11:30, when there was a wave of suicide attacks against the British Pacific Fleet. One Japanese aircraft made a steep dive from "a great height" at the carrier and was engaged by anti-aircraft guns. Although the ''kamikaze'' was hit by gunfire, it managed to drop a bomb that detonated on the flight deck, making a crater long, wide and deep. A long steel splinter speared down through the hangar deck and the main boiler room (where it ruptured a steam line) before coming to rest in a fuel tank near the aircraft park, where it started a major fire. Eight personnel were killed and 47 were wounded. One Corsair and 10
Grumman Avenger The Grumman TBF Avenger (designated TBM for aircraft manufactured by General Motors) is an American World War II-era torpedo bomber developed initially for the United States Navy and Marine Corps, and eventually used by several air and naval a ...
s were destroyed. The fires were gradually brought under control, and the crater in the deck was repaired with concrete and steel plate. By 17:00, Corsairs were able to land. On 9 May, ''Formidable'' was again damaged by a ''kamikaze'', as were the carrier and the battleship . The British were able to clear the flight deck and resume flight operations in just hours, while their American counterparts took a few days or even months, as observed by a U.S. Navy liaison officer on who commented: "When a ''kamikaze'' hits a U.S. carrier it means six months of repair at
Pearl Harbor Pearl Harbor is an American lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. It was often visited by the Naval fleet of the United States, before it was acquired from the Hawaiian Kingdom by the U.S. with the signing of the R ...
. When a ''kamikaze'' hits a Limey carrier it's just a case of 'Sweepers, man your brooms'." Twin-engine aircraft were occasionally used in planned ''kamikaze'' attacks. For example, Mitsubishi Ki-67 ''Hiryū'' ("Peggy") medium bombers, based on Formosa, undertook ''kamikaze'' attacks on Allied forces off Okinawa, while a pair of
Kawasaki Ki-45 The Kawasaki Ki-45 ''Toryu'' (屠龍, "Dragonslayer") was a two-seat, twin-engine heavy fighter used by the Imperial Japanese Army in World War II. The army gave it the designation "Type 2 Two-Seat Fighter"; the Allied reporting name was "Nic ...
''Toryu'' ("Nick") heavy fighters caused enough damage for the destroyer to be scuttled. The last ship in the war to be sunk, the Fletcher-class destroyer , was sunk by an obsolete wood and fabric
Yokosuka K5Y The was a two-seat unequal-span biplane trainer that served in the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. Due to its bright orange paint scheme (applied to all Japanese military trainers for visibility), it earned the nickname ''"aka-tomb ...
''kamikaze'' biplane while on the radar picket line off Okinawa. Almost nothing is known about the actions of the kamikaze pilots against the
Red Army The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army ( Russian: Рабо́че-крестья́нская Кра́сная армия),) often shortened to the Red Army, was the army and air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and, afte ...
during the
Soviet–Japanese War The Soviet–Japanese War (russian: Советско-японская война; ja, ソ連対日参戦, soren tai nichi sansen, Soviet Union entry into war against Japan), known in Mongolia as the Liberation War of 1945 (), was a military ...
in 1945. Between August 9 and September 2, 1945, several airstrikes involving kamikaze pilots were recorded. Thus, on August 18, a Japanese plane Ki-45, flown by the Japanese kamikaze pilot Lieutenant Yoshira Tsiohara, attacked a tanker in the port of Vladivostok. The plane was shot down and the pilot was killed. He was found to have orders to attack the largest tanker in the port of Vladivostok, and if he failed, to ram the biggest house in the city. On the same day, a Soviet minesweeper KT-152 was sunk during the
Battle of Shumshu The Battle of Shumshu, the Soviet invasion of Shumshu in the Kuril Islands, was the first stage of the Soviet Union's Invasion of the Kuril Islands in August–September 1945 during World War II. It took place from 18 to 23 August 1945, and wa ...
. It is believed to have been attacked by a kamikaze pilot. In the middle of August the Japanese military command planned to dispatch a group of 30 Kamikaze pilots from Japan to Korea to attack Soviet warships, but the Japanese leadership decided to surrender and the operation was cancelled. Kamikazes also operated against Red Army ground units. On August 10, three kamikaze planes were attacking a tank column of the 20th Guards Tank Brigade. The paratroopers succeeded in shooting down two of the attacking aircraft, while the third crashed into a tank. During 12-13 August 14 Japanese planes including kamikazes raids on tanks of the 5th Guards Tank Corps. Soviet fighter aviation, which managed to destroyed three enemy aircraft and an anti-aircraft artillery which lost two planes participated in repulsing the air raids. Nine Japanese kamikaze planes crashed to the ground without hitting their targets. Damage from these attacks was negligible. On August 17, the Kwantung Army command gave its units an order to surrender, but some of the pilots got out of control and the Japanese air attacks continued. After the 17th, the kamikazes acted exclusively. On 18 August convoys of the 20th and 21st Armoured Brigade were attacked. The kamikazes traded six of their aircraft for a tank and a couple of cars. The kamikazes also flew solo. Thus, on August 18, several ammunition resupply vehicles carrying ammunition for BM-13 were destroyed by a kamikaze pilot in the Tao'an area. The personnel were unharmed as they managed to evade the raid. On 19 August, nine aircraft raided the tanks of the 21st Guards Tank Brigade. Seven vehicles were shot down by heavy barrage. Two planes broke through to the tanks and rammed them. One tank was destroyed and the other damaged. About the kamikaze raid the author of the book "Tanker on a foreign vehicle" D. Loza recalls six Japanese aircraft attacked the convoy, which damaged one Sherman tank and destroyed a medical vehicle. For one tank destroyed, the Japanese lost six aircraft. Japanese commanders, in order to prevent kamikaze sorties that got out of hand, ordered weapons depots to be secured and the propellers of aircraft on airfields to be removed. Supposedly, the kamikazes carried out more than 50 suicide attacks against Soviet Red Army during the August 1945 hostilities with Japan. That is the number of aircraft the Japanese attribute to "other losses". Overall, the kamikaze airstrikes proved ineffective and had little or no effect to Red Army during Soviet–Japanese War. Vice Admiral
Matome Ugaki was an admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II, remembered for his extensive and revealing war diary, role at the Battle of Leyte Gulf, and kamikaze suicide hours after the announced surrender of Japan at the end of the war. ...
, the commander of the IJN 5th Air Fleet based in Kyushu, participated in one of the final kamikaze attacks on American ships on 15 August 1945, hours after Japan's announced surrender. On 19 August 1945, 11 young officers under Second Lieutenant Hitoshi Imada, attached to the 675th Manchuria Deatachment, accompanied by two women of their engagement, left the Daikosan airfield and made a final aerial suicide attack against one of the Soviet armoured units that had invaded Manchuria knowns as the Shinshu Fumetsu Special Attack Corps (Japanese: 神州不滅特別攻撃隊), the last kamikaze attacks were recorded on 20 August 1945. Shortly afterward, the main strength of the Japanese Army began to lay down its arms in surrender per the
Emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
's broadcast. The Soviet–Japanese War, and World War II, had come to an end. At the time of the surrender, the Japanese had more than 9,000 aircraft in the home islands available for Kamikaze attack, and more than 5,000 had already been specially fitted for suicide attack to resist the planned either American or Soviet invasion.
United States Strategic Bombing Survey The United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS) was a written report created by a board of experts assembled to produce an impartial assessment of the effects of the Anglo-American strategic bombing of Nazi Germany during the European theatre o ...

Summary Report
, Pacific War, Washington D.C., 1 July 1946, pp 70–71.


Effects

As the end of the war approached, the Allies did not suffer more serious significant losses, despite having far more ships and facing a greater intensity of ''kamikaze'' attacks. Although causing some of the heaviest casualties on U.S. carriers in 1945 (particularly as ''Bunker Hill'' was unlucky to get hit with fueled and armed aircraft on deck), the IJN had sacrificed 2,525 ''kamikaze'' pilots and the IJAAF 1,387 without successfully sinking any fleet carriers, cruisers, or battleships. This was far more than the IJN had lost in 1942 when it sank or crippled three U.S. fleet carriers (albeit without inflicting significant casualties). In 1942, when U.S. Navy vessels were scarce, the temporary absence of key warships from the combat zone would tie up operational initiatives. By 1945, however, the U.S. Navy was large enough that damaged ships could be detached back home for repair without significantly hampering the fleet's operational capability. The only U.S. surface losses were escort carriers, destroyers, and smaller ships, all of which lacked the armor protection and/or capability to sustain heavy damage. Overall, the ''kamikazes'' were unable to turn the tide of the war and stop the Allied invasion. In the immediate aftermath of ''kamikaze'' strikes, British fleet carriers with their armoured flight decks recovered more quickly compared to their US counterparts. Post-war analysis showed that some British carriers such as HMS ''Formidable'' suffered structural damage that led to them being scrapped, as being beyond economic repair. Britain's post-war economic situation played a role in the decision to not repair damaged carriers, while even seriously damaged American carriers such as USS ''Bunker Hill'' were repaired, although they were then mothballed or sold off as surplus after World War II without re-entering service. The exact number of ships sunk is a matter of debate. According to a wartime Japanese propaganda announcement, the missions sank 81 ships and damaged 195, and according to a Japanese tally, ''kamikaze'' attacks accounted for up to 80% of the U.S. losses in the final phase of the war in the Pacific. In a 2004 book, ''World War II'', the historians Willmott, Cross, and Messenger stated that more than 70 U.S. vessels were "sunk or damaged beyond repair" by ''kamikazes''. According to the United States Strategic Bombing Survey, from October 1944 until the end of the war, 2,550 Kamikaze missions were flown with only 475 (or 18.6%) achieving a hit or a damaging near miss. Warships of all types were damaged including 12 aircraft carriers, 15 battleships, and 16 light and escort carriers. However, no ship larger than an escort carrier was sunk. Approximately 45 ships were sunk, the bulk of which were destroyers. To the United States, the losses were of such concern that more than 2,000 B-29 sorties were diverted from attacking Japanese cities and industries to striking Kamikaze air fields in Kyushu. According to a
U.S. Air Force The United States Air Force (USAF) is the air service branch of the United States Armed Forces, and is one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. Originally created on 1 August 1907, as a part of the United States Army Sign ...
webpage: Australian journalists Denis and Peggy Warner, in a 1982 book with Japanese naval historian Sadao Seno (''The Sacred Warriors: Japan's Suicide Legions''), arrived at a total of 57 ships sunk by ''kamikazes''. Bill Gordon, an American
Japanologist Japanese studies ( Japanese: ) or Japan studies (sometimes Japanology in Europe), is a sub-field of area studies or East Asian studies involved in social sciences and humanities research on Japan. It incorporates fields such as the study of Japanes ...
who specializes in ''kamikazes'', lists in a 2007 article 47 ships known to have been sunk by ''kamikaze'' aircraft. Gordon says that the Warners and Seno included ten ships that did not sink. He lists: * three escort carriers: , , and * 14 destroyers, including the last ship to be sunk, on 29 July 1945, off Okinawa * three
high-speed transport High-speed transports were converted destroyers and destroyer escorts used in US Navy amphibious operations in World War II and afterward. They received the US Hull classification symbol APD; "AP" for transport and "D" for destroyer. In 1969, the ...
ships * five
Landing Ship, Tank Landing Ship, Tank (LST), or tank landing ship, is the naval designation for ships first developed during World War II (1939–1945) to support amphibious operations by carrying tanks, vehicles, cargo, and landing troops directly onto shore with ...
* four
Landing Ship Medium Landing Ship Medium (LSM) were amphibious assault ships of the United States Navy in World War II. Of a size between that of Landing Ships Tank (LST) and Landing Craft Infantry (LCI), 558 LSMs were built for the USN between 1944 and 1945. The ...
* three Landing Ship Medium (Rocket) * one auxiliary tanker * three
Victory ship The Victory ship was a class of cargo ship produced in large numbers by North American shipyards during World War II to replace losses caused by German submarines. They were a more modern design compared to the earlier Liberty ship, were sli ...
s * three
Liberty ship Liberty ships were a class of cargo ship built in the United States during World War II under the Emergency Shipbuilding Program. Though British in concept, the design was adopted by the United States for its simple, low-cost construction. Ma ...
s * two high-speed minesweepers * one Auk class minesweeper * one submarine chaser * two
PT boat A PT boat (short for patrol torpedo boat) was a motor torpedo boat used by the United States Navy in World War II. It was small, fast, and inexpensive to build, valued for its maneuverability and speed but hampered at the beginning of the war ...
s * two
Landing Craft Support The Landing Craft, Support (Large) were two distinct classes of amphibious warfare vessels were used by the United States Navy (USN) in the Pacific and the Royal Navy in World War II. The USN versions which were later reclassified Landing Ship S ...


Recruitment

It was claimed by the Japanese forces at the time that there were many volunteers for the suicidal forces. Captain
Motoharu Okamura was a Japanese naval aviator who served as a test pilot in the 1930s, and served as the commander of the 341st Tateyama '' Kōkūtai'' (Air Group) for ''kamikaze'' attacks in June 1944. Career In June 1934, Lt. Okamura was flight testing the se ...
commented that "there were so many volunteers for suicide missions that he referred to them as a swarm of bees", explaining: "Bees die after they have stung."Axell, p. 35 Okamura is credited with being the first to propose the ''kamikaze'' attacks. He had expressed his desire to lead a volunteer group of suicide attacks some four months before Admiral Takijiro Ohnishi, commander of the Japanese naval air forces in the Philippines, presented the idea to his staff. While Vice-Admiral
Shigeru Fukudome was an admiral and Chief of Staff of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. Biography Early life and career Born in Yonago, Tottori prefecture, Fukudome graduated from the 40th class of the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy in 1913, ran ...
, commander of the second air fleet, was inspecting the 341st Air Group, Captain Okamura took the chance to express his ideas on crash-dive tactics: When the volunteers arrived for duty in the corps, there were twice as many persons as aircraft available. "After the war, some commanders would express regret for allowing superfluous crews to accompany sorties, sometimes squeezing themselves aboard bombers and fighters so as to encourage the suicide pilots and, it seems, join in the exultation of sinking a large enemy vessel." Many of the ''kamikaze'' pilots believed their death would pay the debt they owed and show the love they had for their families, friends, and emperor. "So eager were many minimally trained pilots to take part in suicide missions that when their sorties were delayed or aborted, the pilots became deeply despondent. Many of those who were selected for a body crashing mission were described as being extraordinarily blissful immediately before their final sortie." However, an evidence-based study of 2,000 pilots' uncensored letters revealed that the pilots candidly expressed myriad emotions in private. Typically, they declared their determination to die to protect the homeland and thanked their school teachers, parents, siblings, and friends for their selfless devotion. Although most pilots were unmarried (the average age was 19), some young fathers left loving instructions for their young wives and children to live well, and others expressed memories of unrequited love or the sorrow of dying young. As time wore on, modern critics questioned the nationalist portrayal of ''kamikaze'' pilots as noble soldiers willing to sacrifice their lives for the country. In 2006, Tsuneo Watanabe, editor-in-chief of the ''
Yomiuri Shimbun The (lit. ''Reading-selling Newspaper'' or ''Selling by Reading Newspaper'') is a Japanese newspaper published in Tokyo, Osaka, Fukuoka, and other major Japanese cities. It is one of the five major newspapers in Japan; the other four are ...
'', criticized Japanese nationalists' glorification of ''kamikaze'' attacks:
It's all a lie that they left filled with braveness and joy, crying, "Long live the
emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
!" They were sheep at a slaughterhouse. Everybody was looking down and tottering. Some were unable to stand up and were carried and pushed into their aircraft by maintenance soldiers.


Training

''Tokkōtai'' pilot training, as described by Takeo Kasuga, generally "consisted of incredibly strenuous training, coupled with cruel and torturous corporal punishment as a daily routine". The training, in theory, lasted for thirty days, but because of American raids and shortage of fuel it could last up to two months. Daikichi Irokawa, who trained at Tsuchiura Naval Air Base, recalled that he "was struck on the face so hard and frequently that isface was no longer recognizable". He also wrote: "I was hit so hard that I could no longer see and fell on the floor. The minute I got up, I was hit again by a club so that I would confess." This brutal "training" was justified by the idea that it would instil a "soldier's fighting spirit", but daily beatings and corporal punishment eliminated patriotism among many pilots.Ohnuki-Tierney Pilots were given a manual that detailed how they were supposed to think, prepare, and attack. From this manual, pilots were told to "attain a high level of spiritual training", and to "keep heirhealth in the very best condition". These instructions, among others, were meant to make pilots mentally ready to die. The ''tokkōtai'' pilot's manual also explained how a pilot may turn back if he could not locate a target, and that a pilot "should not waste islife lightly". One pilot, a graduate from
Waseda University , mottoeng = Independence of scholarship , established = 21 October 1882 , type = Private , endowment = , president = Aiji Tanaka , city = Shinjuku , state = Tokyo , country = Japan , students = 47,959 , undergrad = 39,382 , postgrad ...
, who continually came back to base was shot after his ninth return. The manual was very detailed in how a pilot should attack. A pilot would dive towards his target and "aim for a point between the bridge tower and the smokestacks". Entering a smokestack was also said to be "effective". Pilots were told not to aim at a carrier's bridge tower but instead to target the elevators or the flight deck. For horizontal attacks, the pilot was to "aim at the middle of the vessel, slightly higher than the waterline" or to "aim at the entrance to the aircraft hangar, or the bottom of the stack" if the former was too difficult. The ''tokkōtai'' pilot's manual told pilots to never close their eyes, as this would lower the chances of hitting their targets. In the final moments before the crash, the pilot was to yell "''hissatsu''" (必殺) at the top of his lungs, which translates to "certain kill" or "sink without fail".


Cultural background

In 1944–45, US military leaders invented the term " State Shinto" as part of the
Shinto Directive The Shinto Directive was an order issued in 1945 to the Japanese government by Occupation authorities to abolish state support for the Shinto religion. This unofficial "State Shinto" was thought by Allies to have been a major contributor to J ...
to differentiate the Japanese state's ideology from traditional
Shinto Shinto () is a religion from Japan. Classified as an East Asian religion by scholars of religion, its practitioners often regard it as Japan's indigenous religion and as a nature religion. Scholars sometimes call its practitioners ''Shintois ...
practices. As time went on, Americans claimed, Shinto was used increasingly in the promotion of
nationalist Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Th ...
sentiment. In 1890, the
Imperial Rescript on Education The , or IRE for short, was signed by Emperor Meiji of Japan on 30 October 1890 to articulate government policy on the guiding principles of education on the Empire of Japan. The 315 character document was read aloud at all important school events, ...
was passed, under which students were required to ritually recite its oath to offer themselves "courageously to the
state State may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Literature * ''State Magazine'', a monthly magazine published by the U.S. Department of State * ''The State'' (newspaper), a daily newspaper in Columbia, South Carolina, United States * ''Our S ...
" as well as protect the
Imperial family A royal family is the immediate family of King, kings/Queen regnant, queens, Emir, emirs/emiras, Sultan, sultans/Sultana (title), sultanas, or raja/rani and sometimes their extended family. The term imperial family appropriately describes the ...
. The ultimate offering was to give up one's life. It was an honour to die for Japan and the
Emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
. Axell and Kase pointed out: "The fact is that innumerable soldiers, sailors and pilots were determined to die, to become ''eirei'', that is 'guardian spirits' of the country. ... Many Japanese felt that to be enshrined at
Yasukuni is a Shinto shrine located in Chiyoda, Tokyo. It was founded by Emperor Meiji in June 1869 and commemorates those who died in service of Japan, from the Boshin War of 1868–1869, to the two Sino-Japanese Wars, 1894–1895 and 1937–1945 res ...
was a special honour because the Emperor visited the shrine to pay homage twice a year. Yasukuni is the only shrine deifying common men which the Emperor would visit to pay his respects." Young Japanese people were indoctrinated from an early age with these ideals. Following the commencement of the ''kamikaze'' tactic, newspapers and books ran advertisements, articles and stories regarding the suicide bombers to aid in recruiting and support. In October 1944, the ''Nippon Times'' quoted Lieutenant Sekio Nishina: "The spirit of the Special Attack Corps is the great spirit that runs in the blood of every Japanese ... The crashing action which simultaneously kills the enemy and oneself without fail is called the Special Attack ... Every Japanese is capable of becoming a member of the Special Attack Corps." Publishers also played up the idea that the ''kamikaze'' were enshrined at Yasukuni and ran exaggerated stories of ''kamikaze'' bravery – there were even fairy tales for little children that promoted the ''kamikaze''. A Foreign Office official named Toshikazu Kase said: "It was customary for GHQ
n Tokyo N, or n, is the fourteenth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''en'' (pronounced ), plural ''ens''. History ...
to make false announcements of victory in utter disregard of facts, and for the elated and complacent public to believe them." While many stories were falsified, some were true, such as that of Kiyu Ishikawa, who saved a Japanese ship when he crashed his aircraft into a
torpedo A modern torpedo is an underwater ranged weapon launched above or below the water surface, self-propelled towards a target, and with an explosive warhead designed to detonate either on contact with or in proximity to the target. Historically, s ...
that an American submarine had launched. The sergeant-major was posthumously promoted to second lieutenant by the emperor and was enshrined at
Yasukuni is a Shinto shrine located in Chiyoda, Tokyo. It was founded by Emperor Meiji in June 1869 and commemorates those who died in service of Japan, from the Boshin War of 1868–1869, to the two Sino-Japanese Wars, 1894–1895 and 1937–1945 res ...
.Axell, p. 41 Stories like these, which showed the kind of praise and honour death produced, encouraged young Japanese to volunteer for the Special Attack Corps and instilled a desire in the youth to die as a ''kamikaze''. Ceremonies were carried out before ''kamikaze'' pilots departed on their final mission. The ''kamikaze'' shared ceremonial cups of
sake Sake, also spelled saké ( ; also referred to as Japanese rice wine), is an alcoholic beverage of Japanese origin made by fermenting rice that has been polished to remove the bran. Despite the name ''Japanese rice wine'', sake, and indee ...
or water known as "mizu no sakazuki". Many ''kamikaze'' Army officers took their swords along, while the Navy pilots (as a general rule) did not. The ''kamikaze'', along with all Japanese aviators flying over unfriendly territory, were issued (or purchased, if they were officers) a
Nambu pistol are a series of semi-automatic pistols produced by the Japanese company Koishikawa Arsenal, later known as the Tokyo Artillery Arsenal.Hogg, Ian, ''Pistols of the World 4th Edition'' (2004) p. 191. The series has three variants, the Type A, the ...
with which to end their lives if they risked being captured. Like all Army and Navy servicemen, the ''kamikaze'' would wear their '' senninbari'', a "belt of a thousand stitches" given to them by their mothers. They also composed and read a
death poem The death poem is a genre of poetry that developed in the literary traditions of East Asian cultures—most prominently in Japan as well as certain periods of Chinese history and Joseon Korea. They tend to offer a reflection on death—both in g ...
, a tradition stemming from the
samurai were the hereditary military nobility and officer caste of medieval and early-modern Japan from the late 12th century until their abolition in 1876. They were the well-paid retainers of the '' daimyo'' (the great feudal landholders). They h ...
, who did so before committing '' seppuku''. Pilots carried
prayer Prayer is an invocation or act that seeks to activate a rapport with an object of worship through deliberate communication. In the narrow sense, the term refers to an act of supplication or intercession directed towards a deity or a deified ...
s from their families and were given military decorations. The ''kamikaze'' were escorted by other pilots whose function was to protect them en route to their destination and report on the results. Some of these escort pilots, such as Zero pilot Toshimitsu Imaizumi, were later sent out on their own ''kamikaze'' missions. While it is commonly perceived that volunteers signed up in droves for ''kamikaze'' missions, it has also been contended that there was extensive coercion and
peer pressure Peer pressure is the direct or indirect influence on peers, i.e., members of social groups with similar interests, experiences, or social statuses. Members of a peer group are more likely to influence a person's beliefs, values, and behavior. A g ...
involved in recruiting soldiers for the sacrifice. Their motivations in "volunteering" were complex and not simply about patriotism or bringing honour to their families. Firsthand interviews with surviving ''kamikaze'' and escort pilots has revealed that they were motivated by a desire to protect their families from perceived atrocities and possible extinction at the hands of the Allies. They viewed themselves as the last defense. At least one of these pilots was a conscripted Korean with a Japanese name, adopted under the pre-war '' Soshi-kaimei'' ordinance that compelled
Koreans Koreans ( South Korean: , , North Korean: , ; see names of Korea) are an East Asian ethnic group native to the Korean Peninsula. Koreans mainly live in the two Korean nation states: North Korea and South Korea (collectively and simply re ...
to take Japanese personal names. Eleven of the 1,036 IJA ''kamikaze'' pilots who died in sorties from Chiran and other Japanese air bases during the Battle of Okinawa were Koreans. It is said that young pilots on ''kamikaze'' missions often flew southwest from Japan over the
Mount Kaimon , or Mount Kaimon, is an undissected volcano – consisting of a basal stratovolcano and a small complex central lava dome – which rises to a height of 924 metres above sea level near the city of Ibusuki, Kagoshima, Ibusuki in southern Kyūshū ...
. The mountain is also called ''"Satsuma Fuji"'' (meaning a mountain like Mount Fuji but located in the
Satsuma Province was an old province of Japan that is now the western half of Kagoshima Prefecture on the island of Kyūshū. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Satsuma" in . Its abbreviation is . History Satsuma's provincial capital was Satsumasendai. D ...
region). Suicide-mission pilots looked over their shoulders to see the mountain, the southernmost on the Japanese mainland, said farewell to their country and saluted the mountain. Residents on Kikaishima Island, east of
Amami Ōshima , also known as Amami, is the largest island in the Amami archipelago between Kyūshū and Okinawa. It is one of the Satsunan Islands. The island, 712.35 km2 in area, has a population of approximately 73,000 people. Administratively it is ...
, say that pilots from suicide-mission units dropped flowers from the air as they departed on their final missions. ''Kamikaze'' pilots who were unable to complete their missions (because of mechanical failure, interception, etc.) were stigmatized in the years following the war. This stigma began to diminish some 50 years after the war as scholars and publishers began to distribute the survivors' stories. Some Japanese military personnel were critical of the policy. Officers such as
Minoru Genda was a Japanese military aviator and politician. He is best known for helping to plan the attack on Pearl Harbor. He was also the third Chief of Staff of the Japan Air Self-Defense Force. Early life Minoru Genda was the second son of a farme ...
, Tadashi Minobe and Yoshio Shiga, refused to obey the policy. They said that the commander of a ''kamikaze'' attack should engage in the task first. Some persons who obeyed the policy, such as Kiyokuma Okajima, Saburo Shindo and Iyozo Fujita, were also critical of the policy.
Saburō Sakai was a Japanese naval aviator and flying ace (''"Gekitsui-O"'', ) of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. Sakai had 28–64 aerial victories, including shared ones, according to official Japanese records, but his autobiography, ''Samura ...
said: "We never dared to question orders, to doubt authority, to do anything but immediately carry out all the commands of our superiors. We were automatons who obeyed without thinking."
Tetsuzō Iwamoto Lieutenant Junior Grade was one of the top scoring aces among Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service (IJNAS) fighter pilots. He entered the Imperial Navy in 1934 and completed pilot training in December 1936. His first combat occurred over Chi ...
refused to engage in a ''kamikaze'' attack because he thought the task of fighter pilots was to shoot down aircraft.


Film

* ''Saigo no Tokkōtai'' (最後の特攻隊, ''The Last Kamikaze'' in English), released in 1970, produced by Toei, directed by
Junya Sato was a Japanese film director and screenwriter. His son is a fellow film director . Career Born in Tokyo, Satō graduated from the University of Tokyo in 1956 with a degree in French literature. He joined the Toei studio and worked as an assist ...
and starring
Kōji Tsuruta , better known by his stage name , was a Japanese actor and singer. He appeared in almost 260 feature films and had a unique style of singing. His daughter, Sayaka Tsuruta, is an actress. Career Born in Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, Tsuruta was raised in ...
,
Ken Takakura , born , was a Japanese actor and singer who appeared in over 200 films. Affectionately referred to as "Ken-san" by audiences, he was best known for his brooding style and the stoic presence he brought to his roles. He won the Japan Academy Prize ...
and
Shinichi Chiba , known internationally as Sonny Chiba, was a Japanese actor and martial artist. Chiba was one of the first actors to achieve stardom through his skills in martial arts, initially in Japan and later before an international audience. Born in Fuku ...
* Toei also produced a biographical film about
Takijirō Ōnishi was an admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II who came to be known as the father of the ''kamikaze''. Early career Ōnishi was a native of Ashida village (part of present-day Tamba City) in Hyōgo Prefecture. He graduated fr ...
in 1974 called ''Ā Kessen Kōkūtai'' (あゝ決戦航空隊, ''Father of the Kamikaze'' in English), directed by Kōsaku Yamashita. * ''
The Cockpit The Cockpit can refer to: * Cockpit Theatre, a 17th-century theatre in London (also known as the Phoenix) that opened in 1616 * The Cockpit Theatre (Marylebone), Cockpit, a theatre in London, England that opened in 1970 * The Cockpit (OVA), ''The C ...
'', an anthology of short films containing one about a ''kamikaze'' pilot * Masami Takahashi, ''Last Kamikaze Testimonials from WWII Suicide Pilots'' (Watertown, MA
Documentary Educational Resources
2008) * Risa Morimoto, ''Wings of Defeat'' (Harriman, NY
New Day Films
2007) * ''Ore wa, kimi no tameni koso'' (2007, ''For Those We Love'' in English) * ''Assault on the Pacific – Kamikaze'' (2007), directed by Taku Shinjo (Original title: "俺は、君のためにこそ死ににいく" ''Ore wa, Kimi no Tame ni Koso Shini ni Iku'') * ''
The Eternal Zero is a 2013 Japanese war drama film directed by Takashi Yamazaki and based on a novel by Naoki Hyakuta, published in English by Vertical Inc. The film starts with a frame story set in 2004. A Japanese man in his twenties learns that he is the g ...
'' (永遠の0 Eien no Zero) – 2013 film directed by
Takashi Yamazaki is a Japanese visual effects artist, television producer, director, screenwriter, and actor. He won the Director of the Year and Screenplay of the Year awards at the Japan Academy Film Prize in 2006 for '' Always: Sunset on Third Street''. He ...


See also

*
Japanese Special Attack Units During World War II, , also called ''shimbu-tai'', were specialized units of the Imperial Japanese Navy and Imperial Japanese Army normally used for suicide missions. They included ''kamikaze'' aircraft, '' fukuryu'' frogmen, and several types of ...
* Aerial ramming *
Banzai charge Banzai charge is the term that was used by the Allied forces of World War II to refer to Japanese human wave attacks and swarming staged by infantry units. This term came from the Japanese battle cry , and was shortened to banzai, specificall ...
* Bushido *
Chiran Peace Museum for Kamikaze Pilots The airbase at Chiran, Minamikyūshū, on the Satsuma Peninsula of Kagoshima, Japan, served as the departure point for hundreds of Special Attack or kamikaze sorties launched in the final months of World War II. A peace museum dedicated to the ...
* List of Imperial Japanese Army air-to-surface special attack units * List of Imperial Japanese Navy air-to-surface special attack units * List of ships damaged by kamikaze attack *
Leonidas Squadron The ''Leonidas'' Squadron, formally known as ''5th Staffel of Kampfgeschwader 200'', was a unit which was originally formed to fly the '' Fieseler Fi 103R (Reichenberg)'', a manned version of the V-1 flying bomb, in attacks in which the pilot was ...
*
Living torpedoes Living torpedoes ( pl, Żywe torpedy; also ''Straceńcy'' ("the Desperates" or "the Lost") was a social and military phenomenon that began in the Second Polish Republic, Poland in mid-1939, when the threat from Nazi Germany became evident. The i ...
*
Ryōji Uehara 220px, Uehara Ryoji memorial in Ikeda, Nagano was a flight captain of the Imperial Japanese Army and was killed in action as a kamikaze pilot. Uehara was born in what is now the town of Ikeda, Nagano. He entered the Department of Economics at ...
* Sonderkommando Elbe *
Suicide by pilot Suicide by pilot is an aviation event in which a pilot deliberately crashes or attempts to crash an aircraft in a suicide attempt, sometimes to kill passengers on board or people on the ground. This is sometimes described as a murder–suic ...
*
Suicide weapon A suicide weapon is a weapon designed to be used in a suicide attack, typically based on explosives. History Suicide weapons have been used both in conventional warfare, as well as in terrorism. In the Second Sino-Japanese War, Chinese used ...


References


Notes


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * Parshall, Jonathan B., Tully, Anthony P. (2005). ''Shattered Sword''. Washington: Potomac Books. * Peattie, Mark R. (2001). ''Sunburst: The Rise of Japanese Naval Air Power, 1909–1941''. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. * Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko. (2006). ''Kamikaze Diaries: Reflections of Japanese Student Soldiers.'' Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. * * * *


Further reading

* * * *


External links


Kamikaze Images



An ex-kamikaze pilot creates a new world

World War II Database: Kamikaze Doctrine

What motivated the Kamikazes?
on WW2History.com {{Authority control 1944 in Japan 1945 in Japan Aerial operations and battles of World War II Battle of Leyte Gulf Imperial Japanese Navy Japan campaign Japan in World War II Military history of Japan during World War II Suicide bombing World War II suicide weapons of Japan Japanese aviators