Haida (, hai, X̱aayda, , , ) are an indigenous group who have traditionally occupied , an archipelago just off the coast of
British Columbia
British Columbia (commonly abbreviated as BC) is the westernmost province of Canada, situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, ...
,
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
, for at least 12,500 years.
The Haida are known for their craftsmanship, trading skills, and seamanship. They are thought to have frequently carried out raids and
to have practised slavery.
The Haida have been compared to the
Vikings
Vikings ; non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway and Sweden),
who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded and se ...
by
Diamond Jenness
Diamond Jenness, (February 10, 1886, Wellington, New Zealand – November 29, 1969, Chelsea, Quebec, Canada) was one of Canada's greatest early scientists and a pioneer of Canadian anthropology.
Early life (1886–1910)
Family and childho ...
, an early anthropologist at the
Canadian Museum of Civilization
The Canadian Museum of History (french: Musée canadien de l’histoire) is a national museum on anthropology, Canadian history, cultural studies, and ethnology in Gatineau, Quebec, Canada. The purpose of the museum is to promote the heritage of C ...
.
In Haida Gwaii, the Haida government consists of a matrix of national and regional hereditary, legislative, and executive bodies including the Hereditary Chiefs Council, the
Council of the Haida Nation (CHN),
Old Massett Village Council Old Massett Village Council is a band government of the Haida people, located in Old Massett, on Haida Gwaii. Old Massett Village Council is one of two Canadian band governments for the Haida Nation, the other is the Skidegate Band Council. The mai ...
,
Skidegate Band Council The Skidegate Band Council, also known as the Skidegate First Nation, is a band government of the Haida people, one of two of the Haida Tribal Society aka the Council of the Haida Nation. Its offices are located in Skidegate, British Columbia.
In ...
, and the Secretariat of the Haida Nation. The Kaigani Haida live north of the Canadian and US border which cuts through
Dixon Entrance
The Dixon Entrance (french: Entrée Dixon) is a strait about long and wide in the Pacific Ocean at the Canada–United States border, between the U.S. state of Alaska and the province of British Columbia in Canada. The Dixon Entrance is part o ...
south of
Prince of Wales Island ( tli, Taan) in
Southeast Alaska
Southeast Alaska, colloquially referred to as the Alaska(n) Panhandle, is the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Alaska, bordered to the east and north by the northern half of the Canadian province of British Columbia (and a small part ...
, United States; Haida from K'iis Gwaii in the Duu Guusd region of Haida Gwaii migrated north in the early 18th century.
History
Pre-contact
Haida history begins with the arrival of the primordial ancestresses of the Haida matrilineages in Haida Gwaii some 14,000 to 19,000 years ago. These include SGuuluu Jaad (Foam Woman), Jiila Kuns (Creek Woman), and KalGa Jaad (Ice woman). The Haida canon of oral histories and archaeological findings agree that Haida ancestors lived alongside glaciers and were present at the time of the arrival of the first tree, a lodgepole pine, on Haida Gwaii. For thousands of years since Haida have participated in a rigorous coast-wide legal system called
Potlatch
A potlatch is a gift-giving feast practiced by Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast of Canada and the United States,Harkin, Michael E., 2001, Potlatch in Anthropology, International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Science ...
. After the Island's wide arrival of red cedar some 7,500 years ago Haida society transformed to centre around the coastal "tree of life". Massive carved cedar monuments and cedar big houses became widespread throughout Haida Gwaii.
18th century
![Voyage autour du monde - planche XIII - Jeune Femme des Isles de la Reine Charlotte](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Voyage_autour_du_monde_-_planche_XIII_-_Jeune_Femme_des_Isles_de_la_Reine_Charlotte.jpg)
The first recorded contact between the Haida and Europeans was in July 1774 with Spanish explorer
Juan Pérez, who was sailing north on an expedition to find and claim new territory for
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
. For two days in a row, the Santiago sat off the shore of
Haida Gwaii
Haida Gwaii (; hai, X̱aaydag̱a Gwaay.yaay / , literally "Islands of the Haida people") is an archipelago located between off the northern Pacific coast of Canada. The islands are separated from the mainland to the east by the shallow Hecat ...
waiting for the currents to settle down enough to allow them to dock and set foot on land. While they waited, several canoes of Haida sailed out to greet them, and ultimately to trade with Pérez and his men. After two days of poor conditions, however, the Santiago was ultimately unable to dock and they were forced to depart without having set foot on Haida Gwaii.
The Haida conducted regular trade with Russian, Spanish, British, and American fur traders and whalers. According to sailing records, they diligently maintained strong trade relationships with Westerners, coastal people, and among themselves. Trade for sea-otter pelts was initiated by British
Captain George Dixon with the Haida in 1787. The Haida did well for themselves in this industry and until the mid-1800s they were at the centre of the profitable China sea-otter trade.
Although they had gone on expeditions as far as
Washington State
Washington (), officially the State of Washington, is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. Named for George Washington—the first U.S. president—the state was formed from the western part of the Washington ...
, at first they had minimal confrontations with Europeans. Between 1780 and 1830, the Haida turned their aggression towards European and American traders. Among the
dozens of ships the tribe captured were the ''Eleanor'' and the ''Susan Sturgis''. The tribe made use of the weapons they so acquired, using cannons and canoe-mounted
swivel gun
The term swivel gun (or simply swivel) usually refers to a small cannon, mounted on a swiveling stand or fork which allows a very wide arc of movement. Another type of firearm referred to as a swivel gun was an early flintlock combination gun wi ...
s.
19th century
British Colonial authorities formally annexed Haida Gwaii in 1853 by establishing the Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands. It was later integrated into the Colony of British Columbia in 1858. Colonial authorities backed their claims using gunboat diplomacy, both in Haida Gwaii and more broadly throughout northeastern Pacific coastal indigenous title territories.
Also in 1857, the was sent from Seattle to nearby Port Gamble, where indigenous raiding parties made up of Haida (from territory claimed by the British) and Tongass (from territory claimed by the Russians) had been attacking and enslaving the
Coast Salish people
The Coast Salish is a group of ethnically and linguistically related Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, living in the Canadian province of British Columbia and the U.S. states of Washington and Oregon. They speak one of the Coast ...
there. When the Haida and Tongass (sea lion tribe
Tlingit
The Tlingit ( or ; also spelled Tlinkit) are indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America. Their language is the Tlingit language (natively , pronounced ), ) warriors refused to acknowledge American jurisdiction and to hand over those among them who had attacked the
Puget Sound
Puget Sound ( ) is a sound of the Pacific Northwest, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean, and part of the Salish Sea. It is located along the northwestern coast of the U.S. state of Washington. It is a complex estuarine system of interconnected ma ...
communities, a battle ensued in which 26 natives and one government soldier were killed. In the aftermath of this,
Colonel Isaac Ebey, a US military officer and the first settler on
Whidbey Island
Whidbey Island (historical spellings Whidby, Whitbey, or Whitby) is the largest of the islands composing Island County, Washington, in the United States, and the largest island in Washington State. (The other large island is Camano Island, ...
, was shot and beheaded on 11 August 1857 by a small Tlingit group from
Kake, Alaska
Kake (, like 'cake') is a first-class city in Prince of Wales-Hyder Census Area, Alaska, United States. The population was 557 at the 2010 census.
The name comes from the Tlingit word ''Ḵéix̱ʼ'' (Northern Tlingit) or ''Ḵéex̱ʼ'' (Sou ...
, in retaliation for the killing of a respected Kake chief in the raid the year before. Ebey's scalp was purchased from the Kake by an American trader in 1860.
The smallpox epidemic of 1862
The
1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic
Year 186 ( CLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Aurelius and Glabrio (or, less frequently, year 939 ''Ab urbe con ...
began in March 1862 when a steamship called ''Brother Jonathan'' arrived in
Victoria
Victoria most commonly refers to:
* Victoria (Australia), a state of the Commonwealth of Australia
* Victoria, British Columbia, provincial capital of British Columbia, Canada
* Victoria (mythology), Roman goddess of Victory
* Victoria, Seychelle ...
from
San Francisco
San Francisco (; Spanish language, Spanish for "Francis of Assisi, Saint Francis"), officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the commercial, financial, and cultural center of Northern California. The city proper is the List of Ca ...
containing a passenger infected with
smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...
, 1862 March 26. At the time thousands of indigenous people lived in villages outside the walls of Fort Victoria. The disease broke out amongst Tsimshian people in their community near Fort Victoria. This quickly spread into a pandemic. European public health standards at the time are well practiced and adhered to official health standards, including vaccinations and victims isolation. Instead, as the disease spread, Victoria Police burned some one dozen homes, deliberately displacing 200 Haida on 1862 May 13. They went on to burn some 40-50 more indigenous villages the following day.
First Nations from further north had been camping periodically outside the city limits of Victoria to take advantage of trade, and at the time of the epidemic numbered almost 2000, many of whom were Haida. The colonial government made no effort to
vaccinate
A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious or malignant disease. The safety and effectiveness of vaccines has been widely studied and verified.[ ...]
the First Nations in the region nor to
quarantine
A quarantine is a restriction on the movement of people, animals and goods which is intended to prevent the spread of disease or pests. It is often used in connection to disease and illness, preventing the movement of those who may have been ...
anyone infected. In June 1862, the encampments were forcibly cleared by police, and 20 canoes of Haidas, many of whom were likely already infected with smallpox, were forced back to Haida Gwaii, escorted by gunboats HMS Grappler and HMS Forward. Those infected did not make it home, according to the plans of the colonial governments, and passed on at Bones Bay near Alert Bay.
Later on a group of copper miners travelled from Bella Coola aboard the Leonede under command of Captain McAlmond. The boat took 12 passengers 1862 December. One of these passengers carried smallpox to Haida Gwaii. This might not have been a disaster should the infected miner have stayed in isolation at the mining site on Sk_'in G_aadll, or Skincuttle Island. Instead the disease was spread throughout Haida Gwaii.
The disease quickly spread throughout Haida Gwaii, devastating entire villages and families, and creating an influx of refugees. The pre-epidemic population of Haida Gwaii was estimated to be 6,607, but was reduced to 829 in 1881. The only two remaining villages were
Masset
Masset , formerly ''Massett'', is a village in Haida Gwaii in British Columbia, Canada. It is located on Masset Sound on the northern coast of Graham Island, the largest island in the archipelago, and is approximately west of mainland British Col ...
t and
Skidegate
Skidegate ( hai, Hlg̱aagilda) is a Haida community in in British Columbia, Canada. It is located on the southeast coast of Graham Island, the largest island in the archipelago, and is approximately west of mainland British Columbia across He ...
. The population collapse caused by the epidemic weakened Haida sovereignty and power, ultimately paving the way for colonization.
The Potlatch Ban
In 1885 the Haida
potlatch
A potlatch is a gift-giving feast practiced by Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast of Canada and the United States,Harkin, Michael E., 2001, Potlatch in Anthropology, International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Science ...
( hai, waahlgahl) was outlawed under the
Potlatch Ban
The potlatch ban was legislation forbidding the practice of the potlatch passed by the Government of Canada, begun in 1885 and lasting until 1951.
First Nations saw the law as an instrument of intolerance and injustice. "Second only to the taking ...
. The elimination of the potlatch system destroyed financial relationships and seriously interrupted the cultural heritage of coastal people. As the islands were Christianized, many cultural works such as totem posts were destroyed or taken to museums around the world. This significantly undermined Haida's self-knowledge and further diminished morale.
20th century
The government began forcibly sending some Haida children to
residential schools as early as 1911. Haida children were sent as far away as Alberta to live among English-speaking families where they were to be assimilated into the dominant culture.
In 1911 Canada and British Columbia rejected a Haida offer whereby in exchange for full rights of British citizenship Haidas would formally join the
Dominion of Canada
While a variety of theories have been postulated for the name of Canada, its origin is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word , meaning 'village' or 'settlement'. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec C ...
.
Lyell Island protests
In November 1985, members of the Haida nation protested the ongoing logging of old-growth forests on Haida Gwaii, establishing a blockade to prevent the logging of Lyle Island by
Western Forest Products
Western Forest Products Inc. is a Canadian lumber company based in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
History
Following its initial acquisition of the assets of Doman in 2004, the Company undertook a series of restructuring activities includin ...
. A standoff between protesters, police and loggers lasted two weeks, during which 72 Haidas were arrested. Images of elders being arrested gained media traction, which raised awareness and support for the Haida across Canada. In 1987, the governments of Canada and British Columbia signed the ''South Moresby Agreement,'' establishing the
Gwaii Haanas National Park, which is cooperatively managed by the Canadian government and the Haida Nation.
21st century
![Welcoming Party](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Welcoming_Party.jpg)
In December 2009, the government of British Columbia officially renamed the archipelago from Queen Charlotte Island to
Haida Gwaii
Haida Gwaii (; hai, X̱aaydag̱a Gwaay.yaay / , literally "Islands of the Haida people") is an archipelago located between off the northern Pacific coast of Canada. The islands are separated from the mainland to the east by the shallow Hecat ...
. The Haida Nation asserts Haida title over all of Haida Gwaii and is pursuing negotiations with the provincial and federal governments. Haida authorities continue to pass legislation and manage human activities in Haida Gwaii, which includes making formal agreements with the Canadian communities established on the islands. Haida efforts are largely directed at the protection of land and water and functioning ecosystems and this is expressed in the protected status for nearly 70% of the million-hectare archipelago. The protected status applies to the landscape and water as well as smaller culturally significant areas. They have also forced a reduction of large-scale industrial activity and the careful regulation of access to resources.
In British Columbia, the term "Haida Nation" often refers to the Haida people as a whole however, it also refers to their government, the
Council of the Haida Nation
The Council of the Haida Nation ("CHN") (''X̱aaydaG̱a Waadlux̱an Naay'') is the elected government of the Haida Nation. The council consists of a president and vice-president elected by popular vote, twelve regional representatives from four ele ...
. While all people of Haida ancestry are entitled to Haida citizenship, including the Kaigani who as Alaskans are also part of the
Central Council Tlingit Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska government.
Culture
Language
The
Haida language
Haida (', ', ', ') is the language of the Haida people, spoken in the Haida Gwaii archipelago off the coast of Canada and on Prince of Wales Island in Alaska. An endangered language, Haida currently has 24 native speakers, though revitalizatio ...
is considered to be an
isolate
Isolate may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
* ''Isolate'' (film), a 2013 Australian film
* ''Isolate'' (Circus Maximus album), 2007
* ''Isolate'' (Gary Numan album), 1992
Language
* Isolating language, with near-unity morpheme/word ...
.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Haida was de facto banned with the introduction of residential schools and the enforcement of the use of English language. Haida language revitalization projects began in the 1970s and continue to this day. It is estimated that there are only 3 or 4 dozen Haida-speaking people with almost all of them being the age of 70 or older.
Potlatch
Haida host Potlatches which were intricate economic and social-political processes that include acquisition of incorporeal wealth like names and the circulation of property in the form of gifts. They are often held when a citizen wishes to commemorate an event of importance. For example, deaths of a loved one, marriages, and other civil proceedings. The more important potlatches take years to prepare and can continue for days.
Art
Haida society continues to produce a robust and highly stylized art form, a leading component of
Northwest Coast art
Northwest Coast art is the term commonly applied to a style of art created primarily by artists from Tlingit, Haida, Heiltsuk, Nuxalk, Tsimshian, Kwakwaka'wakw, Nuu-chah-nulth and other First Nations and Native American tribes of the Northwest ...
. While artists frequently have expressed this in large wooden carvings (
totem poles
Totem poles ( hai, gyáaʼaang) are monumental carvings found in western Canada and the northwestern United States. They are a type of Northwest Coast art, consisting of poles, posts or pillars, carved with symbols or figures. They are usually m ...
),
Chilkat weaving
Chilkat weaving is a traditional form of weaving practiced by Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, and other Northwest Coast peoples of Alaska and British Columbia. Chilkat blankets are worn by high-ranking tribal members on civic or ceremonial occasions, ...
, or ornate jewellery, in the 21st century, younger people are also making art in a popular expression such as
Haida manga Haida manga is a contemporary style of Haida comics and print cartoons that explores the elements of both traditional North Pacific indigenous arts and narrative, while also adapting contemporary techniques of artistic design from the western por ...
.
The Haida also created "notions of wealth", and Jenness credits them with the introduction of the
totem pole
Totem poles ( hai, gyáaʼaang) are monumental carvings found in western Canada and the northwestern United States. They are a type of Northwest Coast art, consisting of poles, posts or pillars, carved with symbols or figures. They are usually m ...
(Haida: ') and the
bentwood
Bentwood objects are those made by wetting wood (either by soaking or by steaming), then bending it and letting it harden into curved shapes and patterns.
In furniture making this method is often used in the production of rocking chairs, cafe ...
box.
Missionaries regarded the carved poles as
graven images rather than representations of the family histories that wove Haida society together. Chiefly families showed their histories by erecting totems outside their homes, or on house posts forming the building.
Well known contemporary Haida artists include
Bill Reid
William Ronald Reid Jr. (12 January 1920 – 13 March 1998) ( Haida) was a Canadian artist whose works include jewelry, sculpture, screen-printing, and paintings. Producing over one thousand original works during his fifty-year career, Reid is ...
,
Robert Davidson,
Michael Nicoll Yahgulanaas
Michael Nicoll Yahgulanaas is a visual artist, author, and public speaker. His work has been seen in public spaces, museums, galleries and private collections across globe. Institutional collections include the British Museum, Metropolitan Museum ...
, and
Freda Diesing
Freda Diesing (2 June 1925 – 4 December 2002) was a Haida woman of the Sadsugohilanes Clan, one of very few female carvers of Northwest Coast totem poles and a member of the Council of the Haida Nation of British Columbia, Canada. Her Haid ...
amongst others.
Transformation masks
Transformation masks were worn ceremonially, used by dancers and represented or illustrated the connection between various spirits. The masks usually depicted an animal transforming into another animal or a spiritual or mythical being. Masks were representations of the souls of the mask owner's family waiting in the afterlife to be reborn. Masks worn during ceremonial dances were designed with strings to open the mask, transforming the spiritual animal into a carving of the ancestor underneath. There was also an emphasis on the idea of metamorphosis and reincarnation. With the banning of potlatches by the Canadian government in 1885, many masks were confiscated. Masks and many other objects are considered sacred and designed only for specific people to see. It was unknown who the wearer of the mask was as each mask was made for each individual's soul and spirit animal. Due to the confiscation of the masks and the sacred meaning to each individual who wore the mask, it is unknown if the masks in museums are truly meant to be seen or if they are an aspect of European colonialism and the rejection of Haida religious and spiritual traditions.
Film
In 2018 the first feature-length Haida-language film, ''
The Edge of the Knife'' ( hai, SG̲aawaay Ḵʹuuna), was released, with an all-Haida cast. The actors learned Haida for their performances in the film, with a two-week training camp followed by lessons throughout the five weeks of filming. Haida artist
Gwaai Edenshaw
Gwaai Edenshaw is a Haida people, Haida artist and filmmaker from Canada. Along with Helen Haig-Brown, he co-directed ''Edge of the Knife'' (), the first Haida language feature film.
Background
The son of noted Haida artist Guujaaw (Gary Edens ...
and
Tsilhqot'in filmmaker
Helen Haig-Brown
Helen Haig-Brown is a Tsilhqot'in filmmaker working primarily with indigenous and First Nations themes. Many of these derive from her maternal roots in the Tsilhqot'in First Nation.
Early life and education
Helen Haig-Brown is from the Yunesit'in ...
directed, with Edenshaw and his brother being co-screenwriters, with Graham Richard and
Leonie Sandercock
Leonie Sandercock (born 1949) is an urban planner and academic focusing on community planning and multiculturalism. Her work spans the interdisciplinary fields of urban studies, urban policy and planning and elucidates issues of difference, s ...
.
Christopher Auchter, the nephew of
Michael Nicoll Yahgulanaas
Michael Nicoll Yahgulanaas is a visual artist, author, and public speaker. His work has been seen in public spaces, museums, galleries and private collections across globe. Institutional collections include the British Museum, Metropolitan Museum ...
, has created a number of Haida centered films. In 2017 he directed the animated film "The Mountain of SGaana" inspired by Haida mythology.
In spring 2020, "Now Is the Time", a documentary by Haida Film maker Christopher Auchter, was selected to screen at
Sundance Film Festival
The Sundance Film Festival (formerly Utah/US Film Festival, then US Film and Video Festival) is an annual film festival organized by the Sundance Institute. It is the largest independent film festival in the United States, with more than 46,66 ...
.
Haida manga
Social organization
Moieties
The Haida nation was split between two
moieties, the Raven and the Eagle. Marriages between two people from the same moiety were prohibited. Due to this any children that were born after the marriage would officially become part of the moiety that the mother had come from. Each group provided its members with entitlement to a vast range of economic resources such as fishing spots, hunting or collecting areas, and housing sites. Each group also had rights to their own myths and legends, dances, songs, and music. Eagles and Ravens were very important to the Haida families as they would identify with one or the other and this would signify what side on the village they would reside on. The family would also own their own property, had specific areas for food gathering. These categories of Eagles and Ravens divided them on an even larger scale, specifying their land, history, and customs.
The Haida social system changed significantly by the end of the nineteenth century. At this point a majority of the Haida had taken nuclear family forms, and members of families belonging in the same moiety (Ravens and Eagles) were permitted to marry each other.
Gender
The roles of the family varied between men and women. Men were responsible for all of the hunting and fishing, building homes and carving canoes and totem poles. The women's responsibilities were to stay close to home doing a majority of their work on the land. Women were responsible for all of the chores in relation to the keeping of the home. Women were also in charge of curing cedarwood to use for weaving and making clothes. It was also the duty of the women to gather berries and dig for shellfish and clams.
Once a boy hit puberty, his uncles on his mothers' side would educate him on his family history and how to behave now that he was a man. It was believed that a special diet would increase his abilities. For example, duck tongues helped him hold his breath under water, whereas
blue jay
The blue jay (''Cyanocitta cristata'') is a passerine bird in the family Corvidae, native to eastern North America. It lives in most of the eastern and central United States; some eastern populations may be migratory. Resident populations are a ...
tongues helped him to be a strong climber.
The aunts on the father's side of a young Haida woman would teach her about her duties to her tribe once she first began to menstruate. The young woman would go to a secluded space in her family home. They believed that by making her sleep on a stone pillow and only allowing her to eat and drink small amounts she would become tougher.
Although not commonly practiced today, it was once customary for young boys and girls entering puberty to embark on vision quests. These quests would send them out alone for days. They would travel through the forests, in hopes of finding a spirit to guide them through their lives. It was believed that boys and girls who were destined for greatness could find unique spirit guides. A successful vision quest was celebrated by the wearing of masks, face paints, and costumes.
Religion
Haida beliefs are varied and diverse. Modern Haida ascribe to a wide variety of faiths including Protestantism, Catholicism, and Bahá'i. Nihilist, atheist, agnostic, and absurdist perspectives also attend the nation's post-colonial context. Pre-colonial beliefs, however, may still be most popular, and potlatch maintains its elevated situation in Haida society.
Many Haida believe in an ultimate being called ''Ne-kilst-lass'', spelt Nang Kilsdlaas in Skidegate dialect, which can manifest through the form and antics of a Raven. ''Ne-kilst-lass'' revealed the world and was an active player in the creation of life. Although ''Ne-kilst-lass'' has a generous inclination, they also includes a darker, indulgent, and trickster quality.
Nang Kilsldaas is merely one of many dozens of supernatural beings who personify a wide variety of forces, objects, places, and phenomena. A few of the most prevalent include K_ing.gii, a deity who presides over the seas; X_yuu, the northeast wind; and Sin SG_aanuwee, a cosmological "super-being" that encompasses all others.
Warfare
Prior to contact with Europeans, other Indigenous communities regarded the Haida as aggressive warriors and made attempts to avoid sea battles with them. Archaeological evidence shows that Northwest coast tribes, to which the Haida belong, engaged in warfare as early as 10,000 BC.
[Ames, Kenneth M.; Maschner, Herbert D. G. (1999). ''Peoples of the northwest coast: their archaeology and prehistory.'' London: Thames & Hudson, p. 200-201.] Though the Haida were more likely to participate in sea battles, it was not uncommon for them to engage in hand-to-hand combat or long-range attacks. Hostilities were not always violent, often ritualized and some resulting in Peace Treaties still in force hundreds of years later.
Archeological and written evidence of warfare
Analyses of skeletal injuries dating from the
Archaic period show that Northwest coast nations, particularly in the North where most Haida communities were situated, engaged in battles of some sort, though the number of battles is unknown.
The presence of defensive
fortification
A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin ''fortis'' ("strong") and ''facere'' ...
s dating from the Middle Pacific period show that the incidence of battles rose somewhere between 1800 BC and AD 500.
These fortifications continued to be in use during the 18th century as evidenced by
Captain James Cook's discovery of one such hilltop fortification in a Haida village. Numerous other sightings of such fortifications were recorded by other European explorers during this century.
Causes of warfare
There were multiple motivations for the Haida people to engage in warfare. Various accounts explain that the Haida went to battle more for revenge and slaves than for anything else.
[Ames, Kenneth M.; Maschner, Herbert D. G. (1999). ''Peoples of the northwest coast: their archaeology and prehistory.'' London: Thames & Hudson, p. 196.] According to the anthropologist
Margaret Blackman, warfare on Haida Gwaii was primarily motivated by revenge. Many Northwest coast legends tell of Haida communities raiding and fighting with neighbouring communities because of insults. Other causes included disputes over property, territory, resources, trade routes and even women. However, a battle between a Haida community and another often did not have simply one cause. In fact, many battles were the result of decades old disputes. The Haida, like many of the Northwest coast Indigenous communities, engaged in
slave-raiding as slaves were highly sought after for their use as labor as well as bodyguards and warriors.
[Ames, Kenneth M. (2001). "Slaves, Chiefs and Labour on the Northern Northwest Coast". ''World Archaeology'' 33 (1): 1–17., p. 3.] During the 19th century, the Haida fought physically with other Indigenous communities to ensure domination of
the fur trade with European merchants. Haida groups also had feuds with these European merchants that could last years. In 1789, some Haidas were accused of stealing items from
Captain Kendrick, most of which included drying linen. Kendrick seized two Haida chiefs and threatened to kill them via cannon-fire if they did not return the stolen items. Though the Haida community complied at the time, less than two years later 100 to 200 of its people attacked the same ship.
War parties
The missionary
W. H. Collison describes having seen a Haida fleet of around forty canoes. However, he does not provide the number of warriors in these canoes, and there are no other known accounts that describe the number of warriors in a war party. The structure of a Haida war party generally followed that of the community itself, the only difference being that the chief took the lead during battles; otherwise his title was more or less meaningless.
[Green, Jonathan S. (1915). ''Journal of a tour on the north west coast of America in the year 1829, containing a description of a part of Oregon, California and the north west coast and the numbers, manners and customs of the native tribes''. New York city: Reprinted for C. F. Heartman, p. 45.] Medicine men
A medicine man is a traditional healer and spiritual leader among the indigenous people of the Americas.
Medicine Man or The Medicine Man may also refer to:
Films
* ''The Medicine Man'' (1917 film), an American silent film directed by Clifford S ...
were often brought along raids or before battles to "destroy the souls of enemies" and ensure victory.
Death in battle
Battles between a group of Haida warriors and another community sometimes resulted in the annihilation of either one or both of the groups involved.
[Harrison, C. (1925). ''Ancient warriors of the north Pacific: the Haidas, their laws, customs and legends, with some historical account of the Queen Charlotte Islands''. London: H. F. & G. Wetherbee, p. 153.] Villages would be burned down during a battle which was a common practice during Northwest coast battles.
The Haida burned their warriors who died in battles, though it is not known if this act was done after each battle or only after battles in which they were victorious.
[Green, Jonathan S. (1915). ''Journal of a tour on the north west coast of America in the year 1829, containing a description of a part of Oregon, California and the north west coast and the numbers, manners and customs of the native tribes''. New York city: Reprinted for C. F. Hartman, p. 47.] The Haida believed that fallen warriors went to the
House of Sun, which was considered a highly honorable death. For this reason, a specially made military suit was prepared for chiefs if they fell in battle. The slaves belonging to the chiefs who died in battle were burned with them.
Weapons used in battles
The Haida used the
bow and arrow
The bow and arrow is a ranged weapon system consisting of an elastic launching device (bow) and long-shafted projectiles ( arrows). Humans used bows and arrows for hunting and aggression long before recorded history, and the practice was comm ...
until it was replaced by
firearm
A firearm is any type of gun designed to be readily carried and used by an individual. The term is legally defined further in different countries (see Legal definitions).
The first firearms originated in 10th-century China, when bamboo tubes ...
s acquired from Europeans in the 19th century, but other traditional weapons were still preferred. The weapons that the Haida used were often multi-functional; they were used not only in battle, but during other activities as well. For instance,
dagger
A dagger is a fighting knife with a very sharp point and usually two sharp edges, typically designed or capable of being used as a thrusting or stabbing weapon.State v. Martin, 633 S.W.2d 80 (Mo. 1982): This is the dictionary or popular-use de ...
s were very common and almost always the weapon of choice for hand-to-hand combat, and were also used during hunting and to create other tools. One medicine man's dagger that
Alexander Mackenzie came across during his exploration of Haida Gwaii, was used both for fights and to hold the medicine man's hair up.
[Mackenzie, Alexander; Dawson, George Mercer (1891). ''Descriptive notes on certain implements, weapons, &c., from Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, B.C''. CIHM/ICMH Microfiche series. Royal Society of Canada, p. 50-51.] Another dagger that Mackenzie obtained from a Haida village was said to be connected to a Haida legend; many daggers had individual histories which made them unique from one another.
Battle armor
The Haida wore
rod-and-slat armor
Armour (British English) or armor (American English; see spelling differences) is a covering used to protect an object, individual, or vehicle from physical injury or damage, especially direct contact weapons or projectiles during combat, or fr ...
. This meant
greave
A greave (from the Old French ''greve'' "shin, shin armour") or jambeau is a piece of armour that protects the leg.
Description
The primary purpose of greaves is to protect the tibia from attack. The tibia, or shinbone, is very close to the skin ...
s for the thighs and lower back and slats (a long strip of wood) in the side pieces to allow for more flexibility during movement. They wore
elk
The elk (''Cervus canadensis''), also known as the wapiti, is one of the largest species within the deer family, Cervidae, and one of the largest terrestrial mammals in its native range of North America and Central and East Asia. The common ...
hide
tunic
A tunic is a garment for the body, usually simple in style, reaching from the shoulders to a length somewhere between the hips and the knees. The name derives from the Latin ''tunica'', the basic garment worn by both men and women in Ancient Rome ...
s under their armor and wooden helmets. Arrows could not penetrate this armor, and
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
n explorers found that bullets could only penetrate the armor if shot from a distance of less than 20 feet. The Haida rarely used shields because of their developed armor.
Villages
![Haida Heritage Centre - Grand Opening](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Haida_Heritage_Centre_-_Grand_Opening.jpg)
Historical Haida villages were:
*
Kiusta Kiusta ( hai, K’yuusda) located on Haida Gwaii is the oldest Northern Haida village: and the site of first recorded contact between the Haida and Europeans in 1774. Haida lived in this village for thousands of years, due to the sheltered nature o ...
*
Kung
Kung or Küng may refer to:
* ǃKung people
* ǃKung language
* Kung (Haida village), an historical village of the Haida people of the Queen Charlotte Islands of British Columbia, Canada; also Kung Indian Reserve No. 11 at the same location
* Kun ...
* Yan
* Hiellan
*
Skidegate
Skidegate ( hai, Hlg̱aagilda) is a Haida community in in British Columbia, Canada. It is located on the southeast coast of Graham Island, the largest island in the archipelago, and is approximately west of mainland British Columbia across He ...
(
Graham Island
Graham Island () is the largest island in the Haida Gwaii archipelago (previously known as the Queen Charlotte Islands), lying off the mainland coast of British Columbia, Canada. It is separated by the narrow Skidegate Channel from the other pri ...
)
* Cha'atl
*
Haina
Haina (Kloster) is a municipality in Waldeck-Frankenberg in northwest Hesse, Germany.
Geography
Location
Haina lies in Waldeck-Frankenberg south of Frankenberg and east of Burgwald at the southwest slope of the Kellerwald range. It lies on the ...
* Kaisun (
Haida
Haida may refer to:
Places
* Haida, an old name for Nový Bor
* Haida Gwaii, meaning "Islands of the People", formerly called the Queen Charlotte Islands
* Haida Islands, a different archipelago near Bella Bella, British Columbia
Ships
* , a 1 ...
: ''Ḵaysuun Llnagaay'')
*
Cumshewa Cumshewa, also Go'mshewah, Cummashawa, Cummashawaas, Cumchewas, Gumshewa was an important hereditary leader of the Haida people of Haida Gwaii on the North Coast of British Columbia, Canada. His name is believed to be of either Kwak'wala or Heilt ...
(
Moresby Island
Moresby Island ( hai, Gwaii Haanas) is a large island () that forms part of the Haida Gwaii archipelago (formerly known as Queen Charlotte Islands) in British Columbia, Canada, located at . It is separated by the narrow Skidegate Channel from ...
)
*
Skedans
Skedans, also known variously as Koona, Q'una, Koona LLnaagay, K'uuna Llnagaay, Q!o'na Inaga'-I, Q:o'na, and Ḵ'uuna Llnagaay which are variants of its traditional name in the Haida language, is a village located at the head of Cumshewa Inlet in ...
aka Koona or Q'una.
*
Tanu Tanu may refer to:
People
* Malietoa Tanumafili I (1879–1939), Samoan prince
* Tanu Nona (1902–1980), Australian pearler and politician
* Tanu Roy (born 1980), Indian actress and model
* Tanu (born 1997), a Finnish/Assyrian rapper
Places
* Ta ...
(
New Clew),
Louise Island
*
Ninstints
SG̱ang Gwaay Llanagaay ("Red Cod Island"), commonly known by its English name Ninstints, is a village site of the Haida people and part of the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site on Haida Gwaii on the North Coast of Bri ...
(Sgang Gway, aka
Anthony Island)
*
Masset
Masset , formerly ''Massett'', is a village in Haida Gwaii in British Columbia, Canada. It is located on Masset Sound on the northern coast of Graham Island, the largest island in the archipelago, and is approximately west of mainland British Col ...
The name Masset, received from pre British contact between Haidas and the Spanish, actually includes three separate and adjoining communities,
** Atewaas (
Old Massett
Old Massett, named G̱aw in X̱aad kíl, is an Indigenous Canadian village on Graham Island in Haida Gwaii, British Columbia. It lies on the east side of Masset Sound close to the town of Masset; the area of land it is on is legally designated Ma ...
)
** Jaahguhl
** Kayung
* Hlk'yah GaawGa (Windy Bay) (
)
*
Klinkwan
This is a ''list of '' Haida villages, located in Haida Gwaii (formerly the Queen Charlotte Islands) and Prince of Wales Island, Alaska. The following list includes material from John R. Swanton's ''The Indian Tribes of North America'', publ. 19 ...
(
Kaigani Haida
Haida (, hai, X̱aayda, , , ) are an indigenous group who have traditionally occupied , an archipelago just off the coast of British Columbia, Canada, for at least 12,500 years.
The Haida are known for their craftsmanship, trading skills, and ...
,
Prince of Wales Island)
* Sukkwan (Kaigani Haida, Prince of Wales Island)
* Howkan (Kaigani Haida, Prince of Wales Island)
*
Kasaan
Kasaan ( hai, Gasa'áan; tli, Kasa'aan) is a city in the Prince of Wales-Hyder Census Area in the U.S. state of Alaska. The population was 49 at the 2010 census, up from 39 in 2000. The name "Kasaan" comes from Tlingit , meaning "pretty town" ...
(Kaigani Haida, Prince of Wales Island)
*
Tlell, British Columbia
Tlell is a small, unincorporated area on the east coast of Graham Island, which is part of Haida Gwaii (formerly the Queen Charlotte Islands) in British Columbia, Canada.
History
Besides Mexican Tom, who set up camp at Tlell in 1904, Eric Richa ...
* Dadens, Langara Island
Notable Haida
![Lisa telford haida](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Lisa_telford_haida.jpg)
*
Primrose Adams, artist
*
Delores Churchill
Delores E. Churchill ( hai, Ilskyaalas) is a Native American artist of Haida descent. She is a weaver of baskets, hats, robes, and other regalia, as well as leading revitalization efforts for Haida, her native language.
Background
Churchil ...
, artist, basketweaver
*
Marcia Crosby, art historian
*
Cumshewa Cumshewa, also Go'mshewah, Cummashawa, Cummashawaas, Cumchewas, Gumshewa was an important hereditary leader of the Haida people of Haida Gwaii on the North Coast of British Columbia, Canada. His name is believed to be of either Kwak'wala or Heilt ...
, chief
*
Florence Davidson
Florence Edenshaw Davidson (1896–1993) was a Canadian First Nations artist from the Haida. She created basketry and button-blankets and was a respected elder in her village of Masset, Haida Gwaii, British Columbia.
Early life
Florence Edensh ...
, artist and memoirist
*
Reg Davidson Reg Davidson (born 1954) is an Aboriginal Canadian carver and a member of the Haida band government.
He was born in 1954 at the Haida village of Masset on the Queen Charlotte Islands of British Columbia. His parents are Claude and Vivian Davids ...
, carver
*
Robert Davidson, carver
*
Freda Diesing
Freda Diesing (2 June 1925 – 4 December 2002) was a Haida woman of the Sadsugohilanes Clan, one of very few female carvers of Northwest Coast totem poles and a member of the Council of the Haida Nation of British Columbia, Canada. Her Haid ...
, carver
*
, carver, jeweler and painter
*
Gidansda Guujaaw
Gidansda Giindajin Haawasti Guujaaw, also known as Gary Edenshaw, is a singer, wood carver, traditional medicine practitioner, political activist and leader. He of Gakyaals Kiiqawaay, a Haida family of the Raven moiety. He has currently inher ...
(
Gary Edenshaw), artist and politician, former President of the
Council of the Haida Nation
The Council of the Haida Nation ("CHN") (''X̱aaydaG̱a Waadlux̱an Naay'') is the elected government of the Haida Nation. The council consists of a president and vice-president elected by popular vote, twelve regional representatives from four ele ...
*
Dorothy Grant
Dorothy Grant is an Indigenous fashion designer whose works have gained public recognition as expressions of living Haida culture.
Biography
Early life
Grant was born in Hydaburg, Alaska, but was raised in Ketchikan. She is a Kaigani Haida ...
, artist, fashion designer
*
Jim Hart, hereditary chief of Stasstas Eagle Clan, artist
*
Koyah
Koyah, also Xo'ya, Coya, Coyour, Kower, Kouyer ( Haida: ''Xhuuyaa'' - "Raven" ( 1787–1795), was the chief of Ninstints or Skungwai, the main village of the Kunghit- Haida during the era of the Maritime Fur Trade in Haida Gwaii off the North Coas ...
, chief
*
Gerry Marks Gerry Marks is a Canadian First Nations artist of Haida ancestry.
He grew up in Vancouver, British Columbia, the grandson of John Marks, a Haida artist.
Marks studied with the Haida carver Freda Diesing in Prince Rupert, British Columbia, startin ...
, artist
*
Bill Reid
William Ronald Reid Jr. (12 January 1920 – 13 March 1998) ( Haida) was a Canadian artist whose works include jewelry, sculpture, screen-printing, and paintings. Producing over one thousand original works during his fifty-year career, Reid is ...
, carver, sculptor and jeweler
*
Jay Simeon
Jay Simeon (born July 27, 1976) is a Canadians, Canadian artist of Haida people, Haida heritage on his father's side. He was born into the Kaawaas branch of the Sdast’a.aas Eagle clan. His crests are Eagle, Supernatural Killer Whale, Frog, Beave ...
, artist
*
Skaay Skaay was a blind, crippled storyteller of the Haida village of Ttanuu born c. 1827 at Qquuna. Skaay could neither read nor write, but his stories of Haida mythology have survived in the form of written transcriptions taken down by John Swanton ...
, historian and storytelling expert
*
Evelyn Vanderhoop, weaver
*
Michael Nicoll Yahgulanaas
Michael Nicoll Yahgulanaas is a visual artist, author, and public speaker. His work has been seen in public spaces, museums, galleries and private collections across globe. Institutional collections include the British Museum, Metropolitan Museum ...
, artist
*
Don Yeomans
Don Yeomans (born 1958) is a Haida artist from Prince Rupert, British Columbia best known for his silkscreen art. His art is in the collection of Museum of Anthropology at UBC and on permanent display at the Canadian Museum of History.
Early li ...
, artist
Anthropologists and scholars
![Lawyer and Carver](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Lawyer_and_Carver.jpg)
This is an incomplete list of anthropologists and scholars who have done research on the Haida.
*
Marius Barbeau
Charles Marius Barbeau, (March 5, 1883 – February 27, 1969), also known as C. Marius Barbeau, or more commonly simply Marius Barbeau, was a Canadian ethnographer and folklorist who is today considered a founder of Canadian anthropology. A ...
*
Franz Boas
Franz Uri Boas (July 9, 1858 – December 21, 1942) was a German-American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the "Father of American Anthropology". His work is associated with the movements known as historical ...
*
Robert Bringhurst
Robert Bringhurst Appointments to the Order of Canada (2013). (born 16 October 1946) is a Canadian poet, typographer and author. He has translated substantial works from Haida and Navajo and from classical Greek and Arabic. He wrote ''The Eleme ...
*
Emily Carr
Emily Carr (or M. Emily Carr as she sometimes signed her work) (December 13, 1871 – March 2, 1945) was a Canadian artist and writer who was inspired by the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast. One of the painters in Canada to ado ...
*
Wilson Duff
Wilson Duff (March 23, 1925 in Vancouver – August 8, 1976) was a Canadian archaeologist, cultural anthropologist, and museum curator.
He is remembered for his research on First Nations cultures of the Northwest Coast, notably the Tsimshian, Gitx ...
*
Christie Harris
Christie Lucy Harris, (November 21, 1907 – January 5, 2002) was a Canadian children's writer. She is best known for her portrayal of Haida First Nations culture in the 1966 novel ''Raven's Cry.''
Biography
Harris was born in Newark, New Jer ...
*
Charles Hill-Tout Charles Hill-Tout (1858–1944) was an ethnologist and folklorist, active in British Columbia, born in Buckland, Devon, England, on 28 September 1858.
In his early years, Hill-Tout studied divinity at a seminary in Lincoln and preached in Cardiff. ...
*
Bill Holm
*
Robert Bruce Inverarity
*
Charles F. Newcombe
Charles Frederick Newcombe (15 September 1851 – 19 October 1924) was a British botanist and ethnographic researcher. He is known for his studies of the First Nations or native people of Canada.
Biography
Newcombe was born in Newcastle-upon- ...
*
John R. Swanton
John Reed Swanton (February 19, 1873 – May 2, 1958) was an American anthropologist, folklorist, and linguist who worked with Native American peoples throughout the United States. Swanton achieved recognition in the fields of ethnology and et ...
*
Nancy J. Turner
*
Marianne Boelscher Ignace
See also
*
Haida Heritage Centre
The Haida Heritage Centre is the premier cultural centre and museum of the Haida people. It is located in Skidegate, a community on Graham Island in Haida Gwaii off the Pacific coast of British Columbia, Canada. The centre is situated just south o ...
*
Haida mythology
The Haida are one of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America. Their national territories lie along the west coast of Canada and include parts of south east Alaska. Haida mythology is an indigenous religion that can ...
*
Colonial police action against the people of Haida Gwaii
Various Imperial and colonial actions against Haida Gwaii Authorities have been undertaken since the 19th century. The indigenous peoples of Haida Gwaii often reacted violently to European and American ships which trespassed in their waters and ...
*
Haida Argillite Carvings
Haida argillite carvings are a sculptural tradition among the Haida indigenous nation of the Northwest Coast of North America. It first became a widespread art form in the early 19th century, and continues today.
Background
Argillite becam ...
References
Further reading
* Blackman, Margaret B. (1982; rev. ed., 1992) ''During My Time: Florence Edenshaw Davidson, a Haida Woman.'' Seattle: University of Washington Press.
* Boelscher, Marianne (1988) ''The Curtain Within: Haida Social and Mythical Discourse.'' Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.
*
*
*
*
* Fisher, Robin (1992) ''Contact and Conflict: Indian-European Relations in British Columbia, 1774-1890.'' UBC Press.
*
*
*
*
Snyder, Gary (1979) ''He Who Hunted Birds in His Father's Village.'' San Francisco: Grey Fox Press.
* Stearns, Mary Lee (1981) ''Haida Culture in Custody: The Masset Band.'' Seattle: University of Washington Press.
*
*
* Yahgulanaas, Michael Nicoll (2008), ''Flight of the Hummingbird'', Vancouver; Greystone Books.
External links
Council of Haida NationCentral Council Tlingit Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska website
{{authority control
Haida Gwaii
First Nations in British Columbia
Native American history of Alaska
Native American tribes in Alaska