John Dunkley (10 December 1891 – 17 February 1947) was a self-taught

Jamaica Jamaica (; ) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of His ...

n painter and sculptor. Though his fame is largely posthumous, he is considered one of the island's most significant artists. Dunkley's scenes are full of references to the unsettling political, economic and social conditions roiling colonial Jamaica in the 1930s and 1940s. The work reflects the racial tension, economic inequality and desire for self-government felt by Jamaicans and other Caribbean islanders. His creative output also coincided with the search for forms of "authentic" Jamaican expression that preceded the independence movement. Above all, though, Dunkley's oeuvre is a singular exploration of a complicated and often-dark personal and cultural identity. He is associated with a group of Jamaican artists known as " The Intuitives". The group includes

Mallica Reynolds Mallica Reynolds, OD (10 February 1911 – 24 February 1989), better known by the adopted name "Kapo", was a Jamaican artist and religious leader. Considered one of the greatest artists in Jamaica's "Intuitives" artistic movement, Kapo's religiou ...

, David Miller Senior, David Miller Junior, Everald Brown, David Pottinger and

Albert Huie Albert Huie (31 December 1920 – 31 January 2010) was a Jamaican painter. Early life and education Born in Falmouth, Trelawny Parish, Jamaica, Huie moved to Kingston when he was 16 years old;

. His work is generally darker in tone, and has been described as sharing characteristics with

Wifredo Lam Wifredo Óscar de la Concepción Lam y Castilla (; December 8, 1902 – September 11, 1982), better known as Wifredo Lam, was a Cuban artist who sought to portray and revive the enduring Afro-Cuban spirit and culture. Inspired by and in conta ...

's paintings. Some critics see commonality with the work of French

Post-Impressionist Post-Impressionism (also spelled Postimpressionism) was a predominantly French art movement that developed roughly between 1886 and 1905, from the last Impressionist exhibition to the birth of Fauvism. Post-Impressionism emerged as a reaction ag ...

Henri Rousseau Henri Julien Félix Rousseau (; 21 May 1844 – 2 September 1910)
at the pan-Africanist Pan-Africanism is a worldwide movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all Indigenous and diaspora peoples of African ancestry. Based on a common goal dating back to the Atlantic slave trade, the movement exte ...

and an admirer of

Marcus Garvey Marcus Mosiah Garvey Sr. (17 August 188710 June 1940) was a Jamaican political activist, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator. He was the founder and first President-General of the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African ...

Early life

Dunkley's early life was filled with both adversity and adventure, which may account, in part, for his unique artistic vision. At the age of seven, an accident damaged one of his eyes, affecting his ability to learn in school. As a result, he was sent for by his father who was living in

Panama Panama ( , ; es, link=no, Panamá ), officially the Republic of Panama ( es, República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. It is bordered by Cos ...

. Upon arrival, the teen-aged Dunkley discovered his father had recently died and was buried the day before he landed. Deprived of his father's wealth, Dunkley started earning his own livelihood. Like many of his impoverished black countrymen, he sought work throughout the

Caribbean The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Se ...

, stopping in

Colón, Panama Colón () is a city and seaport in Panama, beside the Caribbean Sea, lying near the Atlantic entrance to the Panama Canal. It is the capital of Panama's Colón Province and has traditionally been known as Panama's second city. Originally it was l ...

; Chiriqui, Panama;

Costa Rica Costa Rica (, ; ; literally "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( es, República de Costa Rica), is a country in the Central American region of North America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the no ...

and Camaguey, Cuba. A

banana plantation A banana plantation is a commercial agricultural facility found in tropical climates where bananas are grown. Geographic distribution Banana plants may grow with varying degrees of success in diverse climatic conditions, but commercial banana p ...

where he worked in Panama would later inspire a number of his paintings. He reportedly started out from Cuba for

California California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...

to study

dentistry Dentistry, also known as dental medicine and oral medicine, is the branch of medicine focused on the teeth, gums, and mouth. It consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, management, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions o ...

when an armed upheaval took place. He lost all of his belongings, but was spared his life. According to his wife, Dunkley, who was a

Freemason Freemasonry or Masonry refers to fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 13th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities ...

, sent out the Mason's distress signal, which was answered by a lodge member on a passing ship. Welcomed aboard, he signed on as a sailor, traveling to England, Scotland, North and South America and numerous other places. He may also have worked on the construction of the

Panama Canal The Panama Canal ( es, Canal de Panamá, link=no) is an artificial waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean and divides North and South America. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a conduit ...

. He returned to Chiriqui, where he set up a barbershop and started painting in his spare time, encouraged by Clarence Rock, a prominent Panamanian photographer. Sometime between 1926 and 1930, Dunkley returned to Jamaica, establishing his barbering business on lower Princess Street in Kingston. He covered the entirety of the shop's exterior with small painted signs depicting flowers, trees and vines. H. Delves Molesworth, then Secretary of the

Institute of Jamaica The Institute of Jamaica (IOJ), founded in 1879, is the country's most significant cultural, artistic and scientific organisation:

Later life and work

While continuing to ply his trade as a barber, Dunkley maintained his artistic pursuits. Active for little more than a decade before his early death, his output as a painter was small. Less than 50 paintings are known, but they reveal a unique and compelling aesthetic. There is no clearly discernible development in Dunkley's work. Anticipating impending fame, the artist kept his paintings and persisted in refining, even overworking, them. Most of the paintings are imagined,

surrealistic Surrealism is a cultural movement that developed in Europe in the aftermath of World War I in which artists depicted unnerving, illogical scenes and developed techniques to allow the unconscious mind to express itself. Its aim was, according to l ...

landscapes replete with hidden symbolism. The surfaces are delicate and tapestry-like. Fantastic vegetation, trees and shrubs with overblown flowers, are contrasted with bare truncated branches, in a way that encourages the viewer's understanding of them as phallic symbols. A preoccupation with the link between eroticism and death, the

Freudian Sigmund Freud ( , ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating pathologies explained as originating in conflicts i ...

Eros/Thantos concept, is also in evidence. Small mammals, crabs, birds and often spiders with their complex webs, inhabit the gloomy woods. Human figures are rare, though human presence is implied by an occasional house painted in the distance or at the edge of a wood. Dunkley's most persistent motif is the pathway or road, which sometimes pushes through the vegetation to suggest great depth. In "Back to Nature" (circa 1939), the path, impressed with footprints, bifurcates to encircle a heart-shaped grave. A distinct group of less claustrophobic paintings are thought to be his last. In "Lonely Road", "Springboard", "Woman Feeding Fish" and "Footbridge", the typically dense vegetation gives way to more expansive vistas and clearer skies. The backgrounds are white rather than grey. Far fewer elements populate the landscape. In some, the black outlines of sparse vegetation are silhouetted against the sky. Though less confined, the works are still disquieting. Surreal touches, such as the isolated platform in "Springboard", leaves pushing up through the cracks in "Feeding the Fishes" and the unstable support in "Footbridge" contribute to the sense of unease. Dunkley was inspired occasionally by current events. There is a mixed media piece depicting boxer

Joe Louis Joseph Louis Barrow (May 13, 1914 – April 12, 1981) was an American professional boxer who competed from 1934 to 1951. Nicknamed the Brown Bomber, Louis is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential boxers of all time. He rei ...

. In the "Good Shepherd" (circa 1938), populist politician

Alexander Bustamante Sir William Alexander Clarke Bustamante (born William Alexander Clarke; 24 February 1884 – 6 August 1977) was a Jamaican politician and labour leader, who, in 1962, became the first prime minister of Jamaica. Early life and education He was ...

is shown gathering flocks of sheep, while in the distance a few straggly goats run away. When the Roosevelt administration built

Vernam Field Vernam Field (locally spelled Vernamfield) is a former World War II United States Army Air Forces airfield located in Clarendon Parish, west-southwest of Kingston, Jamaica. The airfield was renamed Vernam Air Force Base by the newly formed Unite ...

at Sandy Gully during

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...

, Dunkley made a painting of the president. From a large piece of

Lignum Vitae Lignum vitae () is a wood, also called guayacan or guaiacum, and in parts of Europe known as Pockholz or pokhout, from trees of the genus ''Guaiacum''. The trees are indigenous to the Caribbean and the northern coast of South America (e.g: Col ...

cut down for the military base, he carved a seated portrait of a proud Jamaican man and named him "Sandy Gully". Dunkley's small body of sculptures, primarily wood-carvings, are less accomplished than his paintings. In addition to "Sandy Gully" (1940), notable works include "Old Joe", an intense portrait of a black man clasping his knees while bent in prayer, and "Acrobat", a

mahogany Mahogany is a straight-grained, reddish-brown timber of three tropical hardwood species of the genus ''Swietenia'', indigenous to the AmericasBridgewater, Samuel (2012). ''A Natural History of Belize: Inside the Maya Forest''. Austin: Unive ...

carving of a man contorting himself with his head between his legs and beneath his posterior. During his lifetime, Dunkley received some local recognition for his artwork as a result of group exhibitions. In 1938, a carving of a reindeer (since destroyed) won a prize at St. George's Exhibition in Kingston. The following year, Dunkley received a bronze medal for "notable contribution to the art of the world" at the New York World's Fair. Three works, "Back to Nature", "Jerboa" and "Pastures" were exhibited at the Institute of Jamaica's 1945 Survey of West Indian Painting, a show that also traveled to

Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...

. Four paintings including "Banana Plantation" were exhibited in London in 1946. Dunkley was in failing health for many months prior to his death. He passed away at 55 years of age, probably from lung cancer, on 17 February 1947. His large funeral was attended by both rich and poor.

Posthumous fame

Following his death, Dunkley's reputation grew. In 1948, he was honored with a memorial exhibition at the Institute of Jamaica. In 1951, his painting "Jerboa" was shown at the First Caribbean Exhibition in

San Juan, Puerto Rico San Juan (, , ; Spanish for "Saint John") is the capital city and most populous municipality in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory of the United States. As of the 2020 census, it is the 57th-largest city under the jur ...

. A retrospective of Dunkley's work, with fellow intuitive artist Henry Daley, was exhibited in 1960 at the Institute of Jamaica. In 1969, the painting "Diamond Wedding" was shown at "Art in Jamaica Since the Thirties" at

Spelman College Spelman College is a private, historically black, women's liberal arts college in Atlanta, Georgia. It is part of the Atlanta University Center academic consortium in Atlanta. Founded in 1881 as the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary, Spelman re ...

Atlanta, Georgia Atlanta ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Georgia. It is the seat of Fulton County, the most populous county in Georgia, but its territory falls in both Fulton and DeKalb counties. With a population of 498,715 ...

. Dunkley was represented by two pieces, "Jerboa" and "Back to Nature" in the exhibition "Three Decades of Jamaican Painting" at Commonwealth Institute Art Gallery in

London London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a majo ...

(1971). An exhibition of Dunkley's paintings and sculptures was held at the

National Gallery of Jamaica The National Gallery of Jamaica, in Kingston, Jamaica, is Jamaica's public art museum. It was established in 1974 and is located in the Kingston Mall, a commercial and cultural center on Kingston harbour. The National Gallery of Jamaica also has ...

, 9 December 1976 to 19 February 1977. With the resurrection of a fair percentage of his oeuvre in the retrospective and a subsequent permanent display of his work, Dunkley regained his position as a true Jamaican master. From 26 May 2017 through 14 January 2018, the

Pérez Art Museum Miami The Pérez Art Museum Miami (PAMM)—officially known as the Jorge M. Pérez Art Museum of Miami-Dade County—is a contemporary art museum that relocated in 2013 to the Museum Park in Downtown Miami, Florida. Founded in 1984 as the Center for t ...

(PAMM) held the first major exhibition of Dunkley's work outside of his native country. The show was composed of forty-five works, paintings from the 1930s and 1940s, as well as rare carved wood and stone figures. The show, titled "John Dunkley: Neither Day nor Night", then traveled to the National Gallery of Jamaica, where it was on display from 29 April 2018 to 29 July 2018. The National Gallery's version contained work not shown at PAMM that explored the themes of tourism, immigration and the emergence of cultural nationalism during Dunkley's lifetime. "Daylight Come…Picturing Dunkley’s Jamaica" served as a complement to "John Dunkley: Neither Day nor Night." It included rare photographs, artifacts and film footage from the turn of the 20th century to the Jamaican Nationalist movement, providing further context to Dunkley's output. "John Dunkley: Neither Day nor Night" was on display at the

American Folk Art Museum The American Folk Art Museum is an art museum in the Upper West Side of Manhattan, at 2, Lincoln Square, Columbus Avenue at 66th Street. It is the premier institution devoted to the aesthetic appreciation of folk art and creative expressions of ...

from 30 October 2018 to 24 February 2019.

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dunkley, John 1891 births 1947 deaths People from Westmoreland Parish 20th-century Jamaican painters 20th-century Jamaican sculptors 20th-century male artists Outsider artists