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Japanese Peruvians ( es, peruano-japonés or ''nipo-peruano''; ja, 日系ペルー人, ''Nikkei Perūjin'') are Peruvian citizens of
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
origin or ancestry. Peru has the second largest ethnic Japanese population in South America after
Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
. This community has made a significant cultural impact on the country, today constituting approximately 0.1% of the population of Peru.Lama, Abraham
"Home is Where the Heartbreak Is,"
''Asia Times.''October 16, 1999. In the 2017 Census in Peru, only 22,534 people self reported ''Nikkei'' or Japanese ancestry. Peru was the first
Latin America Latin America or * french: Amérique Latine, link=no * ht, Amerik Latin, link=no * pt, América Latina, link=no, name=a, sometimes referred to as LatAm is a large cultural region in the Americas where Romance languages — languages derived f ...
n country to establish diplomatic relations with Japan, in June 1873.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs In many countries, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is the government department responsible for the state's diplomacy, bilateral, and multilateral relations affairs as well as for providing support for a country's citizens who are abroad. The entit ...
(MOFA), Japan
Japan-Peru relations
 Peru was also the first Latin American country to accept Japanese immigration. The ''Sakura Maru'' carried Japanese families from
Yokohama is the second-largest city in Japan by population and the most populous municipality of Japan. It is the capital city and the most populous city in Kanagawa Prefecture, with a 2020 population of 3.8 million. It lies on Tokyo Bay, south of To ...
to Peru and arrived on April 3, 1899, at the Peruvian port city of
Callao Callao () is a Peruvian seaside city and Regions of Peru, region on the Pacific Ocean in the Lima metropolitan area. Callao is Peru's chief seaport and home to its main airport, Jorge Chávez International Airport. Callao municipality consists o ...
. This group of 790 Japanese became the first of several waves of emigrants who made new lives for themselves in Peru, some nine years before emigration to Brazil began. Most immigrants arrived from
Okinawa is a prefecture of Japan. Okinawa Prefecture is the southernmost and westernmost prefecture of Japan, has a population of 1,457,162 (as of 2 February 2020) and a geographic area of 2,281 km2 (880 sq mi). Naha is the capital and largest city ...
, Gifu,
Hiroshima is the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture in Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 1,199,391. The gross domestic product (GDP) in Greater Hiroshima, Hiroshima Urban Employment Area, was US$61.3 billion as of 2010. Kazumi Matsui h ...
,
Kanagawa is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located in the Kantō region of Honshu. Kanagawa Prefecture is the List of Japanese prefectures by population, second-most populous prefecture of Japan at 9,221,129 (1 April 2022) and third-dens ...
and Osaka prefectures. Many arrived as farmers or to work in the fields but, after their contracts were completed, settled in the cities. In the period before World War II, the Japanese community in Peru was largely run by ''
issei is a Japanese-language term used by ethnic Japanese in countries in North America and South America to specify the Japanese people who were the first generation to immigrate there. are born in Japan; their children born in the new country are ...
'' immigrants born in Japan. "Those of the second generation he_''nisei''.html"_;"title="nisei.html"_;"title="he_''nisei">he_''nisei''">nisei.html"_;"title="he_''nisei">he_''nisei''were_almost_inevitably_excluded_from_community_decision-making."


_Japanese_schools_in_Peru

Peru's_current_ he_''nisei''.html"_;"title="nisei.html"_;"title="he_''nisei">he_''nisei''">nisei.html"_;"title="he_''nisei">he_''nisei''were_almost_inevitably_excluded_from_community_decision-making."


_Japanese_schools_in_Peru

Peru's_current_nihonjin_gakko">Japanese_international_school_ ''Zaigai_kyōiku_shisetsu''_(_在外教育施設_"Overseas_educational_institution"),_or_in_English,_Japanese_international_school_or_overseas_Japanese_school,_may_refer_to_one_of_three_types_of_institutions_officially_classified_by_the_Ministry__...
_is_Asociación_Academia_de_Cultura_Japonesa_(Peru).html" ;"title="nihonjin_gakko.html" "title="nisei">he_''nisei''.html" ;"title="nisei.html" ;"title="he ''nisei">he ''nisei''">nisei.html" ;"title="he ''nisei">he ''nisei''were almost inevitably excluded from community decision-making."


Japanese schools in Peru

Peru's current nihonjin gakko">Japanese international school ''Zaigai kyōiku shisetsu'' ( 在外教育施設 "Overseas educational institution"), or in English, Japanese international school or overseas Japanese school, may refer to one of three types of institutions officially classified by the Ministry ...
 is Asociación Academia de Cultura Japonesa (Peru)">Asociación Academia de Cultura Japonesa in Surco, Lima.


World War II

Although there had been ongoing tensions between non-Japanese and Japanese Peruvians, the situation was drastically exacerbated by the Second World War. Rising tensions ultimately led to a series of discriminatory laws being passed in 1936, the results of which included stigmatization of Japanese immigrants as "bestial," "untrustworthy," "militaristic," and "unfairly" competing with Peruvians for wages. Fueled by legislative discrimination and media campaigns, a massive race riot (referred to as the "Saqueo") began on May 13, 1940 and lasted for three days. During the riots Japanese Peruvians were attacked and their homes and businesses destroyed. Despite its massive scale, the saqueo was underreported, a reflection of public sentiment towards the Japanese population at the time. By 1941, there were around 26,000 immigrants of
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
ese nationality in
Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...
. In December of that year, the Japanese
Attack on Pearl Harbor The attack on Pearl HarborAlso known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service upon the United States against the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii, j ...
, would mark the beginning of the
Pacific war The Pacific War, sometimes called the Asia–Pacific War, was the theater of World War II that was fought in Asia, the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean, and Oceania. It was geographically the largest theater of the war, including the vast ...
campaign for the
United States of America The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territo ...
in
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
.Densho, Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University.
Japanese Latin Americans
" c. 2003, accessed 12 Apr 2009. After the Japanese air raids on
Pearl Harbor Pearl Harbor is an American lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. It was often visited by the Naval fleet of the United States, before it was acquired from the Hawaiian Kingdom by the U.S. with the signing of the Re ...
and the
Philippines The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no), * bik, Republika kan Filipinas * ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas * cbk, República de Filipinas * hil, Republ ...
, the U.S Office of Strategic Services (OSS), formed during World War II to coordinate secret espionage activities against the
Axis Powers The Axis powers, ; it, Potenze dell'Asse ; ja, 枢軸国 ''Sūjikukoku'', group=nb originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis, was a military coalition that initiated World War II and fought against the Allies. Its principal members were ...
for the branches of the
United States Armed Forces The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States. The armed forces consists of six service branches: the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, Space Force, and Coast Guard. The president of the United States is the ...
and the
United States State Department The United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy and relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other n ...
, were alarmed at the large Japanese Peruvian community living in
Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...
and were also wary of the increasing new arrivals of Japanese nationals to Peru. Fearing the
Empire of Japan The also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was a historical nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until the enactment of the post-World War II 1947 constitution and subsequent fo ...
could sooner or later decide to invade the
Republic of Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = National seal , national_motto = "Firm and Happy f ...
and use the Southern American country as a landing base for its troops and its nationals living there as foreign agents against the US, in order to open another military front in the American Pacific, the U.S. government quickly negotiated with
Lima Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
a political-military alliance agreement in 1942. This political-military alliance provided Peru with new military technology such as military aircraft, tanks, modern infantry equipment, and new boats for the Peruvian Navy, as well as new American bank loans and new investments in the Peruvian economy. In return, the Americans ordered the Peruvians to track, identify and create ID files for all the Japanese Peruvians living in Peru. Later, at the end of 1942 and during all of 1943 and 1944, the Peruvian government on behalf of the U.S. Government and the OSS organized and started the massive arrests, without warrants and without judicial proceedings or hearings and the deportation of many of the Japanese Peruvian community to several American internment camps run by the U.S. Justice Department in the states of Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Georgia and Virginia. Racism and economic self-interest were major motivating factors in Peru's eager compliance with American deportation requests. As noted in a 1943 memorandum, Raymond Ickes of the Central and South American division of the Alien Enemy Control Unit had observed that many ethnic Japanese had been sent to the United States "... merely because the Peruvians wanted their businesses and not because there was any adverse evidence against them." The enormous groups of Japanese Peruvian forced exiles were initially placed among the Japanese-Americans who had been excluded from the US west coast; later they were interned in the
Immigration and Naturalization Service The United States Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) was an agency of the U.S. Department of Labor from 1933 to 1940 and the U.S. Department of Justice from 1940 to 2003. Referred to by some as former INS and by others as legacy INS, ...
(
INS INS or Ins or ''variant'', may refer to: Places * Ins, Switzerland, a municipality * Creech Air Force Base (IATA airport code INS) * Indonesia, ITF and UNDP code INS Biology *'' Ins'', a New World genus of bee flies * INS, the gene for the insul ...
) facilities in
Crystal City, Texas Crystal City is a city in and the county seat of Zavala County, Texas, United States. The population was 6,354 at the 2020 census. It was settled as a farming and ranching community and was a major railroad stop being from San Antonio. Spinach ...
; Kenedy, Texas; and
Santa Fe, New Mexico Santa Fe ( ; , Spanish for 'Holy Faith'; tew, Oghá P'o'oge, Tewa for 'white shell water place'; tiw, Hulp'ó'ona, label=Tiwa language, Northern Tiwa; nv, Yootó, Navajo for 'bead + water place') is the capital of the U.S. state of New Mexico. ...
The Japanese-Peruvians were kept in these "alien detention camps" for more than two years before, through the efforts of civil rights attorney Wayne M. Collins, being offered "
parole Parole (also known as provisional release or supervised release) is a form of early release of a prison inmate where the prisoner agrees to abide by certain behavioral conditions, including checking-in with their designated parole officers, or ...
" relocation to the labor-starved farming community in
Seabrook, New Jersey Seabrook is an Local government in New Jersey#Unincorporated communities, unincorporated community located within Upper Deerfield Township, New Jersey, Upper Deerfield Township in Cumberland County, New Jersey, Cumberland County, New Jersey, United ...
. The interned Japanese Peruvian ''
nisei is a Japanese-language term used in countries in North America and South America to specify the ethnically Japanese children born in the new country to Japanese-born immigrants (who are called ). The are considered the second generation, ...
'' in the United States were further separated from the ''issei,'' in part because of distance between the internment camps and in part because the interned nisei knew almost nothing about their parents' homeland and language. The deportation of Japanese Peruvians to the United States also involved expropriation without compensation of their property and other assets in Peru. At war's end, only 79 Japanese Peruvian citizens returned to Peru, and about 400 remained in the United States as "stateless" refugees. The interned Peruvian ''nisei'' who became naturalized American citizens would consider their children ''sansei,'' meaning three generations from the grandparents who had left Japan for Peru.


Post-war Japanese-Peruvians


Alberto Fujimori

Alberto Fujimori Alberto Kenya Fujimori Inomoto ( or ; born 28 July 1938) is a Peruvian politician, professor and former engineer who was President of Peru from 28 July 1990 until 22 November 2000. Frequently described as a dictator, * * * * * * he remains a ...
was born in Peru to Japanese parents and was the president of Peru from 1990 to 2000.


''Dekasegi'' Japanese-Peruvians

In 1998 with new strict laws from the Japanese immigration many fake-nikkei were deported or went back to Peru. The requirements to bring Japanese descendants were more strict including documents as "zairyūshikaku-ninteishōmeisho" or Certificate of Eligibility for Resident that probes the Japanese blood line of the applicant. With the onset of the global recession, among the expatriate communities in Japan Peruvians accounted for the smallest share of those who returned to their homelands after the global recession began in 2008. People returning from Japan also made up the smallest share of those applying for assistance under the new law. As of the end of November 2013, only three Peruvians who had returned from Japan had received reintegration assistance. The law provides some attractive benefits, but most Peruvians (at present 2015, there are 60,000 Peruvians in Japan ) who have regular jobs in Japan were not interested in going home. Peruvians in Japan have come together to offer support for Japanese victims of the devastating earthquake and tsunami that struck in March 2011. In the wake of that disaster, the town of
Minamisanriku is a town in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. , it had an estimated population of 12,516, and a population density of 77 persons per km² in 4504 households. The total area of the town is . It is a resort town on a coastline of wooded islands and moun ...
in
Miyagi Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Tōhoku region of Honshu. Miyagi Prefecture has a population of 2,305,596 (1 June 2019) and has a geographic area of . Miyagi Prefecture borders Iwate Prefecture to the north, Akita Prefecture to the nort ...
lost all but two of its fishing vessels. Peruvians raised money to buy the town new boats as a service to Japan and to express their gratitude for the hospitality received in Japan.


The Japanese press in Peru

In June 1921, Nippi Shimpo (Japanese-Peruvian News) was published.


Traditions and customs

After the ravages of World War II, the Peruvian Nikkei community continued with its activities, mainly through the practice of traditions inherited from their ancestors. Thus, festivities such as the celebration of the New Year (Shinnenkai), Girls' Day (Hinamatsuri), Children's Day (Kodomo no Hi), Matsuri, Buddhist festivals such as the Obon and Ohigan, among others, continue preserved in the Nikkei community. The Nikkei in Peru have also known how to preserve precisely some of the customs and traditions brought by their parents and grandparents, and that they are part of their natural heritage. At the same time, Peruvians of Japanese descent, previously seen as a "closed" community, are today citizens who perform in all fields. Currently, the Peruvian-Japanese are one of the largest Nikkei communities in the world and the second largest in Latin America. Japanese-Peruvians mainly inhabit the central Peruvian coast (Lima and Trujillo has the most of them) and in some villages in the Amazon area.


Cuisine

The
cuisine of Peru Peruvian cuisine reflects local practices and ingredients including influences mainly from the indigenous population, including the Inca, and cuisines brought by immigrants from Europe (Spanish cuisine, Italian cuisine); Asia ( Japanese cuisin ...
is a heterogeneous mixture of the diverse cultural influences that enriched the South American country. An important influence was the Japanese immigrants and their descendants through Nikkei cuisine, which fuses Peruvian and Japanese cuisine. It has become a gastronomic sensation in many countries. The origins of this cuisine lies in the importance of fresh products, encouraged by the prosperous fishing industry of Peru, the Japanese knew how to use fresh fish and mix it with
ceviche Ceviche () is a Peruvian dish typically made from fresh raw fish cured in fresh citrus juices, most commonly lime or lemon. It is also spiced with '' ají'', chili peppers or other seasonings, and julienned red onions, salt, and cilantro are al ...
, which is the Peruvian flag dish. As well with the Chifa (fusion cuisine that came from the Chinese community in Peru), Japanese dishes were created with using the recipes and flavours from the indigenous Peruvians. Fish was added with basic products in the Peruvian pantry, including corn, chili, cassava, potatoes and limes. Some examples of chefs who use Nikkei cuisine include
Nobu Matsuhisa Nobuyuki "Nobu" Matsuhisa (松久 信幸 ''Matsuhisa Nobuyuki''; born March 10, 1949) is a Japanese celebrity chef and restaurateur known for his fusion cuisine blending traditional Japanese dishes with Peruvian ingredients. His signature dish ...
,
Ferran Adrià Ferran Adrià i Acosta (; born 14 May 1962) is a Spanish chef. He was the head chef of the ''El Bulli'' restaurant in Roses, Girona, Roses on the Costa Brava and is considered one of the best chefs in the world. He has often collaborated with h ...
and
Kurt Zdesar Kurt is a male given name of Germanic or Turkish origin. ''Kurt'' or ''Curt'' originated as short forms of the Germanic Conrad, depending on geographical usage, with meanings including counselor or advisor. In Turkish, Kurt means "Wolf" and i ...
.


Notable people

*
Anthony Aoki Anthony Tadashi Aoki Nakama (born 8 June 2000) is a Peruvian footballer, who plays as a midfielder for Peruvian Segunda División side Alianza Universidad. Career Early and international career Aoki started playing football at Carper Club-Aelu, ...
*
Alberto Fujimori Alberto Kenya Fujimori Inomoto ( or ; born 28 July 1938) is a Peruvian politician, professor and former engineer who was President of Peru from 28 July 1990 until 22 November 2000. Frequently described as a dictator, * * * * * * he remains a ...
: Former President of Peru * Koichi Aparicio: Peruvian footballer * Ernesto Arakaki: International footballer *
Hideyoshi Arakaki Hideyoshi Enrique Arakaki Chinen (born 2 February 1998) is a Peruvian professional association football, footballer who plays as a Winger (association football), right winger for Peruvian club Alianza Atlético. Club career Arakaki excelled with ...
: Peruvian footballer *
Keiko Fujimori Keiko Sofía Fujimori Higuchi (; ja, 藤森 恵子, Fujimori Keiko; born 25 May 1975) is a Peruvian politician. Fujimori is the eldest daughter of former Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori and Susana Higuchi. From August 1994 to November 200 ...
: Former First Lady, Congresswoman and businesswoman (daughter of Alberto Fujimori) *
Kenji Fujimori Kenji Gerardo Fujimori Higuchi (born 19 May 1980) is a Peruvian businessman, Fujimorist politician and a former congressman representing Lima from 2011 until he was suspended from congressional duty in June 2018 in aftermath of the ''Kenjivideo ...
: Congressman (son of Alberto Fujimori) *
Santiago Fujimori Santiago Fujimori Inomoto (born 3 December 1946) is a Peruvian lawyer, politician and a former congressman, representing Lima for the 2006–2011 term. Fujimori is of Japanese descent. He is the younger brother of former President Alberto Fujimor ...
: Lawyer (younger brother of Alberto Fujimori) * Víctor García Toma: Former Minister of Justice *
Susana Higuchi Susana Shizuko Higuchi Miyagawa ( ja, 樋口 静子, Higuchi Shizuko; 26 April 1950 – 8 December 2021) was a Peruvian politician and engineer. She served as First Lady of Peru from 1990 to 1994 as the wife of President Alberto Fujimori. A mem ...
: Politician, former First Lady, ex-spouse of Alberto Fujimori * Jorge Hirano: International footballer * Fernando Iwasaki: Writer * Aldo Miyashiro: Writer, TV host and celebrity *
Augusto Miyashiro Augusto Miyashiro Yamashiro (born 8 August 1949) is a Peruvian engineer and politician who has been the mayor of Chorrillos District five times, first from 1999 to 2002 under the Fujimorist Fujimorism () denotes the policies and the political i ...
: Mayor of the City of Chorrillos since 1999, an important middle class southern suburban district of Metropolitan Lima *
Kaoru Morioka is a Peruvian-born Japanese futsal player. He plays for O Parrulo FS and Japanese national futsal team. Career Morioka was born in Lima, Peru. In his childhood, he moved to Japan with his family. He graduated from Narita City Tomisato Eleme ...
: Japanese futsal player *
Venancio Shinki Venancio Shinki (April 1, 1932 – November 17, 2016) was considered one of the most outstanding Peruvian painters. He was born in Supe, Lima, Peru. His father (Kitsuke Shinki of Hiroshima Prefecture) was Japanese and had arrived to Peru in 1915 ...
: Artist *
David Soria Yoshinari (born September 18, 1977 in Lima, Peru) is a Japanese Peruvian retired football player. International career Soria made five appearances for the Peru national football team The Peru national football team represents Peru in men's inter ...
: International footballer * Akio Tamashiro: Karate athlete. Pan American Gold medalist. Head of the Peruvian Karate Federation * Eduardo Tokeshi: Plastic artist *
Tilsa Tsuchiya Tilsa Tsuchiya Castillo (September 24, 1928 – September 23, 1984), was a Peruvian printmaker and painter known for her paintings of Peruvian myths and legends. She is considered one of the greatest exemplars of Peruvian painting, having won the p ...
: Artist *
José Watanabe José Watanabe (1946 2007) was a Peruvian poet who won a number of literary awards. Watanabe was born in Laredo, a large sugar cane farm in northern Peru. His father was a Japanese immigrant, and his mother was a Peruvian of Andean origin. In ...
: Poet *
Arturo Yamasaki Arturo Maximo Yamasaki Maldonado also known as ''Arturo Yamasaki'' (11 May 1929 Lima, Peru - 23 July 2013 Mexico City, Mexico) was a Peruvian-Mexican international football referee. He represented the Peruvian Football Association from 1960 to 1 ...
: Football referee, famous for officiating the Match of the Century in the
1970 FIFA World Cup The 1970 FIFA World Cup was the ninth edition of the FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international Association football, football championship for List of men's national association football teams, men's senior national teams. Held from 31 May t ...
* Rafael Yamashiro: Peruvian Congressman and politician *
Cesar Ychikawa Cesar, César or Cèsar may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media * César (film), ''César'' (film), a 1936 film directed by Marcel Pagnol * César (film), ''César'' (play), a play by Marcel Pagnolt * César Award, a French film award Pla ...
: Singer and economist *
Jaime Yoshiyama Clemente Jaime Yoshiyama Tanaka (born 23 July 1944) is a Peruvian Fujimorist politician of Japanese descent. He was the President of the Democratic Constitutional Congress from December 1992 to July 1995. He was also the Minister of the Presiden ...
: Former Prime Minister, former Cabinet Minister, former Vice President and former President of the Peruvian Congress *
Carlos Yushimito Carlos Yushimito del Valle (born 1977 in Lima, Peru) is a Peruvian writer of Japanese descent. Biography Carlos Yushimito del Valle studied Latin American Literature at the National University of San Marcos where he graduated in 2002. Two years ...
(Yoshimitsu): Writer and analyst


See also

*
Asian Latin Americans Asian Latin Americans or Latinasians are Latin Americans of Asian descent. Asian immigrants to Latin America have largely been from East Asia or West Asia. Historically, Asians in Latin America have a centuries-long history in the region, star ...
*
Chinese Peruvians Chinese Peruvians, also known as ''tusán'' (a loanword from ), are Peruvian citizens whose ancestors came from China. They are people of overseas Chinese ancestry born in Peru or who have made Peru their adopted homeland. 14,307 Peruvians claim C ...
* Japan–Peru relations * Hirohito Ōta


Notes


References


Other cited works

*Connell, Thomas. (2002)
America's Japanese Hostages: The US Plan For A Japanese Free Hemisphere
Westport: Praeger-Greenwood.
OCLC 606835431
*Gardiner, Clinton Harvey. (1975)
''The Japanese and Peru. 1873-1973.''
Albuquerque:
University of New Mexico Press The University of New Mexico Press (UNMP) is a university press at the University of New Mexico. It was founded in 1929 and published pamphlets for the university in its early years before expanding into quarterlies and books. Its administrative ...
.
OCLC 2047887
*Gardiner, C. Harvey. (1981)
''Pawns in a Triangle of Hate: The Peruvian Japanese and the United States.''
Seattle:
University of Washington Press The University of Washington Press is an American academic publishing house. The organization is a division of the University of Washington, based in Seattle. Although the division functions autonomously, they have worked to assist the universit ...
.
OCLC 164799077
*Higashide, Seiichi. (2000)
''Adios to Tears: The Memoirs of a Japanese-Peruvian Internee in U.S. Concentration Camps.''
Seattle: University of Washington Press.
OCLC 247923540
*López-Calvo, Ignacio. (2009)
''One World Periphery Reads the Other. Knowing the 'Oriental' in the Americas and the Iberian Peninsula.''
Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009. 130-47.
OCLC 473479607
*Masterson, Daniel M. and Sayaka Funada-Classen. (2004), '' The Japanese in Latin America: The Asian American Experience.''
View at
Google Books Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search, Google Print, and by its code-name Project Ocean) is a service from Google Inc. that searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has scanned, converted to text using optical c ...
) Urbana, Illinois:
University of Illinois Press The University of Illinois Press (UIP) is an American university press and is part of the University of Illinois system. Founded in 1918, the press publishes some 120 new books each year, plus 33 scholarly journals, and several electronic project ...
. ;


External links


Association website
{{Ethnic groups in Peru Asian Peruvian Japanese Latin American Ethnic groups in Peru
Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...