The Joseon Army (Korean: 조선군대; Hanja: 朝鮮軍隊) was the army of the Korean dynasty of Joseon. The army defended the northern borders but seldom defended the southern regions. The army was best known for fending off the Jurchen raids and conquering the Korean peninsula. However, Joseon's

neo-confucianism Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period () and Wa ...

disavowed military development, causing them to be vulnerable to Japanese and Manchu invasions. Despite this, Joseon kept strengthening the army until the 19th century, when western powers and the Japanese forced them to open doors and modernize the army.

History

Early Period

The armed forces of the former Goryeo kingdom were Joseon's armed forces during the reign of King Taejo. However, the officials of the Joseon court commanded private armies from the previous kingdom.

Yi Bang-won Taejong of Joseon (13 June 1367 – 8 June 1422), personal name Yi Bang-won (Korean: 이방원; Hanja: 李芳遠), was the third ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea and the father of King Sejong the Great. Before ascending to the throne, he wa ...

and his officers staged a coup against Taejo and his brother

Jeongjong of Joseon Jeongjong of Joseon (26 July 1357 – 24 October 1419), born Yi Bang-gwa (), whose changed name is Yi Gyeong (), was the second ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was the second son of King Taejo, the founder and first monarch of the ...

, inciting the first and second strife of the princes. He advised Jeongjong to ban the ownership of private armies and become king in favor of having a central army. When

Sejong Sejong of Joseon (15 May 1397 – 8 April 1450), personal name Yi Do (Korean: 이도; Hanja: 李祹), widely known as Sejong the Great (Korean: 세종대왕; Hanja: 世宗大王), was the fourth ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. Initial ...

ascended the throne, he created various military regulations to strengthen the safety of his kingdom, supported the advancement of Korean

military technology Military technology is the application of technology for use in warfare. It comprises the kinds of technology that are distinctly military in nature and not civilian in application, usually because they lack useful or legal civilian application ...

, including the development of the

cannon A cannon is a large- caliber gun classified as a type of artillery, which usually launches a projectile using explosive chemical propellant. Gunpowder ("black powder") was the primary propellant before the invention of smokeless powder ...

, mortars, fire

arrow An arrow is a fin-stabilized projectile launched by a bow. A typical arrow usually consists of a long, stiff, straight shaft with a weighty (and usually sharp and pointed) arrowhead attached to the front end, multiple fin-like stabilizers c ...

s and the use of

gunpowder Gunpowder, also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, carbon (in the form of charcoal) and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). ...

Joseon–Jurchen border conflicts

Goryeo Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificati ...

, Joseon made the Jurchens in the area around

Hamhung Hamhŭng (''Hamhŭng-si''; ) is North Korea's second-largest List of cities in North Korea, city, and the capital of South Hamgyong, South Hamgyŏng Province. It has an estimated population of 768,551. Located in the southern part of the South Ham ...

on the northeastern Korean peninsula submit as vassals. The Joseon Koreans tried to deal with the military threat posed by the Jurchens by using both forceful means and incentives and by launching military attacks. At the same time, they tried to appease them with titles and degrees, traded with them and sought to acculturate them by having Korean women marry Jurchens and integrating them into Korean culture. Despite these measures, fighting continued between the Jurchen and the Koreans. The Ming

Yongle Emperor The Yongle Emperor (; pronounced ; 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), personal name Zhu Di (), was the third Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 1424. Zhu Di was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dyn ...

was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead. Korea tried to persuade Jurchen leader

Mentemu Möngke Temür ( or ) or Dudu Mengtemu ( Manchu: ;遼寧省檔案館『滿州實錄上函』 ) (1370–1433) was a Jurchen chieftain of the Odoli tribe, one of the three tribes of the lower Sunggari river valley in Manchuria. In the 1380s the t ...

(Möngke Temür) to reject the Ming overtures, but were unsuccessful since Möngke Temür folded and submitted to the Ming. In 1433, Sejong sent Kim Jongseo (

hangul The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul, . Hangul may also be written as following South Korea's standard Romanization. ( ) in South Korea and Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea, is the modern official writing system for the Korean language. The let ...

: 김종서,

hanja Hanja (Hangul: ; Hanja: , ), alternatively known as Hancha, are Chinese characters () used in the writing of Korean. Hanja was used as early as the Gojoseon period, the first ever Korean kingdom. (, ) refers to Sino-Korean vocabulary, wh ...

: 金宗瑞), a prominent general, north to destroy the

Jurchens Jurchen (Manchu language, Manchu: ''Jušen'', ; zh, 女真, ''Nǚzhēn'', ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian people, East Asian Tungusic languages, Tungusic-speaking peoples, descended from the Donghu people. They ...

. Kim's military campaign engaged the Jurchen clans such as the Odoli, Maolian and Udige capturing several castles, taking control of

Hamgyong Hamgyong Province () was one of the Eight Provinces (Korea), Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Hamgyŏng was located in the northeast of Korea. The provincial capital was Hamhung, Hamhŭng. Names The province was first establis ...

and continued pushing north expanding Korean territory to the

Songhua River The Songhua Postal Romanization, or Sunghwa River (also Haixi or Xingal, russian: Сунгари ''Sungari'') is one of the primary List of rivers of China, rivers of China, and the longest tributary of the Amur. It flows about from the Chang ...

. He then established 4 counties, 6 garrisons, and several border forts in the region to safeguard the people from the Jurchens shaping the modern borders of Korea around 1450.

Oei Invasion

In 1419,

King Sejong Sejong of Joseon (15 May 1397 – 8 April 1450), personal name Yi Do (Korean: 이도; Hanja: 李祹), widely known as Sejong the Great (Korean: 세종대왕; Hanja: 世宗大王), was the fourth ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. Initial ...

sent

Yi Jongmu Yi Jong-mu (1360–1425) was a Korean general who led the Oei Invasion of Tsushima Island in 1419. He was noted for leading a fleet of 227 ships and 17,285 soldiers which landed at the Tsushima Island in Aso Bay on June 19, 1419, which was met ...

to raid the Japanese on

Tsushima Island is an island of the Japanese archipelago situated in-between the Tsushima Strait and Korea Strait, approximately halfway between Kyushu and the Korean Peninsula. The main island of Tsushima, once a single island, was divided into two in 1671 b ...

in the Oei Invasion as a response to Japanese

Wokou ''Wokou'' (; Japanese: ''Wakō''; Korean: 왜구 ''Waegu''), which literally translates to "Japanese pirates" or "dwarf pirates", were pirates who raided the coastlines of China and Korea from the 13th century to the 16th century.So clan, the ruling family of Tsushima, requested negotiations. In the diplomatic exchanges that followed, Korea permitted the So clan to continue trade with Korean coastal harbors under the condition that the clan suppresses the activities of Japanese pirates.

Yi Si-ae's Rebellion Yi Si-ae's Rebellion was an armed rebellion in 1467 in Hamgil Province (later renamed Hamgyong Province) led by General Yi Si-ae, a member of Yangban landowners in Kilju, Hamgil Province, to rebel against the centralized policy of King Sejo. ...

When

King Sejo Sejo of Joseon (2 November 1417 – 23 September 1468), personal name Yi Yu (Korean: 이유; Hanja: 李瑈), sometimes known as Grand Prince Suyang (Korean: 수양대군; Hanja: 首陽大君), was the seventh ruler of the Joseon dynasty of K ...

came to power he strengthened the monarchy established by

King Taejong Taejong of Joseon (13 June 1367 – 8 June 1422), personal name Yi Bang-won ( Korean: 이방원; Hanja: 李芳遠), was the third ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea and the father of King Sejong the Great. Before ascending to the throne, he ...

by weakening the power of the

State Council State Council may refer to: Government * State Council of the Republic of Korea, the national cabinet of South Korea, headed by the President * State Council of the People's Republic of China, the national cabinet and chief administrative auth ...

and bringing staff directly under the king's control. He also strengthened the administrative system to enable the government to determine exact population numbers and to mobilize troops effectively but caused

Yi Si-ae's Rebellion Yi Si-ae's Rebellion was an armed rebellion in 1467 in Hamgil Province (later renamed Hamgyong Province) led by General Yi Si-ae, a member of Yangban landowners in Kilju, Hamgil Province, to rebel against the centralized policy of King Sejo. ...

. Yi Si-ae led the Iksok Force and the rebel army killing officials from the central government for not appointing northern officials to govern the northern provinces until they were defeated soon after the Battle of Manryeong.

Japanese Invasions of Korea

By the 16th century, the military became weak by the disavowment from Confucian scholars. During the

Imjin War The Imjin River ( in South Korea) or Rimjin River ( in North Korea) is the 7th largest river in Korea. It flows from north to south, crossing the Demilitarized Zone and joining the Han River downstream of Seoul, near the Yellow Sea. The river i ...

, Joseonmobilizingfew military units with nan army. Its defense depended heavily on the mobilization of the citizen soldiers in case of emergency.Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 109. When Japan invaded Korea, Joseon deployed a total of 84,500 regular troops. During the first invasion, the Joseon army was no match for their sheer numbers armed with arquebuses and a combination of arms, and the Japanese pushed them north to

Pyeongyang Pyongyang (, , ) is the capital and largest city of North Korea, where it is known as the "Capital of the Revolution". Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River about upstream from its mouth on the Yellow Sea. According to the 2008 population ...

. When the

navy A navy, naval force, or maritime force is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval warfare, naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral zone, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and ...

, and the

Righteous Army Righteous armies, sometimes called irregular armies or militias, are informal civilian militias that have appeared several times in Korean history, when the national armies were in need of assistance. The first righteous armies emerged during th ...

cut off supply lines, this gave the regular army a chance to force the Japanese back to

Pusan Busan (), officially known as is South Korea's most populous city after Seoul, with a population of over 3.4 million inhabitants. Formerly romanized as Pusan, it is the economic, cultural and educational center of southeastern South Korea, w ...

through many strategic battles. During the 1595–1596 Truce,

Seonjo Seonjo of Joseon (26 November 1552 – 16 March 1608) was the fourteenth king of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1567 to 1608. He was known for encouraging Confucianism and renovating state affairs at the beginning of his reign. However, politi ...

realized how important it was and tried to reform it with the help of Ming generals and established army training centers. Ryu Seong-ryong, the Prime Minister, spoke out about the Korean disadvantages. He examined why the Japanese had quickly overrun them and pointed out the flaws of their defense systems. Ryu also pointed out how efficient the Japanese army was since it took them only one month to get Hanseong and how well organized they were. He noted how the Japanese moved their units in complex maneuvers, often weakening their enemy with arquebuses, then attacking with

melee weapons A melee weapon, hand weapon or close combat weapon is any handheld weapon used in hand-to-hand combat, i.e. for use within the direct physical reach of the weapon itself, essentially functioning as an additional (and more impactful) extension of th ...

. These reforms helped Joseon Army repel the second invasion of the Japanese army and win the war.

Yi Gwal's Rebellion Yi Gwal's Rebellion was an armed rebellion in the Joseon dynasty led by General Yi Gwal, who helped Injo ascend to the throne and incited a rebellion against him for being rewarded poorly and trying to arrest his son. He led 12,000 of his soldie ...

After the

Injo Coup Gwanghae-gun or Prince Gwanghae (4 June 1575 – 7 August 1641), personal name Yi Hon (Hangul: 이혼, Hanja: 李琿), was the 15th ruler of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. As he was deposed in a coup d'état, he did not receive a temple name. ...

, the dissatisfied

Yi Gwal Yi Gwal (1587 – 15 February, 1624) was a general during the Joseon Dynasty, Korea, known for the failed Yi Gwal's Rebellion. His family belonged to the Gosung Yi clan. He rebelled against King Injo in 1624, but failed. Yi Gwal was then killed ...

who helped Injo ascend to the throne incited a rebellion against him for trying to arrest his son, Yi Jeon. He led 10,000 of his soldiers to occupy

Hanseong Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) as stated iArticle 103 of ...

and replace him with Heungangun, his royal relative as king. But the Joseon army led by General Jang Man retook the capital and crushed the rebellion. Yi Gwal's Rebellion weakened the military, making them vulnerable to Later Jin's attack.

Manchu-Joseon Conflicts

Conservative Westerners took hard-line policy toward the Jurchen-led Later Jin dynasty, keeping their alliance with the Ming dynasty. The Later Jin, who had remained primarily friendly to Joseon, began to regard Joseon as an enemy.

Han Yun Han may refer to: Ethnic groups * Han Chinese, or Han People (): the name for the largest ethnic group in China, which also constitutes the world's largest ethnic group. ** Han Taiwanese (): the name for the ethnic group of the Taiwanese p ...

, who participated in the rebellion of Yi Gwal, fled to Manchuria and urged the Later Jin ruler

Nurhaci Nurhaci (14 May 1559 – 30 September 1626), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Qing (), was a Jurchen chieftain who rose to prominence in the late 16th century in Manchuria. A member of the House of Aisin-Gioro, he reigned ...

to attack Joseon; thus, the friendly relationship between the Later Jin and Joseon ended.

Battle of Sarhū The Battle of Sarhū (薩爾滸之戰; 萨尔浒之战; ''Sà'ěrhǔ zhī zhàn'') refers to a series of battles between the Later Jin dynasty (the predecessor of the Qing dynasty) and the Ming dynasty and their Joseon allies in the winter of ...

In 1619, the Joseon Expeditionary Force led Commander

Gang Hong-rip Gang Hongrip (1560 – 6 September 1627) was a Korean general during the Joseon Dynasty. Under repeated requests from Ming China, Gwanghaegun commanded Gang Hongrip to help Ming forces with ten thousand soldiers against the Manchus in 1619. ...

to engage Later Jin with the Ming Army at the Battle of Sarhū. But the allied forces lost two-thirds of the Joseon Expeditionary Force. The Jurchen released the captives and allowed them to return to their homeland. Gang Hong-rip, however, was kept for his proficiency in the Jurchen language. Later on, General Gang would be led to believe that his family had died in the political turmoil during a coup in his native kingdom of Joseon. To exact his revenge on the Joseon court, he urged Jin to invade Joseon, which led to the

First Manchu invasion of Korea The Later Jin invasion of Joseon occurred in early 1627 when the Later Jin prince Amin led an invasion of the Joseon Dynasty. The war ended after three months with the Later Jin establishing itself as sovereign tributary overlord over Joseon. ...

in 1627. Only during the peace negotiations did he find out that he had been misled. The Joseon musketeers being overwhelmed by the Manchu cavalry prompted a revision of military tactics in Korea. In previous decades, the

was seen as a demonstration of the dominance of the firearm, and Joseon adjusted military forces accordingly. Both sides of the war lacked effective shock cavalry to take advantage of the vulnerabilities of unsupported musketeers. After the defeat at Sarhū, the Joseon forces revised their doctrine to have spearmen supporting the musketeers.

Later Jin invasion of Joseon The Later Jin invasion of Joseon occurred in early 1627 when the Later Jin prince Amin led an invasion of the Joseon Dynasty. The war ended after three months with the Later Jin establishing itself as sovereign tributary overlord over Joseon. ...

In 1627, 30,000 Manchu cavalries under General Amin (阿敏) and former Korean General Gang Hong-rip invaded

Joseon Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and re ...

, calling for the restoration of

Gwanghaegun Gwanghae-gun or Prince Gwanghae (4 June 1575 – 7 August 1641), personal name Yi Hon (Hangul: 이혼, Hanja: 李琿), was the 15th ruler of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. As he was deposed in a coup d'état, he did not receive a temple name. ...

and execution of Westerners leaders, including

Kim Ja-jeom Kim Ja-jeom (; 1588 – January 27, 1652) was a Korean scholar-official of the Joseon dynasty period and Ming-Qing transition. He was one of the disciples of Seong Hon and came from the Andong Kim clan. He was Joseon's Chief State Councillor ...

. General

Jang Man Jang may refer to: *Jang (Marshall Islands), part of Maloelap Atoll, in the Marshall Islands *Jang, Nepal, a village development committee in the Rapti Zone of western Nepal * Jang, the Tibetan name for Naxi, a county-level district of Luzhou cit ...

again fought against Later Jin but could not repel the invasion. Once again, Injo fled to

Ganghwa Island Ganghwa Island (Hangul ; Hanja ), also known by its native name Ganghwado, is a South Korean island in the estuary of the Han River. It is in the Yellow Sea, off Korea's west coast. The island is separated from Gimpo (on the South Korean mainla ...

. Meanwhile, Jin had no reason to attack Joseon and decided to go back to prepare for war against the Ming, and peace soon settled. The Later Jin and Joseon dynasties were declared brother nations, and Later Jin withdrew from the Korean peninsula. However, most Westerners kept their hard-line policy despite the war. Nurhaci, who had generally good opinions toward Korea, did not invade Korea again; however, when Nurhaci died and

Hong Taiji Hong Taiji (28 November 1592 – 21 September 1643), also rendered as Huang Taiji and sometimes referred to as Abahai in Western literature, also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizong of Qing, was the second khan of the Later Jin ...

succeeded him as ruler, Jin again began to seek a chance for another war. King Injo provided refuge to Ming general

Mao Wenlong Mao Wenlong (; 10 February 1576 – 24 July 1629), courtesy name Zhennan, was a Chinese military general of the Ming dynasty. He is best known for commanding Ming forces in the naval battles against forces of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty in the Ye ...

and with his unit after they fled from Later Jin and came to Korea; this action caused Later Jin to invade Korea again.

Qing invasion of Joseon The Qing invasion of Joseon (Korean: Byeongja Horan) occurred in the winter of 1636 when the newly-established Qing dynasty invaded the Joseon dynasty, establishing the former's status as the hegemon in the Imperial Chinese Tributary System and ...

In 1636, Hong Taiji officially renamed his dynasty the

Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...

and invaded Joseon personally. The Qing forces purposely avoided battle with General

Im Gyeong Eop Im Gyeong-eop (1594 – 1646) was a Korean general during the Joseon Dynasty. He participated in Korea's war against the Later Jin invasion of Joseon and Qing invasion of Joseon in the 17th century. After Ming forces surrendered to the Qing, I ...

, a prominent Joseon army commander who was guarding the

Uiju Ŭiju County is a kun, or county, in North Pyongan Province, North Korea. The county has an area of 420 km², and a population of 110,018 (2008 data). Name Ŭiju appears as Uiju in South Korea's Revised Romanization and as Yizhou in Chinese ...

Fortress at the time. A Qing army of 128,000 men marched directly into

before Injo could escape to

, driving Injo to Namhan Mountain Fortress instead. They ran out of food and supplies after the Manchu cut all supply lines during the siege. Injo finally surrendered to the Qing dynasty ceremoniously, bowing to the Hong Taiji nine times as Hong Taiji's servant and agreeing to the

Treaty of Samjeondo A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually made by and between sovereign states, but can include international organizations, individuals, business entities, and other legal pers ...

, which required Injo to send his first son and second son to China as captives.

then became a

tributary state A tributary state is a term for a pre-modern state in a particular type of subordinate relationship to a more powerful state which involved the sending of a regular token of submission, or tribute, to the superior power (the suzerain). This tok ...

to the Qing dynasty, and the Qing went on to conquer the Central Plain in 1644. Though they lost the wars, their performance left a strong impression on the Manchus. The first emperor of the newly declared Qing dynasty later wrote: "The Koreans are incapable on horseback but do not transgress the principles of the military arts. They excel at infantry fighting."

Military Expansion

Hyojong Hyojong of Joseon (3 July 1619 – 23 June 1659) was the seventeenth king of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1649 to 1659. He is best known for his plan for an expedition to the Manchu Qing dynasty, and his campaigns against the Russian Empire a ...

rose the throne after Injo and Sohyeon's death, he began to reform and expand the military of Korea. First, he removed

, who had corrupted politics and had greater power than the king himself. Then, he called

Song Si-yeol Song Si-yeol ( ko, 송시열, Hanja: 宋時烈; 30 December 1607 - 19 July 1689), also known by his pennames ''Uam'' (우암) and ''Ujae'' (우재) or by the honorific ''Songja'' ( ko, 송자, Hanja: 宋子), was a Korean philosopher and politic ...

(

Hangul The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul, . Hangul may also be written as following South Korea's standard Romanization. ( ) in South Korea and Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea, is the modern official writing system for the Korean language. The let ...

: 송시열

Hanja Hanja (Hangul: ; Hanja: , ), alternatively known as Hancha, are Chinese characters () used in the writing of Korean. Hanja was used as early as the Gojoseon period, the first ever Korean kingdom. (, ) refers to Sino-Korean vocabulary, wh ...

:宋時烈) and

Kim Sang-heon Kim or KIM may refer to: Names * Kim (given name) * Kim (surname) ** Kim (Korean surname) *** Kim family (disambiguation), several dynasties **** Kim family (North Korea), the rulers of North Korea since Kim Il-sung in 1948 ** Kim, Vietnamese fo ...

to his court, who supported the war against the Qing Dynasty. His military expansion was massive, and he also built several border fortresses along

Yalu River The Yalu River, known by Koreans as the Amrok River or Amnok River, is a river on the border between North Korea and China. Together with the Tumen River to its east, and a small portion of Paektu Mountain, the Yalu forms the border between ...

where Joseon and Qing shared a border. When a band of Dutch sailors, including

Hendrick Hamel Hendrick Hamel (1630 – 1692) was a Westerner to provide a first hand account of Joseon Korea. After spending thirteen years there, he wrote "Hamel's Journal and a Description of the Kingdom of Korea, 1653-1666," which was subsequently publis ...

, drifted on Jeju Island, Hyojong ordered them to build muskets for the army, making it the first time to use firearms since the Imjin War. Hyojong could not implement his plan when his son Hyeonjong stopped him since Joseon had become a tributary state of the Qing Dynasty. The Qing dynasty continued to thrive, expanding quickly into the west after successfully conquering the Ming in 1644. Since the Manchus assimilated the massive Chinese army into their own, they became too mighty to resist. Although reformed and expanded, the Joseon military was no match against the combined Manchu and Chinese forces. Also, the Qing dynasty began to treat Joseon as its friend and closest ally. After Hyojong died, Hyeonjong rose to the throne and continued his father's military expansion and reconstruction of the nation, devastated by the Seven-Year War and two Manchu invasions. Government Soldiers during Hong Gyeong-Rae's Rebellion

Government Soldiers during Hong Gyeong-Rae's Rebellion

Northern Campaigns

The Naseon Jeongbeol (

: 나선정벌

: 羅禪征伐), or "Suppression of the Russians" or the Northern campaign began when the expanded Joseon military was first put into action in 1654 when the Qing Dynasty called for help to fight against invading

Russians , native_name_lang = ru , image = , caption = , population = , popplace = 118 million Russians in the Russian Federation (2002 ''Winkler Prins'' estimate) , region1 = , pop1 ...

. 150 Joseon musketeers, along with 3,000 Manchus, met the Russian army at the Battle of Hutong (

: 호통

: 好通), present-day

Yilan Yilan may refer to: China *Yilan County, Heilongjiang (依兰县), county of central Heilongjiang province, People's Republic of China *Yilan Town, Heilongjiang (依兰镇), seat of Yilan County * Yilan, Jilin (依兰镇), town in Yanji Taiwan *Y ...

, which the Qing–Joseon allied forces won. In 1658, Hyojong sent troops again to help the Qing dynasty against Russia. He dispatched 260 Joseon musketeers and cannoneers led by

Shin Ryu Shin Ryu (; 1619–1680) was a general of the Joseon dynasty. He was born into a yangban family of the Pyeongsan Shin lineage in modern-day Chilgok County, Gyeongsangbuk-do, near where his shrine now stands in Yangmok-myeon. He passed the milit ...

to join the forces of

Ninguta Ning'an () is a city located approximately southwest of Mudanjiang, in the southeast of Heilongjiang province, China, bordering Jilin province to the south. It is located on the Mudanjiang River (formerly known as Hurka River), which flows north, ...

's Military Governor Sarhuda. The joint force sailed down the

Hurka Hurka is a surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Martin Hurka (born 1993), Czech footballer * Mykhailo Hurka (born 1975), Ukrainian footballer and manager *Thomas Hurka Thomas Hurka (born 1952) is a Canadian philosopher who holds ...

and

Sungari River The Songhua or Sunghwa River (also Haixi or Xingal, russian: Сунгари ''Sungari'') is one of the primary rivers of China, and the longest tributary of the Amur. It flows about from the Changbai Mountains on the China–North Korea bord ...

s and met the Russian troops under the command of an Amur

Cossack The Cossacks , es, cosaco , et, Kasakad, cazacii , fi, Kasakat, cazacii , french: cosaques , hu, kozákok, cazacii , it, cosacchi , orv, коза́ки, pl, Kozacy , pt, cossacos , ro, cazaci , russian: казаки́ or ...

, Onufrij Stepanov near the fall of the

into the

Amur The Amur (russian: река́ Аму́р, ), or Heilong Jiang (, "Black Dragon River", ), is the world's List of longest rivers, tenth longest river, forming the border between the Russian Far East and Northeast China, Northeastern China (Inne ...

, killing 270 Russians and driving them out of Manchu territory. The battles against Russia proved that Hyojong's reform had stabilized the Joseon army, although they never put them into action again. Despite the campaigns, Russia and Joseon remained on good terms.

Hong Gyeong-Rae's Rebellion Hong Gyeong-Rae's Rebellion also known as the Gwanseo Peasant War was an armed rebellion from January 31, 1812—May 29, 1812, led by Hong Gyeong-Rae and the yangban of Pyeongan Province who were unhappy with their treatment by the central gover ...

By the 19th century, royal relatives controlled the royal court through weak kings causing the military to weaken further. Hong Gyeong-Rae led an insurrection of Yangban and impoverished farmers who were unhappy with their treatment by the central government and oppressive taxation. At its height, the rebellion controlled most of the area north of the

Cheongcheon River The Ch'ŏngch'ŏn is a river of North Korea having its source in the Rangrim Mountains of Chagang Province and emptying into the Yellow Sea at Sinanju. The river flows past Myohyang-san and through the city of Anju (city), Anju, South Pyongan, So ...

, including the fortified town of

Jeongju Chŏngju (; also Jŏngju) is a ''si'', or city, in southern North P'yŏngan province, North Korea. Prior to 1994, it was designated as a ''kun'' or county. The terrain is mostly level, but mountainous in the north. To the south lies the Chŏ ...

, to withstand invasions from Manchuria (part of the Qing Empire). Whenever the rebels took over a district, they opened the government granaries and distributed the grain to the people. However, the insurgents suffered disastrous defeats in the battles of Pine Grove and Four Pine Field and forced the rebels to withdraw to Jeongju, which came under siege by government forces. The rebellion was put down a few months later, on May 29, when the government forces breached the town wall with a gunpowder charge. Thousands of people caught up in the uprising, including boys as young as 10, were executed. Hong Gyeong-Rae died in the fighting. Other rebel leaders were also killed in battle or executed.

Foreign Incursions in Korea

Interior of Fort McKee, June 1871 HD-SN-99-01927

Joseon's isolation policies allowed the military to fire on foreign ships. When the USS ''General Sherman'' arrived at Ganghwa Island, they requested the government to open for trade, but the army sank their ship and killed their crew. In 1866, the French launched a putative expedition on Ganghwa Island to demand the government release the catholic priests, but were repulsed by the Tiger Hunters. They spearheaded the defense of Ganghwa with the army. The French left during the winter when they received news that the priests had escaped. In 1871, the Americans too launched a putative expedition to demand the government open for trade and apologize for the General Sherman Incident. The Tiger Hunters again spearheaded the defense, but the army and their coastal fortresses did not match their superior firepower. 20 Koreans were captured as bargaining chips for the Americans but released the prisoners before they left after a diplomatic failure. These small victories and foreign diplomatic defeats made the Joseon Army blind to its inferiority to modern armies. Japan plundered and pillaged Ganghwa Island for firing on their gunboat , finally forcing them to open doors to the world.

Modernization

Special Skills Force (Gyoryeonbyeongdae)

After opening its ports in 1876, Joseon learned of the world situation. It realized its progress, leading Joseon to promote a progressive movement for 'enlightenment' policies called the Enlightenment Movement (''Gaehwaundong''). But it took the longest out of all the other modernization projects. In 1880, under King Gojong and his consort

Queen Min Empress Myeongseong or Empress Myungsung (명성황후 민씨; 17 November 1851 – 8 October 1895In lunar calendar, the Empress was born on 25 September 1851 and died on 20 August 1895), informally known as Empress Min, was the official wife ...

's joint patronage, they created the Office for Extraordinary State Affairs (''Tongnigimu-Amun''), consisting of 12 departments charged with diplomacy, trade, finance, and military affairs. In 1881, Gojong and Min spearheaded the military modernization efforts. Joseon dispatched the so-called Gentlemen's Sightseeing Group to Japan or Courtiers' Observation Mission (''Sinsayuramdan''). They invited the Japanese Army attaché Lieutenant Horimoto Reizō to serve as an adviser in creating a modern army. The Japanese gave military training to eighty to one hundred young men of the aristocracy, establishing the Special Skills Force ('' Pyŏlgigun'',

Korean Korean may refer to: People and culture * Koreans, ethnic group originating in the Korean Peninsula * Korean cuisine * Korean culture * Korean language **Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Chosŏn'gŭl **Korean dialects and the Jeju language ** ...

: 별기군). They also sent a royally appointed advisor (''Yeongseonsa'') and students to Tianjin to learn about the manufacture of firearms and munitions. In January 1882, the government reorganized the Five Army Commands (''ogunyeong'') into the Palace Guards Garrison (''Muwiyŏng'',

: 무위영) and the Capital Guards Garrison (''Changŏyŏng'',

: 창어영). However, these units were resentful towards the Special Skills Force for better treatment and equipment. Additionally, the army discharged more than 1,000 soldiers in overhauling the military; most were old or disabled. The army did not pay them in rice for thirteen months leading up to the

Imo Incident The Imo Incident, also sometimes known as the Imo Mutiny, Soldier's riot or Jingo-gunran in Japanese, was a violent uprising and riot in Seoul beginning on July 23, 1882, by soldiers of the Joseon Army who were later joined by disaffected members ...

, which claimed the lives of some Japanese military advisors and their legislation and some Joseon officials.

Daewongun Heungseon Daewongun (흥선대원군, 興宣大院君, 21 December 1820 – 22 February 1898; ), also known as the Daewongun (대원군, 大院君), Guktaegong (국태공, 國太公, "The Great Archduke") or formally Internal King Heungseon Heon ...

returned to power momentarily to restore order. Daewongun dismantled the ''Muwiyŏng'', the ''Changŏyŏng'', and the ''Pyŏlgigun'' and revived the Five-Army Camps. In December 1882, after Daewongun's arrest, the government disbanded the Five-Army Camps once more. The Chinese lines under

Yuan Shikai Yuan Shikai (; 16 September 1859 – 6 June 1916) was a Chinese military and government official who rose to power during the late Qing dynasty and eventually ended the Qing dynasty rule of China in 1912, later becoming the Emperor of China. H ...

reorganized and trained into a new Joseon military formation, the Capital Guards Command (''Chingunyeong'',

: 친군영). Gojong and Min requested the United States for more American military instructors to speed up the military modernization of Korea. In October 1883, American minister

Lucius Foote Lucius Harwood Foote (April 10, 1826 – June 4, 1913) was the first American minister to Korea and served from 1883-1885. Early life Lucius Foote was born April 10, 1826, in Winfield, New York to Rev. Lucius Foote and Electa Harwood. He mar ...

arrived to take command of the modernization of Joseon's older army units that had not started Westernizing. They established their first military factories and a modern armory (''Gigichang'') and created new military uniforms in 1884. In April 1888, General

William McEntyre Dye William McEntyre Dye (January 26, 1831 – November 13, 1899) was a soldier from the United States who served in military capacities around the world. He became a brevet brigadier general in the Union Army during the American Civil War, a colo ...

and two other military instructors arrived from the United States, followed in May by a fourth instructor. They brought about rapid military development. They established a new military school called and an officers' training program to begin making the armies become more and more on par with the Chinese and the Japanese. After the UK occupied

Port Hamilton Komundo or Port Hamilton, officially Geomun-do in Korean (Hangul: 거문도 'Geomun-do'' Hanja: 巨文島 or 巨門島) is a small group of islands in the Jeju Strait off the southern coast of the Korean Peninsula, located approximately at . Th ...

(Geomun Island) in 1889, the Joseon government took a more effective national defense.

Donghak Peasant Revolution The Donghak Peasant Revolution (), also known as the Donghak Peasant Movement (), Donghak Rebellion, Peasant Revolt of 1894, Gabo Peasant Revolution, and a variety of Donghak Peasant Revolution#Role played by Donghak, other names, was an armed ...

In January 1894, the modernized army was deployed against the

Donghak Peasant Revolution The Donghak Peasant Revolution (), also known as the Donghak Peasant Movement (), Donghak Rebellion, Peasant Revolt of 1894, Gabo Peasant Revolution, and a variety of Donghak Peasant Revolution#Role played by Donghak, other names, was an armed ...

but lost many battles in the beginning due to their sheer numbers and innovative tactics. When Gojong requested help from the Qing to suppress the rebels, the Japanese sent troops to Seoul, demanding the Joseon Government send the Qing back. The government refused, and Japan stormed Gyeongbokgung. Despite resistance from Capital Guards Command, Japan occupied the palace and established a pro-Japanese government beginning the

Gabo Reform The Gabo Reform, also known as the Kabo Reform, describes a series of sweeping reforms suggested to the government of Korea, beginning in 1894 and ending in 1896 during the reign of Gojong of Korea in response to the Donghak Peasant Revolution. ...

and the Sino-Japanese War. As per the Gabo Reform, the government disbanded the Capital Guards Garrison. Japan allied with the Joseon Army and finally suppressed the Donghak rebels in December 1895. The Japanese forced the Qing out of Joseon after winning the war.

Gabo Reform The Gabo Reform, also known as the Kabo Reform, describes a series of sweeping reforms suggested to the government of Korea, beginning in 1894 and ending in 1896 during the reign of Gojong of Korea in response to the Donghak Peasant Revolution. ...

During the Gabo reform, the government, under the direction of the Japanese, established the

Hullyeondae The Hullyeondae ( "Military Training Division") was a Korean Army Regiment established under Imperial Japanese direction as a part of the second Gabo Reform in 1895, the 32nd year of Gojong of Korea's reign. On January 17 in the same year, Japanes ...

or the "Military Training Division." They are an elite regiment of royal guards trained and equipped by the Japanese and led by old Korean Army members who hold pro-Japanese sentiments.

Gojong of Korea Gojong (; 8 September 1852 – 21 January 1919) was the monarch of Korea from 1864 to 1907. He reigned as the last King of Joseon from 1864 to 1897, and as the first Emperor of Korea from 1897 until his forced abdication in 1907. He is known ...

established the Capital Guards (''Siwidae'', , ) and the provincial armies, the ''Jibangdae''. The minister of the military supervises the training of the Capital Guards. On 8 October 1895, the Japanese convinced the officers of the Hullyeondae that the royal family was seeking help from the Russians and plotted to assassinate

. One thousand Hullyeondae troops stormed the palace and defeated the Capital Guards, allowing the ronin to assassinate her. As a result, Gojong ordered the deaths of pro-Japanese officials ending the Gabo Reform. After her death, Gojong disbanded the Military Training Division for their part in the assassination and the Capital Guards in August 1895 for failing to stop the Japanese. He reorganized them into the ''Chinwidae'', a modernized royal guard trained by Russian military advisors, and the ''

Jinwidae Jinwidae (Hangul: 진위대, Hanja: 鎭衛隊) was an organization of the Imperial Korean Army established in September 1895 by Gojong of Korea when he knew that Hullyeondae was part of the assassination of Empress Myeongseong. History Jinwida ...

'', modernized provincial armies. In 1897, he proclaimed Joseon the

Korean Empire The Korean Empire () was a Korean monarchical state proclaimed in October 1897 by Emperor Gojong of the Joseon dynasty. The empire stood until Japan's annexation of Korea in August 1910. During the Korean Empire, Emperor Gojong oversaw the Gwa ...

dedicated to modernizing the country and the

army An army (from Old French ''armee'', itself derived from the Latin verb ''armāre'', meaning "to arm", and related to the Latin noun ''arma'', meaning "arms" or "weapons"), ground force or land force is a fighting force that fights primarily on ...

Organization

Numbers and information of the Joseon Armed Forces

The command system of the army was that one or two provincial commanders from each province commanded a provincial base, and each county and city had a commander. The Joseon Army comprises foot soldiers, archers, musketeers, artillery, cavalry, and elite soldiers, the ''Pengbaesu'' and ''Gabsa''. The ''Pengbaesu'' are shield-bearing foot soldiers. The ''Gabsa'' was the highest caliber of soldiers who served as elite foot soldiers and cavalry (or mounted infantry). A high-ranking officer leads Joseon troops. A mid-ranking officer with two low-ranking officers beside him leads a battle formation consisting of ''Pengbaesu'' in the front, gunners following them, spearmen behind them, and archers in the rear. The ''Gapsa'' protects the formation on the left and right flanks on foot or horses. Their officers in the Joseon army came exclusively from the

yangban The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil servants and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats ...

, and the king appointed them. Still, they valued scholarship over war as something unworthy of a Confucian gentleman-scholar. The quality of Korean generals varies. Some Korean officers being able, and others being men who had not devoted much time to the study of war, preferred archery, writing, practicing their calligraphy, and reading Confucian classics.Turnbull, Stephen "The Samurai Invasion of Korea, 1592–98", London: Osprey, 2008 p. 21.

Border Defense Council of Joseon

The Border Defense Council of Joseon was a supreme administrative organ established by the central government after the Disturbance of the Three Ports. It allowed the higher military officers, the ''Jibyeonsa Jaesang'' (in Hangul: 지변사재상, in Hanja: 知邊司宰相), to participate in the process of establishing security maneuvers to meticulously keep a keen eye on the issues of the border.

Royal Guard

The ''

Naegeumwi Naegeumwi () was a military unit during the Joseon Dynasty period of Korean history between 1407 and 1910, responsible for protecting the king and the royal family. The number of royal guards varied between 60 and 200, at times may have reached 300 ...

'', ''Gyeomsabok'', ''Woorimwi'', and ''Jungrowi'' was the royal guard units defending the ''Geumjung'' (禁裏) (or ''Geumjung'' (禁中), the king's residence. They number up to 50-200 men tasked with guarding the palace and escorting the king. In 1666, King Hyeongjong established the Restriction Guard (''Geumgun'') by integrating these three units into the Office of the Restriction Guards (''Geumguncheong''). In 1623, the Restriction Guard divided itself further into the ''Howechung''. In 1755, King Yeongjo renamed the Restriction Guard into the Dragon Guard (''Yonghoyeong'');��軍> its total number of members increased to 700. In 1793, King Jeongjo established the ''Jangyongyoung''. It also served as the elite unit of the central army as Joseon Kings assigned a number of units to serve on the field. In 1469, King Yejong established the King's Royal Palace Gatekeepers, the '' Wanggung Sumunjang'' (왕궁수문장) were a royal guard unit tasked with defending the gates of the five palaces and Hanseong's city gates. King Yeongjo established the ''Sumunjangcheong'' (守門將廳) to manage them.

Central Army

King Taejo established the central army (''Gyeonggun'') in 1392, and his army, which overthrew the Goryeo dynasty, served as its basis. In 1393, he established the Three Armies Headquarters (''Ŭihŭng Samgunbu''). It was the primary military force in the early Joseon Dynasty and had about 16,000 men initially, but in 1448 it was increased to about 28,000 men. The headquarters was renamed the Five Military Commands (''Owi'', , ) by King Sejo, making it the basis of the central army. After the Imjin War, King Seonjo replaced the Five Commands for its ineffectiveness with the Capital Defense Standing Army (수도 방어 상비군) consisting of Five Military Camps (''ogunyeong'', , ) and the Escort Office (''Howicheong'') to defend the capital and the

Gyeonggi Gyeonggi-do (, ) is the most populous province in South Korea. Its name, ''Gyeonggi'', means "京 (the capital) and 畿 (the surrounding area)". Thus, ''Gyeonggi-do'' can be translated as "Seoul and the surrounding areas of Seoul". Seoul, the na ...

Province. Adding to the central army was the Special Military Direct Office (''Byeolgunjigcheong'').

Five Military Commands

The Five Military Commands was the central army of the Early Joseon Dynasty consisting of five divisions with four brigades, each with about 2,000 ''gapsa'' constituting the core force among them and the Five Commands administers them through the General Headquarters (''Owido''), recruiting people from all provinces and the capital. The ''Owi'' defended

Eight Provinces of Korea During most of the Joseon Dynasty, Korea was divided into eight provinces ('' do''; ; ). The eight provinces' boundaries remained unchanged for about 480 years from 1413 to 1895, and formed a geographic paradigm that is still reflected today in ...

with the right guard in

P'yŏngan Pyeong-an Province (, ) was one of Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Pyeong'an was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Pyeongyang (now Pyongyang, North Korea). History Pyeong'an Province was formed in ...

, the rearguard in Hamgyŏng, the center guard in

Hwanghae Hwanghae Province (''Hwanghae-do'' ) was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon era. Hwanghae was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Haeju. The regional name for the province was Haeseo. History In 139 ...

Gangwon Gangwon or Kangwŏn may refer to: * Gangwon Province (historical), the Goryeo, Joseon Dynasty and the Japanese Korean province * Gangwon Province (South Korea), a province of South Korea, with its capital at Chuncheon. Before the division of Kore ...

, and

Chungcheong Chungcheong (''Chungcheong-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was located at Gongju, which had been the capital of the kingdom o ...

, the front guard in

Jeolla Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in today Southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as wel ...

, and the left guard in

Gyeongsang Gyeongsang ( ko, 경상도, ''Gyeongsang-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon dynasty. Gyeongsang was located in the southeast of Korea. The provincial capital was Daegu. The region was the birthplace of the Kingdom ...

Gapsa

The ''Gapsa'' () are the

men-at-arms A man-at-arms was a soldier of the High Medieval to Renaissance periods who was typically well-versed in the use of arms and served as a fully-armoured heavy cavalryman. A man-at-arms could be a knight, or other nobleman, a member of a knig ...

, the elite warriors of the central army armed with various weapons and armor at the time of King Seongjong, around the time of the publication of

Gyeongguk Daejeon ''Gyeongguk daejeon'' (translated as the State Code or the National Code) is a complete code of law that comprises all the laws, customs and decrees released since the late Goryeo Dynasty to the early Joseon Dynasty. Sorted according to the relev ...

, they number about 14,800. ''Gyeonggapsa'' () was stationed in Seoul, ''Yanggyegapsa'' () stationed in Pyeongan-do and Hamgyeong-do, the border regions, ''Gigapsa'' () on horseback, and ''Chakhogapsa'' () was used to fight tigers. The army officers recruit the ''gapsa'' based on their martial arts proficiency. ''Gapsa'' were initially chosen from among the children of the

Yangban The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil servants and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats ...

and underwent rigorous training and performed several menial duties such as preparing horses and armaments. When a ''Gapsa'' completes his military service at ''Gyeonggapsa'', he receives a commission and a 4th rank according to the ''Geogwan'' Act. However, filling the ''Gapsa'' ranks was difficult due to the ruling class's avoidance of military service. During the Imjin War, Seonjo disbanded the ''Gapsa'' along with the Five Military Commands and converted them into the Sogo System for their inadequacy.

Five Army Command

The Five Army Command (''ogunyeong'') defended Hanseong and the surrounding fortresses primarily in

Province. Each king established one or more camps during their reign. The ''ogunyeong'' started in September 1593 as a single military camp when King

and Ryu Seong-Ryong established the Military Training Command (''Hunlyeondogam'', , alternately translated as Military Training Command). The agency carefully divided the army into units and companies. The companies had archers, arquebusiers, sworders, and spear infantry squads. The agency set up army divisions in each region of Korea and garrisoned battalions at castles. The upper-class citizens and enslaved people were subject to the draft. All males had to enter military service to be trained and familiarized with weapons. It was also around this time that the military scholar Han Gyo (한교) wrote the martial arts manual

Muyejebo The ''Muyejebo'' (''Compendium of Several Martial Arts'') is the oldest extant Korean martial arts manual, written during the reign of King Seonjo (d. 1608). The king died before the compendium was complete, and it was first published, with ...

, based on the book

Jixiao Xinshu The ''Jixiao Xinshu'' () or ''New Treatise on Military Efficiency'' is a military manual written during the 1560s and 1580s by the Ming dynasty general Qi Jiguang. Its primary significance is in advocating for a combined arms approach to ...

by the famous Chinese General

Qi Jiguang Qi Jiguang (, November 12, 1528 – January 17, 1588), courtesy name Yuanjing, art names Nantang and Mengzhu, posthumous name Wuyi, was a Chinese military general and writer of the Ming dynasty. He is best known for leading the defense on the ...

. The agency initially had less than 80 troops and soon grew to about 10,000. In 1622-1624, Injo established three more camps to counter the Qing invasions after Yi Gwal's rebellion, the Royal Guards Command (''Eoyeongcheong''), Command of the Northern Approaches (''Chongyungcheong''), and the Royal Defense Command (''Sueocheong''). The Royal Guards Command had 260 artillery troops to defend the city walls of Hanseong and suppress rebellions. It grew to 7,000 troops after the Qing invasion, and during Hyojong's reign, 21,000 troops. The Command of the Northern Approaches defended the northern outskirts of Hanseong through the Bukhansanseong Fortress with 23,500 soldiers. The Royal Defense Command defended to defend south of Hanseong through Namhanseong Fortress with 16,500 troops. Sukjeong established the Capital Garrison (''Geumwiyeong'') to defend Hanyang and escort the king with 85,000 soldiers. Among them are 30,000 professional soldiers based on the military elements from the other four military camps. It was reassigned as an independent army by King Yeongjo. In 1704, King Sukjong assigned the Military Training Agency, the Royal Guards Command, and the Capital Garrison to serve as the Three Military Garrisons (). Their duty was to guard the Three Military Gates (''Samgunmun'', ) to strengthen Hanseong's defenses and escort the king. In 1745, after the

1728 Musin Rebellion The 1728 Musin Rebellion also known as Yi In-jwa's Rebellion was an unsuccessful seventeen-day rebellion against King Yeongjo of the Joseon Dynasty in Korea on May 1728. At that time, anonymous posters appeared in Jeonju and Namwon claiming t ...

, King Yeongjo realized the confusion of duties between these camps. He reorganized the gates in greater detail by dividing the responsibilities of the military camps to maintain order in the capital.

National Defense Systems

The Joseon Government established various defense systems to set up provincial armies and raise militias. The local troops and militias were mostly poor commoners and enslaved people pressed into service through corvée. Their training was inadequate, and many literati and officials tried to reform the provincial armies numerous times through these systems. After the Imjin War, the government reorganized the five local guards into the Northwestern Frontier Provincial Deployment Army (서북병 배치 지방군) and the Royal Provincial Army (각지 근왕병).

''Jingwan'' System

The ''Jingwan'' System was a provincial defense system that dates back to the Goryeo Dynasty, building fortresses in strategically important places. Still, it leaves some parts of the nations open to invasion, and if one falls, it will be catastrophic in any war. In 1457 A.D, King

Sejo Sejo of Joseon (2 November 1417 – 23 September 1468), personal name Yi Yu (Korean language, Korean: 이유; Hanja: 李瑈), sometimes known as Grand Prince Suyang (Korean language, Korean: 수양대군; Hanja: 首陽大君), was the sevent ...

reshuffled the defense system to secure as many defensive fortresses as possible to enhance the defensive depth. It comprises a ''Jujin'', the main fortress commanded by a ''Byeongsa'', a provincial military commander who takes a regional defense and orders lower unit commanders. A ''Geojin'', a medium-sized local administrative unit commanded by a ''Byeongmajeoljesa'' or ''Cheomjeoljesa'' (Geojin Military Commander) between the provincial capital and small local towns called ''Jejins'', who are commanded by the chief local magistrates or a military commander. Using this strategic composition, a ''Jingwan'' fights and defend their provinces, and every province has several independent ''Jingwans''. Under this system, the roles of local commanders were to be stationed at their post, know the local topography inside and out, draft the operation plan, train local soldiers, and defend their defensive quarter by mobilizing their local soldiers in the case of conflict. However, when there was a massive invasion, there were not enough soldiers to defend their provinces as it was also a dispersed-force defense system. It requires the concentrated use of forced local forces to defend their defense perimeters, and the ''Bupiljeoktajinjijobeob'' rule prevents provinces from coming to each other's aid. They requested military commanders from the central government who did not know a familiar province's terrain.

''Jeseungbangryak'' System

Joseon army mobilizes its troops through the ''Jeseungbangryak'' system. It allowed the military commanders from the central government to control assembled troops from the main army to the local and provincial armies. But, local officers could not individually respond to a foreign invasion outside their jurisdiction until a higher ranking general, appointed by the king's court, arrived with a newly mobilized army.Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 17–18. It was a highly inefficient arrangement since the nearby forces would remain stationary until the mobile border commander arrived on the scene and took control. Secondly, as the appointed General often came from an outside region. The general was unlikely unfamiliar with the natural environment, the available technology, and staffing of the invaded region. Finally, as the government never maintained the main army, new and ill-trained recruits conscripted during war constituted a significant part of the army.

''Sogo'' System

established the ''Sogo'' System in 1593, a militia system during the Imjin war based on the Ming Chinese militia system and military texts. He believed a communal nature of the defense forces would prevent the populace from deserting and allow the country to respond more quickly to invasions. Under this system, county magistrates or army commanders organized all families of the Joseon Society from villages and counties into militia armies with hierarchical command structures. They have access to the resources for maintaining and rewarding the soldiers. Five households each contributed a man to form the basic unit, an ''o''. The ''o''’s in a village or town were progressively amalgamated and arranged into eleven-man squads (''tae'') including a squad leader (''taech’ong''), three-squad banners (''ki''), three-banner companies (''ch’o''), and five-company battalions (''sa''), five battalions constituted a regiment (''yŏng'') of approximately 2,475 men. The ''Sogo'' Armies performed disastrously during the Manchu Invasions due to the county magistrates' poor management and outright corruption, who packed them with the old, weak, and infirm soldiers. During Heonjong's reign, he reduced them to a

corvée Corvée () is a form of unpaid, forced labour, that is intermittent in nature lasting for limited periods of time: typically for only a certain number of days' work each year. Statute labour is a corvée imposed by a state for the purposes of ...

labor force, and their garrison commanders operated in the realms of public safety and pacification as thief-catching and tiger killing.Martin, Thomas "Bridled Tigers: The Military At Korea's Northern Border, 1800–1863", Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2019 pp. 26–31.

Garrison Command System

After the

Manchu invasion of Korea During the 17th century, there were two Manchu invasions of Korea: *Later Jin invasion of Joseon (1627) *Qing invasion of Joseon The Qing invasion of Joseon (Korean: Byeongja Horan) occurred in the winter of 1636 when the newly-established Qin ...

, Injo established the Garrison Command System (''Yŏngjang chedo'') to take over the training and military preparation of Joseon and separated the military administration from the civil interference of the provincial magistrates. The Garrison Command System replaced recruitment with universal conscription, which like the ''Sogo'' system, required all citizens of Joseon to enlist because most regions lacked enough population base to maintain more than three. During

Yeongjo Yeongjo of Joseon (31 October 1694 – 22 April 1776), personal name Yi Geum (Korean: 이금, Hanja: 李昑), was the 21st monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was the second son of King Sukjong, by his concubine Royal Noble Consort Suk ...

's reign, the number of garrisons had grown to forty-nine, with nine in

Pyeongan Pyeong-an Province (, ) was one of Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Pyeong'an was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Pyeongyang (now Pyongyang, North Korea). History Pyeong'an Province was formed in ...

and six in Hamgyŏng Province. The other provinces had at least five, except for Kangwŏn, which could still only maintain there. Garrison commanders (''yŏngjang'') primary duty was to administer the provincial military structure and command garrisons. They also served a concurrent role of sheriffs (''t'op'osa''), shifting from military defense to catching criminals and suppressing local unrest. Magistrates were frequently appointed as garrison commanders, only nominally separating their duties. However, military men could be appointed separately to a garrison command in the southern regions without posting concurrent magistrate (''paech'i''). Nonetheless, the garrison commanders throughout the peninsula were increasingly responsible for civil policing activities at the expense of their military duties.

Modern Armies

The Joseon Army, as it existed in the early 1890s, consisted of about 3,000–50,000 soldiers at the time of the Donghak Peasant Revolution. There were about 5,000 soldiers in 1895. Training by Russian officers beginning in 1896 led to the organization of a 1,000-strong royal bodyguard armed with

Berdan rifle The Berdan rifle (''винтовка Бердана''/''vintovka Berdana'' in Russian) is a Russian rifle created by the American firearms expert and inventor Hiram Berdan in 1868. It was standard issue in the Russian army from 1870 to 1891, when ...

s that served as the core of an improved army. Soldiers sometimes transferred to other units from this core unit, including five regiments of about 900 soldiers each. When the Joseon Dynasty became the Korean Empire, their numbers grew to 28,000 before 1907.

Equipment

Uniforms

Soldiers and military officials wear military uniforms (''kunbok'', , ). The peasant soldiers wore black military robes (''hyeopsu'' , ) with white trimes and light blue long sleeveless vests (''

jeonbok The ''jeonbok'' is a type of sleeveless long vest in hanbok, traditional Korean clothing, which was worn by military personnel. The unlined jeonbok, which was influenced by a Chinese coat, was worn as the uniform of the military personnel until ...

'', , ) representing the central army and provincial armies. White vests are worn by soldiers of the Military Training Command. Red vests representing military police and yellow vests for military bands. Commissioned officers (usually military yangban) wore a red and yellow (or organge) military officials coat (''dongdari'', , ) for middle to high-ranking officers and red and blue ''dongdari'' for junior-ranking officers with a black ''jeonbok'' and a military belt (''jeondae'', , ). During emergencies and wartime, officers, ''Pengbaesu'', and ''Gabsa'' wore war clothing (''yungbok'', , ) distinguishing rank by color. Red ''yungbok'' with a blue military belt represents high-ranking officers. Blue ''yungbok'' with a red military belt represents mid-ranking officers. Black ''yungbok'' with a black military belt represents junior ranking officers and elite soldiers and cavalry. High and middle-ranking officers wore hats called ''jeonrip''. Soldiers of all ranks and low-ranking officers wore hats called '' beonggeoji''.

Modern Uniforms

In the 1880s, a new Joseon military uniform, the ''gyoryeonbyeonbok'' (, ) replaced the old ones. The ''Pyŏlgigun'', the ''Muwiyŏng'', the ''Changŏyŏng'', and the ''Chingunyeong'' wore an upper garment of the hanbok ''

jeogori (; ) is a basic upper garment of the , a traditional Korean garment, which has been worn by both men and women. Men usually wear the with a '' baji'' or pants while women wear the with '' chima'', or skirts. It covers the arms and upper part of ...

'' with a square-shaped neck collar from the ''bangryeong'' jacket, five metal buttons, and sleeve collars that denote a rank. One collar for a private and two for an officer. They also wore an inner jacket (''naegapui'', , ) underneath their uniforms for added protection. They wore a belt at the chest or waist length, a ''jeonrip'' with a red strap denoting a soldier's names and units, and a peacock feather for officers. During the Donghak Peasant Revolution and the early Sino-Japanese war, the ''Chingunyeong'' wore navy-blue western overcoats with white ankle-length baggy pants '' baji''. During the late Sino-Japanese and the Gabo Reform, the ''Chingunyeong'' wore black western overcoats and pants while maintaining the ''jeonrip''. In 1895 at the time of Queen Min's assassination and after the Gabo Reform, the army adopted western uniforms with pith helmets, white uniforms with blanket rolls for the central and provincial army soldiers and black uniforms for officers. At the start of the Gwangmu Reform, they began adopting German-style uniforms.

Armor

In the early dynasty, the army wore chain mail (''swaejagab'', , ) and plate and mail armor (''gyeongbeongap'', , ) from the late Goryeo dynasty. The peasant conscripts wore helmets but no armor. However, the Joseon military policy required peasant conscripts to provide their armor. Chain mail, paper armor (''jigap'', , ), and padded armor made from cotton layers, iron plats, and (or) leather (''eomshimgap'', , ) were popular among peasant soldiers in the provincial armies as they offered body protection at lower prices. Sets of leather armor worn by peasant soldiers are called ''Pigabju'' (, ). The central army's ''Pengbaesu'' wore chain mail and plate armor. Still, they, along with the ''Gabsa'' wore a traditional form of Korean armor that persisted with the Mongols' influences during the 13~14th centuries, lamellar armor (''jalgap'', , ). It was a complete metallic armor set. It was composed of a helmet resembling European kettle hats with attached neck defenses of mail or lamellar, body armor reaching down to the thighs or knees, and a set of shoulder guards that protected the upper arm. In the late dynasty, the ''dujeonggap'' (, ) is the Korean equivalent of

brigandine A brigandine is a form of body armour from the Middle Ages. It is a garment typically made of heavy cloth, canvas, or leather, lined internally with small oblong steel plates riveted to the fabric, sometimes with a second layer of fabric on th ...

. The ''Pengbaesu'', ''Gabsa'', and peasant conscripts wore brigandine made from cotton layers, and the plates weaved into the brigandine were either iron, copper, or leather. It became the primary form of Korean armor and often reached below the knees when worn. The helmet assumes a conical shape and has three brigandine flaps that protect the sides and back of the head. The high-ranking officers wore brass scales, and middle-low-ranking officers wore iron. The elite soldiers and the cavalry wore iron or copper in the main army, while peasant soldiers wore leather in the provincial army. In the 19th century, the Joseon Army's armor usage declined as heavy cavalry and generals relied on armor while foot soldiers and light cavalry wore only uniforms. In 1867, an attempt was made to develop anti-ballistic armor called

Myeonje baegab Myeonje baegap (면제배갑, 綿製背甲) was a soft bulletproof vest invented during the Joseon in 1867. It was invented following the 1866 military French expedition to Korea and used in battle during the United States expedition to Korea in ...

, made from 13 to 30 sewed sheets of textiles and cotton combined into a thick vest to the overwhelming firepower of rifles fielded by Western powers such as France and the United States. Although this attempt was partially in line with the current method of producing anti-ballistic vests, it does not appear to have proved effective. In the late 1870s, Korean armor fell into disuse completely. File: Eomshimgap and Pigabju.jpg, Sets of leather armor, ''Pigabju'', worn by the peasant soldiers. File:Joseon swaejagab (Chain Mail).jpg, Swaejagab, chain mail from the Joseon Dynasty worn by peasant conscripts File:국조오례의 경번갑.jpg, Jalgap, the lamellar armor of Joseon worn by the ''Pengbaesu'', and the ''Gabsa'' File:Joseon plate mail in Gyeongbokgung Palace.jpg, Korean mail and plate armor worn by the ''Pengbaesu'' File: Armor and helmet.Joseon period, 19th century. Musée Guimet.jpg, armor and helmet. Joseon period, 19th century. Musée Guimet. File: Korean Joseon Dynasty armour.jpg, Joseon dynasty Dujeong-gap File: Joseon Dynasty archer.jpg, Modern reenactors wearing a complete Dujeong-gap set. While conventionally shown as red, the fabric could be of various colors. File:Duseokrinkapju.jpg, Brass scale armor worn by military officers File: Armor Made of Layers of Cotton 02.jpg, Front of the Myeonje baegab

Melee Weapons

The standard

Korean sword Korean swords have served a central place in the defense of the nation for thousands of years. Although typical Korean land battles have taken place in wide valleys and narrow mountain passes, which favor use of the spear and bow, the sword found ...

was the ''hwando'', a short and light curved sword commonly used by Joseon soldiers during peacetime. The standard Korean spear was the ''

dangpa Dangpa, or dang pa, is the Korean name for a Ranseur (three-pronged trident-like spear) first described in the ''Muyejebo'', a Korean martial arts manual of the Joseon Dynasty (published 1610). Types There were several types of dangpa, such as ...

,'' a 7–8 ft three-pronged trident with a spear tip in the middle used for close defensive combat to trap an enemy's sword between two of the three prongs. Another polearm used in the army was the ''

jangchang The Jangchang, literally ''long spear'', is a Korean weapon first described in the 16th century martial arts manual, Muyejebo. The weapon was preferably made from the wood of the yew tree, but other types of wood could be used as well, such as o ...

'' (, ), a four-meter spear wielded by infantry, and cavalry, for thrusting and drawing while moving forward and backward. But due to its long lengthen, they cannot use this spear for throwing. The ''

woldo The woldo (literally “moon blade”), was a Korean pole weapon that closely resembled the Chinese guandao (also known as ''yanyuedao''), though proportionally smaller. It was so named because of its curved blade. Its use and its methods were d ...

'' was a 9 ft curved-bladed polearm with a spike at the end of the handle and a tassel or feather attached to the blade. The ''woldo'' was mostly used by cavalry for its heavy striking power while on horseback. The infantry but mostly cavalry used the ''

pyeongon The Pyeongon is a nunchaku-like weapon used by the Joseon army and is first mentioned in a martial arts manual called Muyesinbo. The weapon was inspired by the farmer's flail to thresh rice with. In the West it mostly known as a two-section sta ...

'', a -long

flail A flail is an agricultural tool used for threshing, the process of separating grains from their husks. It is usually made from two or more large sticks attached by a short chain; one stick is held and swung, causing the other (the swipple) to st ...

made from hardwood stick, painted red, acting as the handle for a chain attached to a shaft with iron nails. The ''Pengbaesu'' carry a ''pengbae'' (, ), a round shield, or a ''deungpaea'' (, ), a rattan shield along with a sword. File: Hwndo displayed in Unhyeon Palace.jpg, Hwando, standard sword of Joseon military File: Korean guard with dangpa.JPG, Dangpa, standard polearm of the Joseon Military File: Muye24gi-weoldo.jpg, Woldo, a polearm wielded by mostly the cavalry File: Pyeongon.gif, Pyeongon, a two-section staff flail wielded by mostly the cavalry File: Mydbtj-jangchang.JPG, Jangchang, a long spear wielded by both infantry and cavalry File: Muye24gi-duengpae.jpg, Deungpae, a rattan shield

Projectile Weapons

Archery

Joseon foot soldiers and cavalry often fought as archers with their bows which had a range of . Archers also used the ''

pyeonjeon Pyeonjeon, (aka "(편전)", "Junjun") or aegisal ("애기살" or "baby arrow" or sometimes "mini-arrow") is a short arrow or bolt, shot using a longer bamboo arrow guide called the tongah in Korean archery. The tongah (aka "Tong-ah") allows you to d ...

'', a short arrow, and the ''tongah'' to help guide it as part of the standard kit of Chosun era archers. They can fire at an extended range of 350 meters and flatter trajectories with a faster velocity and penetrating power than regular arrows. Their quivers held 20 arrows and 10 ''pyeonjeon'' arrows. They also used repeating crossbows and

crossbows A crossbow is a ranged weapon using an elastic launching device consisting of a bow-like assembly called a ''prod'', mounted horizontally on a main frame called a ''tiller'', which is hand-held in a similar fashion to the stock of a long fire ...

Gunpowder

In 1395, several weapons were in use: a series of

cannons A cannon is a large-caliber gun classified as a type of artillery, which usually launches a projectile using explosive chemical propellant. Gunpowder ("black powder") was the primary propellant before the invention of smokeless powder during ...

called the ''daejanggunpo'', ''ijanggunpo'', and ''samjanggunpo'', a shell-firing mortar called the ''jillyeopo'', series of ''yuhwa'', ''juhwa'', and ''chokcheonhwa'' rockets, which were the forerunners of the

singijeon ''Singijeon'' or ''shinkichon'' ( ko, 신기전; Hanja: ; literally "Divine machine arrows") was a type of Korean fire arrow rocket, used during the era of the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897). Multiple ''singijeon'' could be launched by ''hwacha ...

, and a signal gun called the ''shinpo''. These cannons improved during

Taejong Taejong of Joseon (13 June 1367 – 8 June 1422), personal name Yi Bang-won (Korean: 이방원; Hanja: 李芳遠), was the third ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea and the father of King Sejong the Great. Before ascending to the throne, he wa ...

's rule. Among the people responsible for the developments was Choe Hae-san, son of

Choe Mu-seon Choe Mu-Seon (1325–1395) was a medieval Korean scientist, inventor, and military commander during the late Goryeo Dynasty and early Joseon Dynasty. He is best known for enabling Korea to domestically produce gunpowder by obtaining a recipe ...

. Yi Si-ae's Rebellion was the first time in Joseon history the Joseon Army utilized many different kinds of (gunpowder) weapons. Weapons including the shield walls for defending against

chongtong The Chongtong (Hangul: 총통, Hanja: 銃筒) was a term for military firearms of Goryeo and Joseon dynasty. The size of chongtong varies from small firearm to large cannon, and underwent upgrades, which can be separated in three generation type ...

and chongtong to destroy the shield walls and hwacha for significant damage in massive fire combats during battles of Yi Si-ae's Rebellion. During the Imjin War, they mainly used the cannon in siege action and defending castles. The ''

Nanjung ilgi ''Nanjung ilgi'' or ''War Diary of Yi Sun-sin'' is the personal diary of Admiral Yi Sun-sin (Hangul: 이순신, Hanja: 李舜臣), a Korean naval commander who lived during the Joseon Dynasty. It was written between January 1, 1592 and November 17 ...

'' says that many captured and used by the Japanese realized their full potential. There were few instances of Koreans employing artillery in the field, with largely ineffective results."The Diary of a Militia" (향병일기; Hyangbyeong-ilgi), stored in the database of the

National Institute of Korean History The National Institute of Korean History (NIKH) is a South Korean national organization in charge of researching, collecting, compiling, promoting the study of historical materials on Korean history. It was established as ''Guksagwan'' (국사관 � ...

, Some irregular Korean units with government-supplied weapons fired explosive shells from mortars, but this occurred only in isolated instances. The Koreans use the ''

hwacha The ''hwacha'' or ''hwach'a'' ( ko, 화차; Hanja: ; literally "fire cart") was a multiple rocket launcher and an organ gun of similar design which were developed in fifteenth century Korea. The former variant fired one or two hundred rocket-po ...

'' – multiple rocket-propelled arrows. The ''hwacha'' consisted of a two-wheeled cart carrying a board filled with holes into which the soldiers inserted ''singijeons''. It could fire up to 200 ''singijeon'', a type of rocket arrow, all at once. The ''hwacha'' also has a variant called the ''munjong hwacha''. It can simultaneously fire 100 rocket arrows or 200 small

bullets with changeable modules. Another variant was the ''mangam hwacha'', a boxed cart with large faces of a ''

dokkaebi Dokkaebi ( ko, 도깨비) are legendary creatures from Korean mythology and folklore. Dokkaebi, also known as "Korean goblins", are nature deities or spirits possessing extraordinary powers and abilities that are used to interact with humans, ...

'' painted on all three sides of the cart. Armed with forty ''seungja-chongtongs'' with fourteen in the front and thirteen on the left and right sides, only two soldiers can manage it, one firing the rows and the other reloads. They can fire 600 bullets, with each barrel holding 15 shots each. The hwacha mainly was deployed during the Siege of Pyongyang in January 1593 and the

Battle of Haengju The Battle of Haengju took place on 14 March 1593 during the 1592–1598 Japanese invasion of Korea. The Japanese attack failed to overcome Haengju fortress. Background Gwon Yul was stationed at the fortress of Haengju, a wooden stockade on ...

in March 1593. The ''cheon'' "heaven" or "sky," ''Ji'' "earth," ''Hyeon'' "black," and ''Hwang'' "yellow" or "gold" names are not significant, being the first four characters of the

Thousand Character Classic The ''Thousand Character Classic'' (), also known as the ''Thousand Character Text'', is a Chinese poem that has been used as a primer for teaching Chinese characters to children from the sixth century onward. It contains exactly one thousand c ...

. His son,

, also made many improvements and increased the ranges of these cannons (called ''hwapo'' and later ''hwatong'' "fire tube" and ''

'' "gun tube"). The seungja "victory gun," was a ''chongtong'' that serves as a standard Korean gun. It was a handheld shotgun-like cannon attached to a staff that fired by lighting a fuse, a large arrow, a bullet, and 15 small pellets. The gunners also used the seungja chongtong as a two-handed club in melee combat. Another variant was the soseungja chongtong, a handheld cannon attached to a gunstock that fired a bullet and also a large arrow, but like the seungja it can only fire by lighting the fuse. In the early 1500s, the ''bullanggi'' (불랑기/佛狼機), a

breech-loading swivel gun A breech-loading swivel gun was a particular type of swivel gun and a small breech-loading cannon invented in the 14th century. It was equipped with a swivel for easy rotation and was loaded by inserting a mug-shaped device called a chamber or bree ...

, was introduced to Korea from Portugal via China. It was divided into sizes 1 through 5, in decreasing size. The small but powerful cannons of this era saw extensive use during the

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98) Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...

by both the Joseon Army and the

. Mortars used at this time were the ''chongtong-wan'gu''e, ''byeoldae-wan'gu'', ''dae-wan'gu'', ''jung-wan'gu'', and ''so-wan'gu''. These fired stones or the ''bigeukjincheonre'' a timed explosive shell. In 1596, the ''seungja'' were phased out in favor of Japanese-style

musket A musket is a muzzle-loaded long gun that appeared as a smoothbore weapon in the early 16th century, at first as a heavier variant of the arquebus, capable of penetrating plate armour. By the mid-16th century, this type of musket gradually d ...

s and

arquebus An arquebus ( ) is a form of long gun that appeared in Europe and the Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. An infantryman armed with an arquebus is called an arquebusier. Although the term ''arquebus'', derived from the Dutch word ''Haakbus ...

es. The Koreans called these ''jochong'' (조총/鳥銃), means 'An accurate gun even shoot down flying bird.'.Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 36. The Hong'ipo () was a cannon introduced from the Netherlands by

and others in the 1650s. Joseon also used this cannon during the 1866

French campaign against Korea The French expedition to Korea (french: Expédition française en Corée, ) was an 1866 punitive expedition undertaken by the Second French Empire against Joseon Korea in retaliation for the execution of seven French Catholic missionaries. Th ...

, the 1871

United States expedition to Korea The United States expedition to Korea, known in Korea as the ''Shinmiyangyo'' () or simply the Korean Expedition, was the first American military action in Korea and took place predominantly on and around Ganghwa Island in 1871. The reason fo ...

and the

Ganghwa Island incident The Ganghwa Island incident or the Japanese Battle of Ganghwa ( ko, 운요호 사건 ��揚號事件} ''Unyo-ho sageon'' meaning "'' Un'yō'' incident"; ja, 江華島 ''Kōka-tō jiken''), was an armed clash between the Joseon dynasty of Kore ...

of September 20, 1875. File: Chongtongs-Jinju Castle.jpg, Three large chongtong at the Jinju Fortress museum. The closest is a ''cheonja-chongtong'', the second is a ''jija-chongtong'', and the third is a ''hyeonja-chongtong''. File: Korean culverin.jpg, A hong'ipo cannon introduced from the Netherlands by

and others in the 1650s File:대완구.jpg, Large mortar with a stone round File:불랑기포.jpg, Breech-loading swivel gun File:Cheonjachongtong-etc.jpg, This Cheonja-chongtong is the largest size. File:지자총통 (862호).jpg, Jijachongtong, the second largest cannon in Mid Joseon Dynasty. File:Hyunjachongtong.jpg, This Hyeonja-chongtong is a middle-sized cannon. File:Byeolhwangja-chongtong.jpg, Byeolhwangja-chongtong, which was one of the miniature cannons File:승자총통 (1).JPG, Seungja-chongtong, a hand cannon File:Sipyeonjapo.jpg, Sipyeonjapo, the ten-barreled musket File:Oyeonjapo.jpg, Oyeonjapo, the five-barreled musket File:EdoJapaneseArquebuse.jpg, The Koreans called these muskets acquired from the Japanese '' jochong'' (조총/鳥銃). File:Hwacha-1500s-painting2.jpg, Plans for Hwacha assembly and disassembly. Left mid and below are the front and rear of Singijeon rocket launcher modules; things at right are the front and back of Munjong organ gun modules (Gukjo-orye-seorye, 1474). File: Demonstration of the Mangam Hwacha.jpg, Mangam Hwacha firing its gun barrels at the Jangseong Army Artillery School demonstration.

Modern Weapons

The Joseon dynasty attempted to reverse-engineer European firearms to counter their rising threat in the 19th century. When the Americans captured Ganghwa Island's coastal fortresses, the Joseon Army first used these modern weapons to reinforce the island. After signing the Treaty of Ganghwa, Japan, Qing, the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...

, and the European nations started importing modern weapons such as rifles, artillery, machine guns, western sabers, and bayonets in 1883 until its annexation in 1910. From 1887, Gojong even tried to make weapons by themselves which however never succeed. File: Martini-Henry m1871 - England - AM.032017.jpg, Martini-Henry m1871. Acquired from Great Britain in (1881-1884) File: Snider Springfield Armory.jpg, Snyder Enfield rifle. Acquired from Great Britain in (1881-1884) File:Gevär m-1867 Sverige (Remington - Armémuseum).jpg, Remington Rolling Block rifle. Acquired from the United States in (1884-1895) File:MurataTR.png, Murata Type 13 rifle (top) with Murata Type 22 carbine (bottom). Acquired from the Japanese Empire in (1880s~). File:Fusil Gras M80 1874.jpg, Fusil Gras M80 1874. Acquired from France. File:Infanteriegewehr m-1871 Mauser - Tyskland - kaliber 10,95mm - Armémuseum.jpg, Mauser Model 1871. Acquired from the German Empire in (1893~). It was the standard-issued rifle of the modern Joseon Army. File: Berdan model 18708921.jpg, Berdan rifle. Acquired from the Russian Empire in (1896~). The royal guard used them, but they were not often the Mauser Model 1871. File: Gatling Gun.jpg, Gatling Gun. Used during the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Acquired from the United States (1883~). File: Armstrong 12 Pounder Field Gun (16764537194).jpg, Armstrong 12 Pounder Field Gun. Acquired from Great Britain (1880s) File:War Museum Athens - Krupp 75mm mountain gun - 6749.jpg, Krupp 75mm mountain gun. Acquired from the German Empire in (Unknown).

Strategy and Tactics

Joseon's longtime foe, the Jurchens, adopted cavalry mobile warfare and made numerous raids on Joseon's Northern Borders. The Joseon army focused on developing anti-cavalry tactics to counter them. Their main battle tactic is to arm their infantry and cavalry with long-range weaponry to weaken their cavalry charge from a distance and then engage them quickly and fluently. But in an actual combat situation, the cavalry charges into the enemy's spearhead formation and the battle formation. During the Imjin War, when the army formed their battle positions like the Joseon cavalry formations against the Jurchens, they were withered down by a hail of Japanese arquebuses. Then, the Japanese ashigaru engaged in close-quarters combat. But what the Koreans lack in numbers can make up for it in topography and geography. The

utilized stalling tactics to hamper Japanese supply chains on land, but the central army could not use them until the second half of the Imjin war.

References

{{Joseon Military history of Korea Joseon dynasty Former armies by country

History

Early Period

Joseon–Jurchen border conflicts

Oei Invasion

Yi Si-ae's Rebellion Yi Si-ae's Rebellion was an armed rebellion in 1467 in Hamgil Province (later renamed Hamgyong Province) led by General Yi Si-ae, a member of Yangban landowners in Kilju, Hamgil Province, to rebel against the centralized policy of King Sejo. ...

Japanese Invasions of Korea

Yi Gwal's Rebellion Yi Gwal's Rebellion was an armed rebellion in the Joseon dynasty led by General Yi Gwal, who helped Injo ascend to the throne and incited a rebellion against him for being rewarded poorly and trying to arrest his son. He led 12,000 of his soldie ...

Manchu-Joseon Conflicts

Battle of Sarhū The Battle of Sarhū (薩爾滸之戰; 萨尔浒之战; ''Sà'ěrhǔ zhī zhàn'') refers to a series of battles between the Later Jin dynasty (the predecessor of the Qing dynasty) and the Ming dynasty and their Joseon allies in the winter of ...

Later Jin invasion of Joseon The Later Jin invasion of Joseon occurred in early 1627 when the Later Jin prince Amin led an invasion of the Joseon Dynasty. The war ended after three months with the Later Jin establishing itself as sovereign tributary overlord over Joseon. ...

Qing invasion of Joseon The Qing invasion of Joseon (Korean: Byeongja Horan) occurred in the winter of 1636 when the newly-established Qing dynasty invaded the Joseon dynasty, establishing the former's status as the hegemon in the Imperial Chinese Tributary System and ...

Military Expansion

Northern Campaigns

Hong Gyeong-Rae's Rebellion Hong Gyeong-Rae's Rebellion also known as the Gwanseo Peasant War was an armed rebellion from January 31, 1812—May 29, 1812, led by Hong Gyeong-Rae and the yangban of Pyeongan Province who were unhappy with their treatment by the central gover ...

Foreign Incursions in Korea

Modernization

Donghak Peasant Revolution The Donghak Peasant Revolution (), also known as the Donghak Peasant Movement (), Donghak Rebellion, Peasant Revolt of 1894, Gabo Peasant Revolution, and a variety of Donghak Peasant Revolution#Role played by Donghak, other names, was an armed ...

Gabo Reform The Gabo Reform, also known as the Kabo Reform, describes a series of sweeping reforms suggested to the government of Korea, beginning in 1894 and ending in 1896 during the reign of Gojong of Korea in response to the Donghak Peasant Revolution. ...

Organization

Border Defense Council of Joseon

Royal Guard

Central Army

Five Military Commands

Gapsa

Five Army Command

National Defense Systems

''Jingwan'' System

''Jeseungbangryak'' System

''Sogo'' System

Garrison Command System

Modern Armies

Equipment

Uniforms

Modern Uniforms

Armor

Melee Weapons

Projectile Weapons

Archery

Gunpowder

Modern Weapons

Strategy and Tactics

See also

References