John Johnston (1762–1828) was a wealthy and successful
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies.
** Britishness, the British identity and common culture
* British English, ...
fur trader for the
North West Company at
Sault Ste. Marie when it was still Canadian territory before the
War of 1812
The War of 1812 (18 June 1812 – 17 February 1815) was fought by the United States, United States of America and its Indigenous peoples of the Americas, indigenous allies against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, United Kingdom ...
. He was a prominent citizen and leader in the
Michigan Territory of the United States, although he never became a US citizen. He married ''
Ozhaguscodaywayquay'' (Woman of the Green Glade), daughter of ''
Waubojeeg'' (White Fisher), a prominent
Ojibwe
The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an Anishinaabe people in what is currently southern Canada, the northern Midwestern United States, and Northern Plains.
According to the U.S. census, in the United States Ojibwe people are one of ...
war chief and civil leader from what is now northern
Wisconsin
Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake M ...
. The Johnstons were leaders in both the Euro-American and Ojibwa communities. Johnston's life was markedly disrupted by the War of 1812, as afterward the U.S. prohibited trading by Canadians in its territory.
Early life fur trade
Johnston was born in
Belfast, Ireland
Belfast ( , ; from ga, Béal Feirste , meaning 'mouth of the sand-bank ford') is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, standing on the banks of the River Lagan on the east coast. It is the 12th-largest city in the United Kingdom ...
to an upper-class
Scots-Irish family.
[Robert Dale Parker, ''Jane Johnston Schoolcraft''](_blank)
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, accessed 11 Dec 2008 He held in his own right the estate of Craige, near
Coleraine in
County Londonderry. His father was a civil engineer who planned and built the
Belfast Water Works. During John's youth, his mother's brother was Attorney General of Ireland.
[William Kingsford, C.E., "John Johnston, of Sault Ste. Marie: A Passage in Canadian History"](_blank)
in G. Mercer Adam, ''Canadian Monthly and National Review'', pp.1-9 Toronto: Rose-Belford Publishing Co., 1881, accessed 23 Dec 2008
As a young man, Johnston emigrated in 1792 to
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
for its opportunities. He had letters of introduction to
Lord Dorchester
Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester (3 September 1724 – 10 November 1808), known between 1776 and 1786 as Sir Guy Carleton, was an Anglo-Irish soldier and administrator. He twice served as Governor of the Province of Quebec, from 1768 to 177 ...
, Governor of the colony. Through him, he met leaders in society, including the magnates of the recently formed
North West Company in
Montreal, Quebec
Montreal ( ; officially Montréal, ) is the second-most populous city in Canada and most populous city in the Canadian province of Quebec. Founded in 1642 as '' Ville-Marie'', or "City of Mary", it is named after Mount Royal, the triple-pe ...
.
The fur trade looked like a good opportunity to make a profit. Johnston planned to be a "wintering partner", one who traded with Native Americans at the frontier post in the interior of the territory. With his own capital, he purchased trade goods in Montreal to take with him.
Marriage
Johnston went to Sault Ste. Marie, a journey which then took several weeks, where he settled on the south side of the river. There Johnston met ''
Ozhaguscodaywayquay'' (Woman of the Green Glade), daughter of ''
Waubojeeg'' (White Fisher), a prominent Ojibwe war chief and civil leader from what is now northern
Wisconsin
Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake M ...
. Johnston fell in love with Chief Waubojeeg's daughter, but the Chief was skeptical of white men. He initially refused when Johnston asked for his daughter in marriage, saying:
White Man, I have noticed your behaviour, it has been correct; but, White Man, your colour is deceitful. Of you, may I expect better things? You say you are going to Montreal; go, and if you return I shall be satisfied of your sincerity and will give you my daughter.[Penny Petrone, ''First People, First Voices''](_blank)
University of Toronto Press: 1984, p. 27
The couple married, after which ''Ozhaguscodaywayquay'' took and also used the name of Susan Johnston.
Like Johnston, most fur traders were Europeans of social standing and, together with the upper-class Ojibwa women they married, they formed the upper tier of a two-class frontier society. "Kinship and ties of affinity proved more than merely useful to the traders. They were both a source of power and a necessity if one was to achieve success in the trade."
[Robert E. Bieder, "Sault Ste. Marie and the War of 1812: A World Turned Upside Down in the Old Northwest"](_blank)
''Indiana Magazine of History'', XCV (Mar 1999), accessed 13 Dec 2008 Johnston was considered the first permanent European-American settler in Sault Ste. Marie.
, Bayliss Public Library, 2000, accessed 13 Dec 2008
The
Johnstons' cedar log house on Water Street in Sault Ste. Marie was built in 1796 in a French colonial style. When their eldest daughter
Jane married
Henry Schoolcraft
Henry Rowe Schoolcraft (March 28, 1793 – December 10, 1864) was an American geographer, geologist, and ethnologist, noted for his early studies of Native American cultures, as well as for his 1832 expedition to the source of the Mississippi R ...
, the US Indian agent, the Johnstons' built an addition for them to live in. Some years later, the Schoolcrafts built their own house in the village. The addition is now the only remaining part of the Johnston house, and it is one of the featured historic houses in the city. Jane Johnston Schoolcraft is considered the first Native American woman poet.
Although the south side of the river became United States territory in 1797 after treaty settlements following the end of the
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a major war of the American Revolution. Widely considered as the war that secured the independence of t ...
, Johnston never became a US citizen. At the time, the border was a fluid area. In those years, Native Americans had separate status and were generally not considered United States citizens. For the people at Sault Ste. Marie after 1797, there was little change in their daily lives or relations with the Ojibwa, except as they received more American explorers.
Career
As a young man, Johnston was thrilled at the opportunity he saw with the North West Company. He was impressed by the partners he met and their refined lives. When formed in 1787, the company had 23 partners and 2000 employees: "Agents, factors, clerks, guides, interpreters, and ''voyageurs''."
[William Kingsford, "John Johnston, of Sault Ste. Marie: A Passage in Canadian History"](_blank)
in G. Mercer Adam, ''Canadian Monthly and National Review'', p.3, Vol. 7, 1881 Jul-Dec, Toronto: Rose-Belford Publishing Co., 1881, accessed 23 Dec 2008
Over the years Johnston became successful himself, with his fur trading and relations with the Ojibwa enhanced by his wife Susan's family ties to the Ojibwa community. The Johnstons were known as a refined and cultured family, leaders in both the Ojibwa and Euro-American communities, who maintained a wide range of relations.
[William Kingsford, "John Johnston, of Sault Ste. Marie: A Passage in Canadian History"](_blank)
in G. Mercer Adam, ''Canadian Monthly and National Review'', pp.4-6, Vol. 7, 1881 Jul-Dec, Toronto: Rose-Belford Publishing Co., 1881, accessed 23 Dec 2008
As part of their culture of building relationships, the Johnstons welcomed to their home an array of significant players in the region, including surveyors, explorers, traders, governmental officials, trappers, and political leaders. With his wife and her family's help, Johnston developed a broad knowledge of both the Ojibwa ways and the Great Lakes region. He played an integral role in developing the Michigan frontier and was appointed a Justice of the Peace.
Sault Ste. Marie was a community with a mix of fur traders, most of whom had
Native American wives; Ojibwa natives, some of high status; and workers who were
Métis, European, and Native American. Permanent and temporary structures included warehouses for furs, scattered housing and Indian wigwams, and sheds for boats.
Many of the Ojibwa stayed in the area for the fishing more than for the settlement.
Increasing economic tensions between Great Britain and the US affected the fur trade. In 1806 US changes to the
Jay Treaty
The Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, Between His Britannic Majesty and the United States of America, commonly known as the Jay Treaty, and also as Jay's Treaty, was a 1794 treaty between the United States and Great Britain that averted ...
of 1794 restricted British fur traders to operating in Canada. Both they and the Ojibwa wished to return to the previous arrangement, which allowed free passage across the border for trade by nationals of both countries and by the Indians.
During the War of 1812, Johnston assisted the British, due to his longstanding affiliations with them. After a direct appeal from the garrison at
Michilimackinac
Michilimackinac ( ) is derived from an Ottawa Ojibwe name for present-day Mackinac Island and the region around the Straits of Mackinac between Lake Huron and Lake Michigan.. Early settlers of North America applied the term to the entire region ...
, Johnston supplied about 100 of his men and took two ''batteaux'' for their relief in 1814. When an American force failed to intercept him, it continued to Sault Ste. Marie. There the US raiders burned the North West Company warehouses on both sides of the St. Mary's River, causing substantial losses to Johnston and the Company. The troops also raided his house, called Johnson Hall. They looted the library and furnishings and burned the house down. (Johnston's wife and children fled into the woods when the soldiers arrived.) Johnston never became a U.S. citizen.
The Johnstons' oldest son Louis (also appears as Lewis) was a lieutenant in the British Navy and served on the ''Queen Charlotte'' during the War of 1812. He was captured by Commodore
Oliver Perry during the battle on
Lake Erie
Lake Erie ( "eerie") is the fourth largest lake by surface area of the five Great Lakes in North America and the eleventh-largest globally. It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also h ...
. His treatment by the Americans while he was held prisoner at
Cincinnati, Ohio
Cincinnati ( ) is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Hamilton County. Settled in 1788, the city is located at the northern side of the confluence of the Licking and Ohio rivers, the latter of which marks the state line wi ...
turned him against living under their rule.
After the war, Johnston made a direct appeal to Governor
Lewis Cass of Michigan to have the restriction against his trading in the interior lifted because of his other services to the region, but to no avail. He suffered financially from his losses and reduced trading and was never able to rebuild his former wealth. Although he applied to the British government for compensation for his losses, no payment was made. Believing he was too old to remove to Canada, he stayed in Sault Ste. Marie. In 1821 Johnston served as a Commissioner during negotiations to end the rivalry between the North West and
Hudson's Bay companies and helped achieve their merger.
[Robert E. Bieder, "Sault Ste. Marie and the War of 1812:A World Turned Upside Down in the Old Northwest"](_blank)
''Indiana Magazine of History'', XCV (Mar 1999), p.10, accessed 13 Dec 2008
Still worried about potential British agitation of Native Americans along the border, in 1822 the US government built and staffed
Fort Brady
Fort Brady was a frontier fort established in Sault Sainte Marie, Michigan to guard against British incursions from Canada. The original location of the fort, known as Old Fort Brady, was along the Saint Mary's River. Fort Brady was located at ...
at Sault Ste. Marie. With the fort and troops, other American settlers started to come into the area in greater number. The culture of Sault Ste. Marie changed markedly. Johnston and others who had earlier formed and dominated the community were passed by as the newcomers banded together. The presence of military troops formalized the role of government. The new American residents were reluctant to become involved with the French, Ojibwe, or Métis, and disdained most of the existing society.
Family
The Johnstons had eight children, most of whom were American by the timing of their births in that city. They educated them in
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
,
Ojibwe
The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an Anishinaabe people in what is currently southern Canada, the northern Midwestern United States, and Northern Plains.
According to the U.S. census, in the United States Ojibwe people are one of ...
and
French. Johnston had a large library filled with English classical authors, including poets, which his children used for their literary education. The parents took care to educate their children in both cultures, and expected them to have opportunities in society equivalent to their standing. Many fur traders sent their children to Montreal for formal education.
The Johnstons' eldest daughter
Jane married
Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who arrived in Sault Ste. Marie in 1822 as
Indian agent
In United States history, an Indian agent was an individual authorized to interact with American Indian tribes on behalf of the government.
Background
The federal regulation of Indian affairs in the United States first included development of t ...
for the US government. He was to establish formal relationships with the Native Americans in the region. He became noted as an
ethnographer
Ethnography (from Greek ''ethnos'' "folk, people, nation" and ''grapho'' "I write") is a branch of anthropology and the systematic study of individual cultures. Ethnography explores cultural phenomena from the point of view of the subject o ...
and writer about Native American life. Despite his marriage and interests, he remained more outside Native American life than had the fur trader John Johnston.
Jane Johnston Schoolcraft was inducted in 2008 into the
Michigan Women's Hall of Fame
The Michigan Women's Hall of Fame (MWHOF) honors distinguished women, both historical and contemporary, who have been associated with the U.S. state of Michigan. The hall of fame was founded in 1983 by Gladys Beckwith and is sponsored by the Michi ...
for her own contributions to literature and history. She is recognized as the first
Native American literary writer and poet. A major collection of her work was published in 2007.
The second daughter Eliza never married. The next two married well. The third daughter married
Archdeacon MacMurray, of Niagara, who worked as a
missionary
A missionary is a member of a religious group which is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thomas Hale 'On Being a Mi ...
with tribes along
Lake Superior
Lake Superior in central North America is the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface areaThe Caspian Sea is the largest lake, but is saline, not freshwater. and the third-largest by volume, holding 10% of the world's surface fresh wa ...
. Maria, the youngest daughter, married James Laurence Schoolcraft, a younger brother of
Henry Rowe Schoolcraft.
The Anglo-American settlement and rule over Sault Ste. Marie and Michigan after the War of 1812 changed the culture markedly within a generation.
Mixed-race
Mixed race people are people of more than one race or ethnicity. A variety of terms have been used both historically and presently for mixed race people in a variety of contexts, including ''multiethnic'', ''polyethnic'', occasionally ''bi-eth ...
men, even those of upper-class families such as the Johnstons, were discriminated against by the Americans. The Americans disdained the children of mixed marriages; in addition, they were suspicious of
Roman Catholic
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
* Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
* Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a let ...
s and
French speakers. They often did not take the time to discern the layers of northern Michigan society, but lumped all those together who had preceded them in Sault Ste. Marie and other communities.
As noted above, the oldest son, Lewis Johnston, stayed in Canada after the War of 1812.
William Kingsford, "John Johnston, of Sault Ste. Marie: A Passage in Canadian History", in G. Mercer Adam, ''Canadian Monthly and National Review'', p.8, Vol. 7, 1881 Jul-Dec, Toronto: Rose-Belford Publishing Co., 1881, accessed 23 Dec 2008
/ref> Because of Johnston's resistance to becoming a citizen of the US, his second son George was shut out of the fur trade as the Americans exerted more control in the area. During the 1820s, George Johnston worked for Henry Schoolcraft in various roles for the US Indian Agency, including as interpreter.
After Johnston's death, his widow Susan Johnston and their son William managed the sugaring and fishing business. The youngest son, John McDougall Johnston, settled on Sugar Island (an island along the St. Mary's River) across from Canada. He was later appointed as the last official US Indian Agent in the area.
Citations
References
* Robert Dale Parker, ed., ''The Sound the Stars Make Rushing Through the Sky: The Writings of Jane Johnston Schoolcraft'', Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007
External links
Robert Dale Parker, ''Jane Johnston Schoolcraft''
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Borderland Records.
* ttp://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=2940 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online''
{{DEFAULTSORT:Johnston, John
North West Company people
Native American history of Michigan
Irish emigrants to the United States (before 1923)
Ulster Scots people
Canadian fur traders
People from Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan
1762 births
1828 deaths