John Raymond Smythies (30 November 1922 – 28 January 2019) was a British neuropsychiatrist, neuroscientist and

neurophilosopher Neurophilosophy or philosophy of neuroscience is the interdisciplinary study of neuroscience and philosophy that explores the relevance of neuroscientific studies to the arguments traditionally categorized as philosophy of mind. The philosophy of ...

Biography

Smythies was born on 30 November 1922 in Nainital, United Provinces,

British India The provinces of India, earlier presidencies of British India and still earlier, presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance on the Indian subcontinent. Collectively, they have been called British India. In one ...

, where his father, Evelyn Arthur Smythies, a philatelist, was employed by the Department of Forests. His brother Bertram Evelyn (“Bill”) Smythies became an

ornithologist Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the "methodological study and consequent knowledge of birds with all that relates to them." Several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines, due partly to the high visibility and th ...

. His cousins on the Smythies side include

Yorick Smythies Yorick Smythies (21 February 1917 – 1980) was a student and friend of Ludwig Wittgenstein known for his notes of the philosopher's lectures. He was also a friend of, and character inspiration for, the novelist (and philosopher) Iris Murdoch. ...

Richard Dawkins Richard Dawkins (born 26 March 1941) is a British evolutionary biologist and author. He is an emeritus fellow of New College, Oxford and was Professor for Public Understanding of Science in the University of Oxford from 1995 to 2008. An ath ...

(a first cousin once removed),

Graham Greene Henry Graham Greene (2 October 1904 – 3 April 1991) was an English writer and journalist regarded by many as one of the leading English novelists of the 20th century. Combining literary acclaim with widespread popularity, Greene acquir ...

and

Christopher Isherwood Christopher William Bradshaw Isherwood (26 August 1904 – 4 January 1986) was an Anglo-American novelist, playwright, screenwriter, autobiographer, and diarist. His best-known works include '' Goodbye to Berlin'' (1939), a semi-autobiographical ...

. In 1932 Smythies enrolled at Cheltenham College Junior School, transferred to

Rugby School Rugby School is a public school (English independent boarding school for pupils aged 13–18) in Rugby, Warwickshire, England. Founded in 1567 as a free grammar school for local boys, it is one of the oldest independent schools in Britain. Up ...

in 1936, and thence to

Christ's College, Cambridge Christ's College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college includes the Master, the Fellows of the College, and about 450 undergraduate and 170 graduate students. The college was founded by William Byngham in 1437 as ...

, in 1940 (18) and to

University College Hospital University College Hospital (UCH) is a teaching hospital in the Fitzrovia area of the London Borough of Camden, England. The hospital, which was founded as the North London Hospital in 1834, is closely associated with University College London ...

, London in 1942 where he studied medicine (19). He graduated M.B., B.Chir. (Cantab) in 1945. After two years as a Surgeon-Lieutenant in the R.N.V.R. as ship's doctor on based in Bermuda, he completed his basic medical postgraduate training at Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, before selecting neuropsychiatry for a speciality. Two weeks into his first psychiatric residency at St. George's Hospital, London (20), noting the close chemical relation between the psychotomimetic drug mescaline and the neurotransmitter catecholamines, he suggested that schizophrenia might be caused by some abnormality in catecholamine metabolism that produced a mescaline-like substance in the brain. In collaboration with the organic chemist John Harley-Mason and Humphry Osmond, his psychiatric colleague at St. George's, he developed this idea, into the first specific biochemical theory of schizophrenia—the transmethylation hypothesis (5). Inspired by the fact that mescaline produces such remarkable effects on all human mental faculties and by the interdisciplinary work of Albert Schweitzer, in the same year Smythies decided to tackle the mind-brain problem in a systematic way i.e. by undertaking a rigorous training in neuroscience, experimental psychology and philosophy. He first worked for one year as a resident in the EEG Department at the National Hospital, Queen Square, London (21). He then took an M.Sc. degree in neuroanatomy, philosophy and cultural anthropology with the neuroanatomist William C. Gibson at the University of British Columbia (22). The neuroanatomical research involved was a study of the synaptic structure in human cortex as revealed by silver staining and was awarded a post-graduate M.D degree by Cambridge (23). His teacher in philosophy was the distinguished American philosopher

Avrum Stroll Avrum Stroll (February 15, 1921 – September 12, 2013) was a research professor at the University of California, San Diego. Born in Oakland, California, he was a distinguished philosopher and a noted scholar in the fields of epistemology, philoso ...

, who became a lifelong mentor and friend. This was followed during the tenure of a Nuffield Fellowship by six months with the Nobel Laureate

Sir John Eccles Sir John Carew Eccles (27 January 1903 – 2 May 1997) was an Australian neurophysiologist and philosopher who won the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on the synapse. He shared the prize with Andrew Huxley and Alan Lloy ...

in neurophysiology and 18 months at the Psychological Laboratory in Cambridge with Oliver Zangwill studying the stroboscopic patterns (the complex geometrical hallucinations induced by looking at a flickering light). This work has been extensively reviewed by John Geiger. Then Smythies worked a further two years in neuropharmacology with

Harold E. Himwich Harold may refer to: People * Harold (given name), including a list of persons and fictional characters with the name * Harold (surname), surname in the English language * András Arató, known in meme culture as "Hide the Pain Harold" Art ...

in Galesburg, Illinois and with Hudson Hoagland at the Worcester Foundation, before returning to London where he completed his formal clinical psychiatric training with Sir

Aubrey Lewis Sir Aubrey Julian Lewis, FRCP, FRCPsych (8 November 1900 – 21 January 1975), was the first Professor of Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, London (now part of King's College London), and is credited with being a driving force behind ...

at the Maudsley Hospital (25). He then joined the Faculty of the

University of Edinburgh The University of Edinburgh ( sco, University o Edinburgh, gd, Oilthigh Dhùn Èideann; abbreviated as ''Edin.'' in post-nominals) is a public research university based in Edinburgh, Scotland. Granted a royal charter by King James VI in 15 ...

for twelve years, first as senior lecturer then reader (26), before being invited to a personal chair at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, funded by the Ireland family, where he stayed for eighteen years (27). In 1956 Smythies published his first book "Analysis of Perception" (28) on the mind-brain problem in which he presented a new theory — extended materialism — based on an analysis of fundamental flaws in the current orthodox theory (mind-brain identity) and previous work by

Joseph Priestley Joseph Priestley (; 24 March 1733 – 6 February 1804) was an English chemist, natural philosopher, separatist theologian, grammarian, multi-subject educator, and liberal political theorist. He published over 150 works, and conducted exp ...

, C.D. Broad,

H.H. Price Henry Habberley Price (17 May 1899 – 26 November 1984), usually cited as H. H. Price, was a Welsh philosopher, known for his work on the philosophy of perception. He also wrote on parapsychology. Biography Born in Neath, Glamorganshire, Wa ...

and

Bertrand Russell Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British mathematician, philosopher, logician, and public intellectual. He had a considerable influence on mathematics, logic, set theory, linguistics, ...

. A second book, ''The Walls of Plato’s Cave'', followed in 1994 (17) on the same topic. Robert Almader's (29) described the work as "This is certainly one of the four or five most arresting and compelling books written on the nature of consciousness, the mind-brain problem, and human personality." The theory extends our concepts of consciousness and analyses possible geometrical and topological relations between phenomenal space and physical space linked to brane theory in physics. In 2008, the distinguished British physicist Bernard Carr (30), following a different line of research, presented a very similar theory as the basis for a necessary new paradigm shift in cosmology. In 1998 he wrote ''Every Person's Guide to Antioxidants'' (37). Smythies gives an account of his work on synaptic plasticity in his book ''The Dynamic Neuron'' (2002) (8). Smythies served as president of the International Society of Psychoneuroendocrinology from 1970 to 1974 (31), consultant to the

World Health Organization The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of h ...

from 1963 to 1968 (32), and editor of the ''International Review of Neurobiology'' from 1958 to 1991. He was elected a member of the Athenaeum in 1968 (33). He published over 200 scientific papers and 16 books. He made extensive contributions to knowledge in a number of fields including the

neurochemistry Neurochemistry is the study of chemicals, including neurotransmitters and other molecules such as psychopharmaceuticals and neuropeptides, that control and influence the physiology of the nervous system. This particular field within neuroscience e ...

schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations (typically hearing voices), delusions, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social withdra ...

(5,6) and the

neuropharmacology Neuropharmacology is the study of how drugs affect function in the nervous system, and the neural mechanisms through which they influence behavior. There are two main branches of neuropharmacology: behavioral and molecular. Behavioral neuropharmac ...

of psychedelic drugs (7); the functional neuroanatomy of

synapse In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron or to the target effector cell. Synapses are essential to the transmission of nervous impulses from ...

s with particular regard to the role of synaptic plasticity,

endocytosis Endocytosis is a cellular process in which substances are brought into the cell. The material to be internalized is surrounded by an area of cell membrane, which then buds off inside the cell to form a vesicle containing the ingested material. E ...

and redox factors (8,9); the role in the brain of orthoquinone metabolites of catecholamines (10); the role of

virtual reality Virtual reality (VR) is a simulated experience that employs pose tracking and 3D near-eye displays to give the user an immersive feel of a virtual world. Applications of virtual reality include entertainment (particularly video games), educ ...

mechanisms in visual perception (11) and, in particular, theories of brain-consciousness relations (12–17). Smythies held positions as the Charles Byron Ireland Professor Emeritus of Psychiatric Research at the

University of Alabama The University of Alabama (informally known as Alabama, UA, or Bama) is a Public university, public research university in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Established in 1820 and opened to students in 1831, the University of Alabama is the oldest and la ...

Medical Center at Birmingham, visiting scholar at the Center for Brain and Cognition,

University of California, San Diego The University of California, San Diego (UC San Diego or colloquially, UCSD) is a public university, public Land-grant university, land-grant research university in San Diego, California. Established in 1960 near the pre-existing Scripps Insti ...

, and senior research fellow at the Institute of Neurology,

University College London , mottoeng = Let all come who by merit deserve the most reward , established = , type = Public research university , endowment = £143 million (2020) , budget = ...

. Aldous Huxley, in his work '' The Doors of Perception'', which details the effects of

mescaline Mescaline or mescalin (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine) is a naturally occurring psychedelic protoalkaloid of the substituted phenethylamine class, known for its hallucinogenic effects comparable to those of LSD and psilocybin. Biological sou ...

, credits Smythies with having inspired him to take the subject. For the last two decades of his life, Smythies worked with Professor Ramachandran's Center for Brain and Cognition at UCSD, latterly on the function of the claustrum as well as the epigenetics of neurocomputation, exosomes and telocytes (37–54).

Personal life and death

On 2 December 1950 Smythies married Vanna Gattorno of Trieste, Italy. John and Vanna published their joint autobiography "Two Coins in the Fountain" in 2006 (34). Smythies is also the author of a book of poems entitled "Poems from the Edge of Time" (35), and a satirical play "The Trial of God" (36). He died in January 2019 at the age of 96.

References

1. Smythies J.R. Schizophrenia: Chemistry, Metabolism and Treatment. Springfield, Illinois, Charles C. Thomas, 1963. 2. Smythies J.R (with H.E. Himwich and S.S. Kety, editors) Amines and Schizophrenia. New York, Pergamon Press. 1966. 3. Smythies J.R. Biological Psychiatry. London, Heinemann, 1968. German edition, 1971. 4. Smythies J.R and Corbett L.C. Psychiatry for Students of Medicine. London, Heinemann, 1976. Spanish edition, 1984. 5. Smythies J.R & Osmond H. (1952) Schizophrenia. A New Approach. J Ment Sci., pp. 98, 309–316. 6. Smythies J. (Editor) Schizophrenia. A disorder of synaptic plasticity. Special volume (59) in The International Review of Neurobiology, San Diego, Elsevier, 2004. 7. Smythies J. R. "Hallucinogenic Drugs", Chapter 18 in Modern Trends in Neurology, Dennis Williams, editor. 3rd edition. London, Butterworth, 1962. 8. Smythies J. R. The Dynamic Neuron. Cambridge MA., MIT Press, 2002. 9. Smythies J. The Neuromodulators. International Review of Neurobiology, San Diego, Elsevier, 2005. 10. Smythies J. R. The role of free radicals in the brain in health and disease in relation to synaptic plasticity. In: Free Radicals in Brain Pathophysiology. (G. Poli, E. Cadenas & L. Packer, eds.) New York, Dekker. 11. Smythies J. 2009, "Philosophy, perception, and neuroscience" Perception, pp. 38, 638–651. 12. Smythies J.R. Brain and Mind, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, editor and contributor of essay "The representative theory of perception", 1965. 13. Smythies J. R. The Neurological Foundations of Psychiatry. Oxford, Blackwell. 1966. 14. Smythies J. Science and ESP. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967. 15. Smythies J.R. (with Arthur Koestler, editors). Beyond Reductionism. London, Macmillan, 1969. 16. Smythies J. Brain Mechanisms and Behaviour. Oxford, Blackwell, 1970. Japanese edition, 1973. 17. Smythies J. The Walls of Plato's Cave. Aldershot, Avebury Press, 1994. 18. Records of Christs's College, Cambridge. 19. Records of University College Hospital, London. 20. Records of St. George's Hospital, London 21. Records of the National Hospital, Queen Square, London. 22. Records of the University of British Columbia. 23. Smythies J. R., Gibson W.C., & Purkis V.A. (1957) The distribution and morphology of boutons termineaux in the human cerebrum. J Comp Neur., pp. 108, 175. 25. Records of the Institute of Psychiatry, University of London. 26. Records of the University of Edinburgh. 27. Records of the University of Alabama at Birmingham. 28. Smythies, J. R. Analysis of Perception. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1956. 29. Almader, R. (1997) Journal for Scientific Exploration, pp. 10, 314–318. 30. Carr, B. (2008) "Worlds apart?" Proc.Soc.Psychical Research, pp. 59, 1–96. 31. Records of the International Society for Neuropsychopharmacology. 32. Records of the World Health Organization. 33. Records of the Athanaenum Club, Pall Mall, London. 34. Smythies J. & Smythies V. Two Coins in the Fountain. (joint autobiography). Amazon.com (Booksurge) 2006. 35. Smythies J. Poems from the Edge of Time. Pulborough, Ellis, 2002. 36. Smythies J. The Trial of God. (satirical play) Amazon.com (Booksurge) 2006. 37. Smythies J. Every Person's Guide to Antioxidants. Rutgers University Press 1998. 38. Smythies JR. The Dynamic Neuron. Cambridge MA. MIT Press, 2002. 39. Smythies, J., Edelstein, L., Ramachandran, V. The Claustrum: Structural, Functional and Clinical Neuroscience. San Diego. Academic Press (Elsevier). 2014. 40. Smythies J, Edelstein L, Ramachandran V. (2012) Hypotheses relating to the function of the claustrum. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience. 2012;6:53. doi: 10.3389/fnint.2012.00053. Epub 2012 Aug 2. 41 Smythies J, Edelstein L. (2013) Transsynaptic modality codes in the brain: possible involvement of synchronized spike timing, microRNAs, exosomes and epigenetic processes. Frontiers in Intregrative Neuroscience. 2012;6:126. doi: 10.3389/fnint.2012.00126. Epub 2013 Jan 4. 42. Smythies J. (2013) Schizophrenia: one coat of many colors. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 27 May 2013 , doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00043. 43. Edelstein L, Smythies J. (2013) Spike dynamic and epigenetic malfunctions in epilepsy: a tale of two codes. Frontiers in Epilepsy: 27 May 2013. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2013.00063. 44. Smythies J. Edelstein L. (2013) Interactions between the spike code and the

epigenetic code The epigenetic code is hypothesised to be a defining code in every eukaryotic cell consisting of the specific epigenetic modification in each cell. It consists of histone modifications defined by the histone code and additional epigenetic modificati ...

during information processing in the brain. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience. 8 July doi: 10.3389/fnmol.2013.00017 45. Smythies J, Edelstein L. (2013) Telocytes, exosomes, gap junctions and the cytoskeleton: the makings of a primitive nervous system? Front. Cell. Neurosci. , doi: 10.3389/fncel.2013.00278. 46. Smythies J, Edelstein L, Ramachandran V (2014). Hypotheses relating to the function of the claustrum II: instructional oscillations and dendritic integration. Front. Integr. Neurosci. 8:7. doi: 10.3389/fnint.2014.00007. 47. Smythies J, Edelstein L. (2013) Hypotheses concerning how Otx2 makes its incredible journey: a hitchhiker on the road to Rome. Front. Mol. Neurosci. 6, 55. doi: 10.3389/fnmol.2013.00055. eCollection 2013. 48. Edelstein L, Fuxe K and Smythies J (2014). Life without glutamate: the epigenetic effects of glutamate deletion. Front. Mol. Neurosci. 7:14. doi: 10.3389/fnmol.2014.00014. 49. Smythies LE, Smythies JR. (2014) Exosomes in the gut. Front Immunol. 2014 Mar 17;5:104. eCollection 2014. 50. Edelstein L, Smythies J (2014). Epigenetic aspects of telocytes/cordocytes: jacks of all trades, masters of most. Front Cell. Neurosci. 8:32. doi: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00032. 51. Edelstein L, Smythies J. (2014) The role of telocytes in morphogenetic bioelectrical signaling: once more unto the breach. Front Mol Neurosci. 2014 May 13;7:41. doi: 10.3389/fnmol.2014.00041. eCollection 2014. 52. Smythies J, Edelstein L. (2014) The desferrioxamine-prochlorperazine coma—clue to the role of dopamine-iron recycling in the synthesis of hydrogen peroxide in the brain. Front.Mol.Neurosci. 53. Smythies J, Edelstein L, Ramachandran V. (2014) Molecular mechanisms for the inheritance of acquired characteristics-exosomes, microRNA shuttling, fear and stress: Lamarck resurrected? Front. Genet. 2014 May 15;5:133. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2014.00133. eCollection 2014. 54. Edelstein L, Smythies J. The role of epigenetic-related codes in neurocomputation: dynamic hardware in the brain. in Edelstein L, Smythies J, Noble D. (Editors) Epigenetic information-processing mechanisms in the brain. Phil.Trans.R.Soc.B. Theme Issue vol. 369, No. 1652, 26 September 2014. {{DEFAULTSORT:Smythies, John Raymond 1922 births 2019 deaths Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge Parapsychologists Philosophers of mind British psychiatrists British neuroscientists Neurochemists Academics of the University of Edinburgh Academics of University College London Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve personnel of World War II Royal Navy officers of World War II British people in colonial India