Identification in rhetoric
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Identification is a key theme in the works of
Kenneth Burke Kenneth Duva Burke (May 5, 1897 – November 19, 1993) was an American literary theorist, as well as poet, essayist, and novelist, who wrote on 20th-century philosophy, aesthetics, criticism, and rhetorical theory. As a literary theorist, Burke ...
as part of the
New Rhetoric New rhetorics is an interdisciplinary fieldAndreea Deciu Ritivoi, ''Rhetorics: New Rhetorics'', in Wolfgang Donsbach (ed.), ''The International Encyclopedia of Communication'', approaching for the broadening of classical rhetorical canon.New and A ...
movement. Contemporary
rhetoric Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate parti ...
focuses on cultural contexts and general structures of rhetoric structures. Burke was a notable contemporary U.S. rhetorician who made major contributions to the rhetoric of identification.
James A. Herrick James A. Herrick (born October 6, 1954) is an American academic. He is the Guy Vanderjagt Professor of Communication and former communication chair at Hope College. Herrick’s research interests include rhetoric and argumentation, new religious ...
describes one of Burke's foundational ideas with identification is that “rhetoric makes human unity possible, that language use is
symbolic action A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different conce ...
, and that
rhetoric Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate parti ...
is symbolic inducement.” For Burke, words were Terministic screens through which people see the world and interact with each other. Herrick, further explains that identification in
rhetoric Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate parti ...
is crucial to
persuasion Persuasion or persuasion arts is an umbrella term for Social influence, influence. Persuasion can influence a person's Belief, beliefs, Attitude (psychology), attitudes, Intention, intentions, Motivation, motivations, or Behavior, behaviours. ...
, and thus to
cooperation Cooperation (written as co-operation in British English) is the process of groups of organisms working or acting together for common, mutual, or some underlying benefit, as opposed to working in competition for selfish benefit. Many animal a ...
, consensus, compromise, and action. Burke believed that the most serious human problem was to be alienated or separated, and rhetoric was to be that problem's only solution. Much of his work was based on bringing people back together. However, Burke argues that “Identification is affirmed with earnestness precisely because there is division; Identification is compensatory to division.” Rhetoric's goal, in regards to identification, is to bring people together of whom have been separated by estrangement or opposition. Those who feel isolated or separate from others may identify joint interests with others or become part of an institution -- "‘Belonging’ in this sense is rhetoric."


Definition

Kenneth Burke Kenneth Duva Burke (May 5, 1897 – November 19, 1993) was an American literary theorist, as well as poet, essayist, and novelist, who wrote on 20th-century philosophy, aesthetics, criticism, and rhetorical theory. As a literary theorist, Burke ...
plays an important part in
learning Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, value (personal and cultural), values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machine learning, machines ...
and understanding the core values of rhetorical theory in identification. He introduces the notion by taking the Aristotelian approach into a "world of particulars." Burke states that
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of phil ...
treated rhetoric as purely verbal. However, there are also areas of overlap. The flexibility of identification that Burke has created expands into elements beyond language. He wrote that “identification ranges from the
politician A politician is a person active in party politics, or a person holding or seeking an elected office in government. Politicians propose, support, reject and create laws that govern the land and by an extension of its people. Broadly speaking, a ...
who, addressing an audience of farmers, says, ‘I was a farm boy myself,’ through the mysteries of social status, to the mystic's devout identification with the source of all being.” This symbolic interaction is possible because it recognizes the hidden sources of identification among human beings as symbol users. From this, Burke understood symbols as constantly present, and believed that choosing to accept and learning to accurately read symbols was crucial. Burke frequently referred to the philosophical meaning of "substance" when explaining identification and identifying acts. He defined substance as "an act; and a way of life is an acting-together." When people identified with one another, they shared substance, which made them
consubstantial Consubstantiality, a term derived from la, consubstantialitas, denotes identity of substance or essence in spite of difference in Aspect (religion), aspect. It appears most commonly in its adjectival form, "consubstantial", from Latin ''cons ...
.


Theoretical grounding

Burke's theory of identification responded to
Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud ( , ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating psychopathology, pathologies explained as originatin ...
's theory of
identification Identification or identify may refer to: *Identity document, any document used to verify a person's identity Arts, entertainment and media * ''Identify'' (album) by Got7, 2014 * "Identify" (song), by Natalie Imbruglia, 1999 * Identification ( ...
in psychology and
Karl Marx Karl Heinrich Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist, critic of political economy, and socialist revolutionary. His best-known titles are the 1848 ...
's
theory of alienation Karl Marx's theory of alienation describes the estrangement (German: ''Entfremdung'') of people from aspects of their human nature (''Gattungswesen'', 'species-essence') as a consequence of the division of labor and living in a society of strat ...
. Burke linked identification to
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of phil ...
's theories of persuasion in '' Rhetoric.'' Identification does not reject or oppose persuasion; rather, persuasion involves identification. For example, audiences may be persuaded if they identify with logical appeals or if they identify with the rhetor.


Types of identification

Burke classified three types of identification enactments: # One may emphasize common ground with others to establish a rapport ("identification by sympathy") # One may emphasize a common opposition to an idea or separate group; this identification by common foe may also enable people to avoid conflict within their own group. Rhetoric may frequently be framed as "us" and "them" to strengthen the identification bond ("identification by antithesis") # One may inaccurately identify oneself with the qualities of an associated object or group. For example, one driving a powerful car may mistakenly think they are the source of the car's power; an ordinary person may feel "deceptively aggrandized by thoughts of his citizenship in a powerful nation" ("identification by false assumption")


Application

Burke's theory of identification has been applied and expanded upon in Krista Ratcliffe's Rhetorical Listening framework. Ratcliffe proposes the “blurring of Burke's and ianaFuss's theories of identification," and what becomes visible is multiple places for rhetorical listening. When applying Burke and Fuss's theories, Ratcliffe proposes non-identification in
cross-cultural Cross-cultural may refer to *cross-cultural studies, a comparative tendency in various fields of cultural analysis *cross-cultural communication, a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate *any of vari ...
communication and
feminist pedagogy Feminist pedagogy is a pedagogical framework grounded in feminist theory. It embraces a set of epistemological theories, teaching strategies, approaches to content, classroom practices, and teacher-student relationships. Feminist pedagogy, along ...
. Her critique of
Western Western may refer to: Places *Western, Nebraska, a village in the US *Western, New York, a town in the US *Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western world, countries that id ...
logic is that it is difficult to simultaneously pay attention to both commonalities and differences, but that is where non-identification exists and thus provides a place for rhetorical listening. Burke's theory is critiqued by Ratcliffe for only focusing on identification; she argues that rhetorical listeners need to be accountable and take into consideration different points of view, which can be done through simultaneous listening to commonalities and differences. Ratcliffe draws upon
Diana Fuss Diana Fuss is a professor of literature, film and feminist studies. She serves as Louis W. Fairchild Class of ‘24 Professor of English at Princeton University. Fuss earned her PhD in English and Semiotics from Brown University in 1988 and then j ...
because Fuss expands Burke's theory of identification to gear toward examining the differences in identification. Fuss defines Identification as related to the issue of connection between opposite entities, such as the interrelation between self and other, subject and object, and insiders and outsiders. For Fuss, identification is difficult to pinpoint, as the distinction between opposite entities is porous, oftentimes “impossibly confused and finally untenable.” Fuss further builds the connection between identification and disidentification. Fuss defines disidentification as contingent on previous identification with another group, no matter how stereotypical the identification is, while at the same time the identification has receded from the subconscious. Ratcliffe argues that previously identification has been configured as a
metaphor A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are often compared wit ...
, which is manifested in Burke's
consubstantiality Consubstantiality, a term derived from la, consubstantialitas, denotes identity of substance or essence in spite of difference in aspect. It appears most commonly in its adjectival form, "consubstantial", from Latin ''consubstantialis'', and ...
and Fuss's (dis)identification. Ratcliffe notes that metaphor has been used to function as the dominant trope for identification; however, metaphor foregrounds commonalities more than differences. Ratcliff suggests theorizing identification via the use of metonymy to counter the privilege of communality. Intrinsic to the trope of
metonymy Metonymy () is a figure of speech in which a concept is referred to by the name of something closely associated with that thing or concept. Etymology The words ''metonymy'' and ''metonym'' come from grc, μετωνυμία, 'a change of name' ...
is an attention to both commonalities and differences. Practical applications of Burke's “identification” can be seen in the scholarly effort to reframe identifications. Assembling essays from the fifth Biennial
Rhetoric Society of America The Rhetoric Society of America (RSA) is an academic organization for the study of rhetoric. The Society's constitution calls for it to research rhetoric in all relevant fields of study, identify new areas of study, encourage experimentation in te ...
Conference, Michelle Ballif addresses Ratcliffe's call for rethinking Burke's notion of identification “as a place of perpetual reframing that affects who, how, and what can be thought, spoken, written, and imagined.” While some of the essay contributors draw upon Burke's theory to reinterpret social identifications, others turn to specific social actions to reread Burke's “identification.” For instance, following Ratcliffe's critique of Burke's theory for its lack of attention to difference, Dominic J. Ashby destabilizes Burke's relatively fixed and
teleological Teleology (from and )Partridge, Eric. 1977''Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English'' London: Routledge, p. 4187. or finalityDubray, Charles. 2020 912Teleology" In ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' 14. New York: Robert Appleton ...
construction of identification with “a fluid and contingent notion of self”—that is, “uchi/soto," or inside/outside in
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
rhetoric—highlighting a simultaneous exclusion and inclusion of outsiders through an ongoing unfolding of group dynamics. By way of analyzing the
Facebook Facebook is an online social media and social networking service owned by American company Meta Platforms. Founded in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg with fellow Harvard College students and roommates Eduardo Saverin, Andrew McCollum, Dustin M ...
news feed of “We are all Khaled Said,” Katherine Bridgman expands Burkean identification to “embodiment,” or the mutually coordinated experience between speakers and their audiences triggered by specific circumstances. Along a similar vein, critiquing Burke's
consubstantiality Consubstantiality, a term derived from la, consubstantialitas, denotes identity of substance or essence in spite of difference in aspect. It appears most commonly in its adjectival form, "consubstantial", from Latin ''consubstantialis'', and ...
for being sexually indifferent,
Janice Odom Janice may refer to: * Janice (given name), a feminine given name (includes a list of people with the name) * ''Janice & Abbey'', a reality TV series * Processor codename of the Samsung Galaxy S Advance Android smartphone * Janice, Łódź Voivodes ...
draws from Irigaray's
feminist theories Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, fictional, or philosophical discourse. It aims to understand the nature of gender inequality. It examines women's and men's social roles, experiences, interests, chores, and feminist ...
to reframe identification as a playground of sexual dominance and surrender. Arabella Lyon warns of "identification as magical thinking" as people might imagine they have more in common with a rhetor or audience. Further, she argues that Burke's concept of identification is an abstract ideal that may not recognize power imbalances or account for marginalized persons and communities. Douglas Downs compares identification to a rhetor holding up a mirror image to the audience that reflects their core values and beliefs. Identification relies on the identities of both the speaker and listener, it causes the audience to develop a deeper trust for the author which makes it more likely for them to take the same position. Identification theory has also been applied to the business communication and organizational rhetoric. Rhetoric within an organization becomes a part of its identifying culture. Employees tend to identify with their organization and its best interests, and reinforcing rhetoric within the organization strengthens an employee's sense of belonging to the organization.


References


External links


Kbjournal.orgKrista Ratcliffe’s Rhetorical Listening Framework
{{Authority control Identification Rhetoric Writing