The International Space Station (ISS) is the largest
modular
Broadly speaking, modularity is the degree to which a system's components may be separated and recombined, often with the benefit of flexibility and variety in use. The concept of modularity is used primarily to reduce complexity by breaking a s ...
space station currently in
low Earth orbit
A low Earth orbit (LEO) is an orbit around Earth with a period of 128 minutes or less (making at least 11.25 orbits per day) and an eccentricity less than 0.25. Most of the artificial objects in outer space are in LEO, with an altitude never mor ...
. It is a multinational collaborative project involving five participating space agencies:
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agencies of the United States government, independent agency of the US federal government responsible for the civil List of government space agencies, space program ...
(United States),
Roscosmos
The State Space Corporation "Roscosmos" (russian: Государственная корпорация по космической деятельности «Роскосмос»), commonly known simply as Roscosmos (russian: Роскосмос) ...
(Russia),
JAXA (Japan),
ESA
, owners =
, headquarters = Paris, Île-de-France, France
, coordinates =
, spaceport = Guiana Space Centre
, seal = File:ESA emblem seal.png
, seal_size = 130px
, image = Views in the Main Control Room (120 ...
(Europe), and
CSA
CSA may refer to:
Arts and media
* Canadian Screen Awards, annual awards given by the Academy of Canadian Cinema & Television
* Commission on Superhuman Activities, a fictional American government agency in Marvel Comics
* Crime Syndicate of Amer ...
(Canada).
The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements.
The station serves as a
microgravity and
space environment research laboratory in which
scientific research
The scientific method is an empirical method for acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable practitioners in previous centuries; see the article history of scientific m ...
is conducted in
astrobiology,
astronomy
Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, g ...
,
meteorology
Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences (which include atmospheric chemistry and physics) with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did no ...
,
physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge which r ...
, and other fields.
The ISS is suited for testing the spacecraft systems and equipment required for possible future long-duration missions to the
Moon
The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It is the fifth largest satellite in the Solar System and the largest and most massive relative to its parent planet, with a diameter about one-quarter that of Earth (comparable to the width of ...
and
Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, only being larger than Mercury. In the English language, Mars is named for the Roman god of war. Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin at ...
.
The
ISS programme evolved from the
Space Station ''Freedom'', a 1984 American proposal to construct a permanently crewed Earth-orbiting station, and the contemporaneous Soviet/Russian ''
Mir-2'' proposal from 1976 with similar aims. The ISS is the ninth space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian ''
Salyut
The ''Salyut'' programme (russian: Салют, , meaning "salute" or "fireworks") was the first space station programme, undertaken by the Soviet Union. It involved a series of four crewed scientific research space stations and two crewed ...
'',
Almaz
The Almaz (russian: Алмаз, lit=Diamond) program was a highly secret Soviet military space station program, begun in the early 1960s.
Three crewed military reconnaissance stations were launched between 1973 and 1976: Salyut 2, Salyut 3 a ...
, and ''
Mir
''Mir'' (russian: Мир, ; ) was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. ''Mir'' was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to&n ...
'' stations and the American
Skylab
Skylab was the first United States space station, launched by NASA, occupied for about 24 weeks between May 1973 and February 1974. It was operated by three separate three-astronaut crews: Skylab 2, Skylab 3, and Skylab 4. Major operations ...
. It is the largest artificial object in the solar system and the largest satellite in low Earth orbit, regularly visible to the
naked eye
Naked eye, also called bare eye or unaided eye, is the practice of engaging in visual perception unaided by a magnifying, light-collecting optical instrument, such as a telescope or microscope, or eye protection. Vision corrected to normal ...
from Earth's surface. It
maintains an orbit with an average altitude of by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the ''
Zvezda'' Service Module or visiting spacecraft. The ISS circles the Earth in roughly 93 minutes, completing orbits per day.
The station is divided into two sections: the
Russian Orbital Segment
The Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) is the name given to the components of the International Space Station (ISS) constructed in Russia and operated by the Russian Roscosmos. The ROS handles Guidance, Navigation, and Control for the entire Station ...
(ROS) is operated by Russia, while the
United States Orbital Segment
The US Orbital Segment (USOS) is the name given to the components of the International Space Station (ISS) constructed and operated by the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), European Space Agency (ESA), Canadian ...
(USOS) is run by the United States as well as by the other states. The Russian segment includes six modules. The US segment includes ten modules, whose support services are distributed 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA.
Roscosmos had previously
endorsed the continued operation of ROS through 2024,
having proposed using elements of the segment to construct a new Russian space station called
OPSEK
The Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex (russian: Орбитальный Пилотируемый Сборочно-Экспериментальный Комплекс, ''Orbital'nyj Pilotirujemyj Sborochno-Eksperimental'nyj Kompl ...
.
However, continued cooperation has been rendered uncertain by the
2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
On 24 February 2022, in a major escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War, which began in 2014. The invasion has resulted in tens of thousands of deaths on both sides. It has caused Europe's largest refugee crisis since World War II. ...
and subsequent
international sanctions
International sanctions are political and economic decisions that are part of diplomatic efforts by countries, multilateral or regional organizations against states or organizations either to protect national security interests, or to protect in ...
on Russia, who theoretically, may lower, redirect, or cut funding from
their side of the space station due to the sanctions set on them.
The first ISS component was launched in 1998, and the
first long-term residents arrived on 2 November 2000 after being launched from the
Baikonur Cosmodrome on 31 October 2000. The station has since been continuously occupied for , the longest continuous human presence in low Earth orbit, having surpassed the previous record of held by the ''Mir'' space station. The latest major pressurised module,
''Nauka'', was fitted in 2021, a little over ten years after the previous major addition,
''Leonardo'' in 2011. Development and assembly of the station continues, with an experimental
inflatable space habitat
Inflatable habitats or expandable habitats are pressurized tent-like structures capable of supporting life in outer space whose internal volume increases after launch. They have frequently been proposed for use in space applications to provide ...
added in 2016, and several major new Russian elements scheduled for launch starting in 2021. In January 2022, the station's operation authorization was extended to 2030, with funding secured within the United States through that year.
There have been calls to privatize ISS operations after that point to pursue future
Moon
The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It is the fifth largest satellite in the Solar System and the largest and most massive relative to its parent planet, with a diameter about one-quarter that of Earth (comparable to the width of ...
and
Mars missions, with former
NASA Administrator
The Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the highest-ranking official of NASA, the national space agency of the United States. The administrator is NASA's chief decision maker, responsible for providing clarity to ...
Jim Bridenstine
James Frederick Bridenstine (born June 15, 1975) is an American military officer and politician who served as the 13th administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Bridenstine was the United States representative f ...
stating: "given our current budget constraints, if we want to go to the moon and we want to go to Mars, we need to commercialize low Earth orbit and go on to the next step."
The ISS consists of pressurised habitation modules, structural trusses,
photovoltaic solar arrays,
thermal radiators,
docking ports, experiment bays and robotic arms. Major ISS modules have been launched by Russian
Proton and
Soyuz rockets and US
Space Shuttle
The Space Shuttle is a retired, partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated from 1981 to 2011 by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as part of the Space Shuttle program. Its official program ...
s.
The station is serviced by a variety of visiting spacecraft: the Russian
Soyuz Soyuz is a transliteration of the Cyrillic text Союз ( Russian and Ukrainian, 'Union'). It can refer to any union, such as a trade union (''profsoyuz'') or the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Сою́з Сове́тских Социалис ...
and
Progress
Progress is the movement towards a refined, improved, or otherwise desired state. In the context of progressivism, it refers to the proposition that advancements in technology, science, and social organization have resulted, and by extension w ...
, the
SpaceX Dragon 2
Dragon 2 is a class of partially reusable spacecraft developed and manufactured by American aerospace manufacturer SpaceX, primarily for flights to the International Space Station (ISS). SpaceX has also launched private missions such as Ins ...
, and the Northrop Grumman Space Systems
Cygnus, and formerly the European
Automated Transfer Vehicle
The Automated Transfer Vehicle, originally Ariane Transfer Vehicle or ATV, was an expendable cargo spacecraft developed by the European Space Agency (ESA), used for space cargo transport in 2008–2015. The ATV design was launched to orbit fiv ...
(ATV), the Japanese
H-II Transfer Vehicle,
and
SpaceX Dragon 1. The Dragon spacecraft allows the return of pressurised cargo to Earth, which is used, for example, to repatriate scientific experiments for further analysis. , 251 astronauts, cosmonauts, and
space tourist
Space tourism is human space travel for recreational purposes. There are several different types of space tourism, including orbital, suborbital and lunar space tourism.
During the period from 2001 to 2009, seven space tourists made eight s ...
s from
20 different nations have visited the space station, many of them multiple times.
History
Purpose
The ISS was originally intended to be a laboratory, observatory, and factory while providing transportation, maintenance, and a
low Earth orbit
A low Earth orbit (LEO) is an orbit around Earth with a period of 128 minutes or less (making at least 11.25 orbits per day) and an eccentricity less than 0.25. Most of the artificial objects in outer space are in LEO, with an altitude never mor ...
staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars, and asteroids. However, not all of the uses envisioned in the initial
memorandum of understanding between
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agencies of the United States government, independent agency of the US federal government responsible for the civil List of government space agencies, space program ...
and
Roscosmos
The State Space Corporation "Roscosmos" (russian: Государственная корпорация по космической деятельности «Роскосмос»), commonly known simply as Roscosmos (russian: Роскосмос) ...
have been realised.
In the
2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic, and educational purposes.
Scientific research
The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, with power, data, cooling, and crew available to support experiments. Small uncrewed spacecraft can also provide platforms for experiments, especially those involving zero gravity and exposure to space, but space stations offer a long-term environment where studies can be performed potentially for decades, combined with ready access by human researchers.
The ISS simplifies individual experiments by allowing groups of experiments to share the same launches and crew time. Research is conducted in a wide variety of fields, including
astrobiology,
astronomy
Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, g ...
,
physical science
Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together called the "physical sciences".
Definition
Phy ...
s,
materials science,
space weather
Space weather is a branch of space physics and aeronomy, or heliophysics, concerned with the time varying conditions within the Solar System, including the solar wind, emphasizing the space surrounding the Earth, including conditions in the ...
,
meteorology
Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences (which include atmospheric chemistry and physics) with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did no ...
, and
human research including
space medicine
Space medicine is the practice of medicine on astronauts in outer space whereas astronautical hygiene is the application of science and technology to the prevention or control of exposure to the hazards that may cause astronaut ill health. Both ...
and the
life science
Life is a quality that distinguishes matter that has biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from that which does not, and is defined by the capacity for growth, reaction to stimuli, metabolism, energy t ...
s.
Scientists on Earth have timely access to the data and can suggest experimental modifications to the crew. If follow-on experiments are necessary, the routinely scheduled launches of resupply craft allows new hardware to be launched with relative ease.
Crews fly
expeditions
Exploration refers to the historical practice of discovering remote lands. It is studied by geographers and historians.
Two major eras of exploration occurred in human history: one of convergence, and one of divergence. The first, covering most ...
of several months' duration, providing approximately 160 person-hours per week of labour with a crew of six. However, a considerable amount of crew time is taken up by station maintenance.
Perhaps the most notable ISS experiment is the
Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer
The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS-02) is a particle physics experiment module that is mounted on the International Space Station (ISS).Kristine Rainey (April 2, 2013)Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS): How It Works NASA. Retrieved June 2, 20 ...
(AMS), which is intended to detect dark matter and answer other fundamental questions about our universe. According to NASA, the AMS is as important as the
Hubble Space Telescope
The Hubble Space Telescope (often referred to as HST or Hubble) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990 and remains in operation. It was not the first space telescope, but it is one of the largest and most vers ...
. Currently docked on station, it could not have been easily accommodated on a free flying satellite platform because of its power and bandwidth needs. On 3 April 2013, scientists reported that hints of
dark matter
Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter thought to account for approximately 85% of the matter in the universe. Dark matter is called "dark" because it does not appear to interact with the electromagnetic field, which means it does not a ...
may have been detected by the AMS.
According to the scientists, "The first results from the space-borne Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer confirm an unexplained excess of high-energy positrons in Earth-bound cosmic rays".
The space environment is hostile to life. Unprotected presence in space is characterised by an intense radiation field (consisting primarily of protons and other subatomic charged particles from the
solar wind
The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun, called the corona. This plasma mostly consists of electrons, protons and alpha particles with kinetic energy between . The composition of the sol ...
, in addition to
cosmic ray
Cosmic rays are high-energy particles or clusters of particles (primarily represented by protons or atomic nuclei) that move through space at nearly the speed of light. They originate from the Sun, from outside of the Solar System in our own ...
s), high vacuum, extreme temperatures, and microgravity.
[ (see Space Environment on page 122)] Some simple forms of life called
extremophile
An extremophile (from Latin ' meaning "extreme" and Greek ' () meaning "love") is an organism that is able to live (or in some cases thrive) in extreme environments, i.e. environments that make survival challenging such as due to extreme temper ...
s,
as well as small invertebrates called
tardigrade
Tardigrades (), known colloquially as water bears or moss piglets, are a phylum of eight-legged segmented micro-animals. They were first described by the German zoologist Johann August Ephraim Goeze in 1773, who called them Kleiner Wasserbä ...
s
can survive in this environment in an extremely dry state through
desiccation.
Medical research improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body, including
muscle atrophy,
bone loss, and fluid shift. These data will be used to determine whether high duration
human spaceflight and
space colonisation are feasible. In 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggested that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise, such as the six-month interval required to
travel to Mars.
Medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS on behalf of the
National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the
Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity study in which astronauts perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts. The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions in space. Usually, there is no physician on board the ISS and diagnosis of medical conditions is a challenge. It is anticipated that remotely guided ultrasound scans will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations where access to a trained physician is difficult.
In August 2020, scientists reported that
bacteria
Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one Cell (biology), biological cell. They constitute a large domain (biology), domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometr ...
from Earth, particularly ''
Deinococcus radiodurans
''Deinococcus radiodurans'' is an extremophilic bacterium and one of the most radiation-resistant organisms known. It can survive cold, dehydration, vacuum, and acid, and therefore is known as a polyextremophile. It has been listed as the world' ...
'' bacteria, which is highly resistant to
environmental hazard
An environmental hazard is a substance, state or event which has the potential to threaten the surrounding natural environment or adversely affect people's health, including pollution and natural disasters such as storms and earthquakes. It can i ...
s, were found to survive for three years in
outer space
Outer space, commonly shortened to space, is the expanse that exists beyond Earth and its atmosphere and between celestial bodies. Outer space is not completely empty—it is a near-perfect vacuum containing a low density of particles, pred ...
, based on studies conducted on the International Space Station. These findings supported the notion of
panspermia
Panspermia () is the hypothesis, first proposed in the 5th century BCE by the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras, that life exists throughout the Universe, distributed by space dust, meteoroids, asteroids, comets, and planetoids, as well as by spacec ...
, the hypothesis that
life
Life is a quality that distinguishes matter that has biological processes, such as Cell signaling, signaling and self-sustaining processes, from that which does not, and is defined by the capacity for Cell growth, growth, reaction to Stimu ...
exists throughout the
Universe
The universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological description of the development of the universe. ...
, distributed in various ways, including
space dust
Cosmic dust, also called extraterrestrial dust, star dust or space dust, is dust which exists in outer space, or has fallen on Earth. Most cosmic dust particles measure between a few molecules and 0.1 mm (100 micrometers). Larger particles are c ...
,
meteoroid
A meteoroid () is a small rocky or metallic body in outer space.
Meteoroids are defined as objects significantly smaller than asteroids, ranging in size from grains to objects up to a meter wide. Objects smaller than this are classified as mi ...
s,
asteroids,
comet
A comet is an icy, small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process that is called outgassing. This produces a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail. These phenomena ...
s,
planetoids or
contaminated
Contamination is the presence of a constituent, impurity, or some other undesirable element that spoils, corrupts, infects, makes unfit, or makes inferior a material, physical body, natural environment, workplace, etc.
Types of contamination
...
spacecraft
A spacecraft is a vehicle or machine designed to fly in outer space. A type of artificial satellite, spacecraft are used for a variety of purposes, including communications, Earth observation, meteorology, navigation, space colonization, p ...
.
Remote sensing
Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast to in situ or on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring information about Eart ...
of the Earth, astronomy, and deep space research on the ISS have dramatically increased during the 2010s after the completion of the
US Orbital Segment
The US Orbital Segment (USOS) is the name given to the components of the International Space Station (ISS) constructed and operated by the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), European Space Agency (ESA), Canadi ...
in 2011. Throughout the more than 20 years of the ISS program researchers aboard the ISS and on the ground have examined
aerosols,
ozone
Ozone (), or trioxygen, is an inorganic molecule with the chemical formula . It is a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope , breaking down in the lo ...
,
lightning
Lightning is a naturally occurring electrostatic discharge during which two electrically charged regions, both in the atmosphere or with one on the ground, temporarily neutralize themselves, causing the instantaneous release of an avera ...
, and
oxides in Earth's atmosphere, as well as the
Sun
The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a nearly perfect ball of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core. The Sun radiates this energy mainly as light, ultraviolet, and infrared radi ...
, cosmic rays,
cosmic dust
Cosmic dust, also called extraterrestrial dust, star dust or space dust, is dust which exists in outer space, or has fallen on Earth. Most cosmic dust particles measure between a few molecules and 0.1 mm (100 micrometers). Larger particles are c ...
,
antimatter
In modern physics, antimatter is defined as matter composed of the antiparticles (or "partners") of the corresponding particles in "ordinary" matter. Antimatter occurs in natural processes like cosmic ray collisions and some types of radioac ...
, and dark matter in the universe. Examples of Earth-viewing remote sensing experiments that have flown on the ISS are the
Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3,
ISS-RapidScat,
ECOSTRESS, the
Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation
Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI, pronounced ) is a NASA mission to measure how deforestation has contributed to atmospheric CO2 concentrations.[freefall
In Newtonian physics, free fall is any motion of a body where gravity is the only force acting upon it. In the context of general relativity, where gravitation is reduced to a space-time curvature, a body in free fall has no force acting on i ...]
, resulting in an apparent state of
weightlessness
Weightlessness is the complete or near-complete absence of the sensation of weight. It is also termed zero gravity, zero G-force, or zero-G.
Weight is a measurement of the force on an object at rest in a relatively strong gravitational fie ...
. This perceived weightlessness is disturbed by five effects:
* Drag from the residual atmosphere.
* Vibration from the movements of mechanical systems and the crew.
* Actuation of the on-board attitude
control moment gyroscope
A control moment gyroscope (CMG) is an attitude control device generally used in spacecraft attitude control systems. A CMG consists of a spinning rotor and one or more motorized gimbals that tilt the rotor’s angular momentum. As the rotor tilt ...
s.
*
Thruster firings for attitude or orbital changes.
*
Gravity-gradient effects, also known as
tidal
Tidal is the adjectival form of tide.
Tidal may also refer to:
* ''Tidal'' (album), a 1996 album by Fiona Apple
* Tidal (king), a king involved in the Battle of the Vale of Siddim
* TidalCycles, a live coding environment for music
* Tidal (servic ...
effects. Items at different locations within the ISS would, if not attached to the station, follow slightly different orbits. Being mechanically connected these items experience small forces that keep the station moving as a
rigid body
In physics, a rigid body (also known as a rigid object) is a solid body in which deformation is zero or so small it can be neglected. The distance between any two given points on a rigid body remains constant in time regardless of external fo ...
.
Researchers are investigating the effect of the station's near-weightless environment on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes of plants and animals. In response to some of the data, NASA wants to investigate
microgravity's effects on the growth of three-dimensional, human-like tissues and the unusual
protein crystals that can be formed in space.
Investigating the physics of fluids in microgravity will provide better models of the behaviour of fluids. Because fluids can be almost completely combined in microgravity, physicists investigate fluids that do not mix well on Earth. Examining reactions that are slowed by low gravity and low temperatures will improve our understanding of
superconductivity.
The study of
materials science is an important ISS research activity, with the objective of reaping economic benefits through the improvement of techniques used on the ground. Other areas of interest include the effect of low gravity on combustion, through the study of the efficiency of burning and control of emissions and pollutants. These findings may improve knowledge about energy production and lead to economic and environmental benefits.
Exploration
![Mars500](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Mars500.jpg)
The ISS provides a location in the relative safety of low Earth orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. This provides experience in operations, maintenance as well as repair and replacement activities on-orbit. This will help develop essential skills in operating spacecraft farther from Earth, reduce mission risks, and advance the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft.
Referring to the
MARS-500
The MARS-500 mission was a psychosocial isolation experiment conducted between 2007 and 2011 by Russia, the European Space Agency, and China, in preparation for an unspecified future crewed spaceflight to the planet Mars. The experiment's f ...
experiment, a crew isolation experiment conducted on Earth, ESA states that "Whereas the ISS is essential for answering questions concerning the possible impact of weightlessness, radiation and other space-specific factors, aspects such as the effect of long-term isolation and confinement can be more appropriately addressed via ground-based simulations".
Sergey Krasnov, the head of human space flight programmes for Russia's space agency, Roscosmos, in 2011 suggested a "shorter version" of MARS-500 may be carried out on the ISS.
In 2009, noting the value of the partnership framework itself, Sergey Krasnov wrote, "When compared with partners acting separately, partners developing complementary abilities and resources could give us much more assurance of the success and safety of space exploration. The ISS is helping further advance near-Earth space exploration and realisation of prospective programmes of research and exploration of the Solar system, including the Moon and Mars."
A crewed mission to Mars may be a multinational effort involving space agencies and countries outside the current ISS partnership. In 2010, ESA Director-General Jean-Jacques Dordain stated his agency was ready to propose to the other four partners that China, India and South Korea be invited to join the ISS partnership.
NASA chief
Charles Bolden
Charles Frank Bolden Jr. (born August 19, 1946) is a former Administrator of NASA, a retired United States Marine Corps Major General, and a former astronaut who flew on four Space Shuttle missions.
He graduated from the United States Naval ...
stated in February 2011, "Any mission to Mars is likely to be a global effort".
Currently, US federal legislation prevents NASA co-operation with China on space projects.
Education and cultural outreach
![Crew in ATV with Jules Verne manuscript](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Crew_in_ATV_with_Jules_Verne_manuscript.jpg)
The ISS crew provides opportunities for students on Earth by running student-developed experiments, making educational demonstrations, allowing for student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, and directly engaging students using radio, and email.
ESA offers a wide range of free teaching materials that can be downloaded for use in classrooms. In one lesson, students can navigate a
3D model of the interior and exterior of the ISS, and face spontaneous challenges to solve in real time.
The
Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency
The is the Japanese national air and space agency. Through the merger of three previously independent organizations, JAXA was formed on 1 October 2003. JAXA is responsible for research, technology development and launch of satellites into orb ...
(JAXA) aims to inspire children to "pursue craftsmanship" and to heighten their "awareness of the importance of life and their responsibilities in society". Through a series of education guides, students develop a deeper understanding of the past and near-term future of crewed space flight, as well as that of Earth and life. In the JAXA "Seeds in Space" experiments, the mutation effects of spaceflight on plant seeds aboard the ISS are explored by growing sunflower seeds that have flown on the ISS for about nine months. In the first phase of ''Kibō'' utilisation from 2008 to mid-2010, researchers from more than a dozen Japanese universities conducted experiments in diverse fields.
Cultural activities are another major objective of the ISS programme. Tetsuo Tanaka, the director of JAXA's Space Environment and Utilization Center, has said: "There is something about space that touches even people who are not interested in science."
Amateur Radio on the ISS (ARISS) is a volunteer programme that encourages students worldwide to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, through
amateur radio communications opportunities with the ISS crew. ARISS is an international working group, consisting of delegations from nine countries including several in Europe, as well as Japan, Russia, Canada, and the United States. In areas where radio equipment cannot be used,
speakerphone
A speakerphone is a telephone with a microphone and loudspeaker provided separately from those in the handset. This device allows multiple persons to participate in a conversation. The loudspeaker broadcasts the voice or voices of those on the ot ...
s connect students to ground stations which then connect the calls to the space station.
''
First Orbit'' is a 2011 feature-length documentary film about
Vostok 1
Vostok 1 (russian: link=no, Восток, ''East'' or ''Orient'' 1) was the first spaceflight of the Vostok programme and the first human orbital spaceflight in history. The Vostok 3KA space capsule was launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome on Apr ...
, the first crewed space flight around the Earth. By matching the orbit of the ISS to that of Vostok 1 as closely as possible, in terms of ground path and time of day, documentary filmmaker
Christopher Riley
Christopher Riley (born 1967) is a British writer, broadcaster and film maker specialising in the history of science. He has a PhD from Imperial College, University of London where he pioneered the use of digital elevation models in the study ...
and ESA astronaut
Paolo Nespoli
Major Paolo Angelo Nespoli (born 6 April 1957) is an Italian astronaut and engineer of the European Space Agency (ESA). In 2007, he first traveled into space aboard the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' as a mission specialist of STS-120. In December ...
were able to film the view that
Yuri Gagarin
Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin; Gagarin's first name is sometimes transliterated as ''Yuriy'', ''Youri'', or ''Yury''. (9 March 1934 – 27 March 1968) was a Soviet pilot and cosmonaut who became the first human to journey into outer space. T ...
saw on his pioneering orbital space flight. This new footage was cut together with the original Vostok 1 mission audio recordings sourced from the Russian State Archive. Nespoli is credited as the
director of photography
The cinematographer or director of photography (sometimes shortened to DP or DOP) is the person responsible for the photographing or recording of a film, television production, music video or other live action piece. The cinematographer is the ch ...
for this documentary film, as he recorded the majority of the footage himself during
Expedition 26
Expedition 26 was the 26th long-duration mission to the International Space Station. The expedition's first three crew members – one US astronaut and two Russian cosmonauts – arrived at the station on board Soyuz TMA-01M on 10 October 2010. ...
/
27. The film was streamed in a global YouTube premiere in 2011 under a free licence through the website ''firstorbit.org''.
In May 2013, commander
Chris Hadfield shot a music video of
David Bowie
David Robert Jones (8 January 194710 January 2016), known professionally as David Bowie ( ), was an English singer-songwriter and actor. A leading figure in the music industry, he is regarded as one of the most influential musicians of the ...
's "
Space Oddity
"Space Oddity" is a song by English singer-songwriter David Bowie. It was first released on 11 July 1969 by Philips Records as a 7-inch single, then as the opening track of his second studio album ''David Bowie''. After the commercial f ...
" on board the station, which was released on YouTube. It was the first music video ever to be filmed in space.
In November 2017, while participating in
Expedition 52
Expedition 52 (June - September 2017) was the 52nd expedition to the International Space Station. It officially began on June 2, 2017 10:47 UTC, with the undocking of Soyuz MS-03. Transfer of Command from Expedition 51 was done on June 1, 2017.
...
/
53 on the ISS,
Paolo Nespoli
Major Paolo Angelo Nespoli (born 6 April 1957) is an Italian astronaut and engineer of the European Space Agency (ESA). In 2007, he first traveled into space aboard the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' as a mission specialist of STS-120. In December ...
made two recordings of his spoken voice (one in English and the other in his native Italian), for use on
Wikipedia
Wikipedia is a multilingual free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers, known as Wikipedians, through open collaboration and using a wiki-based editing system. Wikipedia is the largest and most-read refer ...
articles. These were the first content made in space specifically for Wikipedia.
In November 2021, a
virtual reality
Virtual reality (VR) is a simulated experience that employs pose tracking and 3D near-eye displays to give the user an immersive feel of a virtual world. Applications of virtual reality include entertainment (particularly video games), e ...
exhibit called The Infinite featuring life aboard the ISS was announced.
Construction
Manufacturing
![SSPF interior](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/SSPF_interior.jpg)
Since the International Space Station is a multi-national collaborative project, the components for in-orbit assembly were manufactured in various countries around the world. Beginning in the mid-1990s, the U.S. components ''
Destiny
Destiny, sometimes referred to as fate (from Latin ''fatum'' "decree, prediction, destiny, fate"), is a predetermined course of events. It may be conceived as a predetermined future, whether in general or of an individual.
Fate
Although often ...
'', ''
Unity
Unity may refer to:
Buildings
* Unity Building, Oregon, Illinois, US; a historic building
* Unity Building (Chicago), Illinois, US; a skyscraper
* Unity Buildings, Liverpool, UK; two buildings in England
* Unity Chapel, Wyoming, Wisconsin, US; ...
'', the
Integrated Truss Structure
The Integrated Truss Structure (ITS) of the International Space Station (ISS) consists of a linear arranged sequence of connected trusses on which various unpressurized components are mounted such as logistics carriers, radiators, solar arrays, ...
, and the
solar arrays were fabricated at the
Marshall Space Flight Center and the
Michoud Assembly Facility
The Michoud Assembly Facility (MAF) is an manufacturing complex owned by NASA in New Orleans East, a district within New Orleans, Louisiana, in the United States. Organizationally it is part of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, and is current ...
. These modules were delivered to the
Operations and Checkout Building
The Neil Armstrong Operations and Checkout Building (O&C) (previously known as the Manned Spacecraft Operations Building) is a historic building on Merritt Island, Florida, United States. The five-story structure is in the Industrial Area of NASA ...
and the
Space Station Processing Facility
The Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) is a three-story industrial building at Kennedy Space Center for the manufacture and processing of flight hardware, modules, structural components and solar arrays of the International Space Station, ...
(SSPF) for final assembly and processing for launch.
The Russian modules, including ''
Zarya'' and ''
Zvezda'', were manufactured at the
Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center in
Moscow
Moscow ( , US chiefly ; rus, links=no, Москва, r=Moskva, p=mɐskˈva, a=Москва.ogg) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 millio ...
. ''Zvezda'' was initially manufactured in 1985 as a component for ''
Mir-2'', but was never launched and instead became the ISS Service Module.
The
European Space Agency (ESA)
''Columbus'' module was manufactured at the
EADS Astrium Space Transportation facilities in
Bremen, Germany, along with many other contractors throughout Europe. The other ESA-built modules''
Harmony'', ''
Tranquility'', the
''Leonardo'' MPLM, and the
''Cupola''were initially manufactured at the
Thales Alenia Space
Thales Alenia Space () is a Franco-Italian aerospace manufacturer. A joint venture between the French technology corporation Thales Group (67%) and Italian defense conglomerate Leonardo (33%), the company is the largest satellite manufactur ...
factory in Turin, Italy.
The structural steel hulls of the modules were transported by aircraft to the
Kennedy Space Center
The John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC, originally known as the NASA Launch Operations Center), located on Merritt Island, Florida, is one of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) ten field centers. Since December 1968 ...
SSPF for launch processing.
The
Japanese Experiment Module
Japanese may refer to:
* Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia
* Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan
* Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture
** Japanese diaspor ...
''Kibō'', was fabricated in various technology manufacturing facilities in Japan, at the
NASDA
The , or NASDA, was a Japanese national space agency established on October 1, 1969 under the National Space Development Agency Law only for peaceful purposes. Based on the Space Development Program enacted by the Minister of Education, Culture, ...
(now JAXA)
Tsukuba Space Center
The Tsukuba Space Center (TKSC) also known by its radio callsign Tsukuba, is the operations facility and headquarters for the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) located in Tsukuba Science City in Ibaraki Prefecture. The facility opened ...
, and the
Institute of Space and Astronautical Science
(ISAS) is a Japanese national research organization of astrophysics using rockets, astronomical satellites and interplanetary probes which played a major role in Japan's space development. Since 2003, it is a division of Japan Aerospace E ...
. The ''Kibo'' module was transported by ship and flown by aircraft to the SSPF.
The
Mobile Servicing System
The Mobile Servicing System (MSS), is a robotic system on board the International Space Station (ISS). Launched to the ISS in 2001, it plays a key role in station assembly and maintenance; it moves equipment and supplies around the station, supp ...
, consisting of the
Canadarm2
The Mobile Servicing System (MSS), is a robotic system on board the International Space Station (ISS). Launched to the ISS in 2001, it plays a key role in station assembly and maintenance; it moves equipment and supplies around the station, supp ...
and the ''
Dextre
Dextre, also known as the Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator (SPDM), is a two armed robot, or telemanipulator, which is part of the Mobile Servicing System on the International Space Station (ISS), and does repairs that would otherwise r ...
'' grapple fixture, was manufactured at various factories in Canada (such as the
David Florida Laboratory The David Florida Laboratory is the Canadian Space Agency's spacecraft assembly, integration and testing centre, in Shirleys Bay, just west of central Ottawa. It is operated by the Canadian Space Agency and rented out to Canadian and foreign aeros ...
) and the United States, under contract by the
Canadian Space Agency
The Canadian Space Agency (CSA; french: Agence spatiale canadienne, ASC) is the national space agency of Canada, established in 1990 by the ''Canadian Space Agency Act''.
The president is Lisa Campbell, who took the position on September 3, 2020 ...
. The mobile base system, a connecting framework for Canadarm2 mounted on rails, was built by
Northrop Grumman
Northrop Grumman Corporation is an American multinational aerospace and defense technology company. With 90,000 employees and an annual revenue in excess of $30 billion, it is one of the world's largest weapons manufacturers and military techn ...
.
Assembly
![International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132.jpg)
The assembly of the International Space Station, a major endeavour in
space architecture
Space architecture is the theory and practice of designing and building inhabited environments in outer space. This mission statement for space architecture was developed at the World Space Congress in Houston in 2002 by members of the Technical ...
, began in November 1998.
Russian modules launched and docked robotically, with the exception of ''
Rassvet''. All other modules were delivered by the
Space Shuttle
The Space Shuttle is a retired, partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated from 1981 to 2011 by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as part of the Space Shuttle program. Its official program ...
, which required installation by ISS and Shuttle crewmembers using the
Canadarm2
The Mobile Servicing System (MSS), is a robotic system on board the International Space Station (ISS). Launched to the ISS in 2001, it plays a key role in station assembly and maintenance; it moves equipment and supplies around the station, supp ...
(SSRMS) and
extra-vehicular activities
Extravehicular activity (EVA) is any activity done by an astronaut in outer space outside a spacecraft. In the absence of a breathable atmosphere of Earth, Earthlike atmosphere, the astronaut is completely reliant on a space suit for environmen ...
(EVAs); by 5 June 2011, they had added 159 components during more than 1,000 hours of EVA. 127 of these spacewalks originated from the station, and the remaining 32 were launched from the airlocks of docked Space Shuttles.
The
beta angle
In orbital spaceflight, the beta angle (\boldsymbol) is the angle between a satellite's orbital plane around Earth and the geocentric position of the sun. The beta angle determines the percentage of time that a satellite in low Earth orbit (LEO) ...
of the station had to be considered at all times during construction.
The first module of the ISS, ''Zarya'', was launched on 20 November 1998 on an autonomous Russian
Proton rocket
Proton (Russian: Протон) (formal designation: UR-500) is an expendable launch system used for both commercial and Russian government space launches. The first Proton rocket was launched in 1965. Modern versions of the launch system are sti ...
. It provided propulsion,
attitude control
Attitude control is the process of controlling the orientation of an aerospace vehicle with respect to an inertial frame of reference or another entity such as the celestial sphere, certain fields, and nearby objects, etc.
Controlling vehicle ...
, communications, and electrical power, but lacked long-term life support functions. A passive NASA module, ''Unity'', was launched two weeks later aboard Space Shuttle flight
STS-88
STS-88 was the first Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). It was flown by Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', and took the first American module, the ''Unity'' node, to the station.
The seven-day mission was highlighted by ...
and attached to ''Zarya'' by astronauts during EVAs. The ''Unity'' module has two
Pressurised Mating Adapters (PMAs): one connects permanently to ''Zarya'' and the other allowed the Space Shuttle to dock to the space station. At that time, the Russian (Soviet) station ''Mir'' was still inhabited, and the ISS remained uncrewed for two years. On 12 July 2000, the ''Zvezda'' module was launched into orbit. Onboard preprogrammed commands deployed its
solar array
A photovoltaic system, also PV system or solar power system, is an electric power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and ...
s and communications antenna. ''Zvezda'' then became the passive target for a rendezvous with ''Zarya'' and ''Unity'', maintaining a station-keeping orbit while the ''Zarya''–''Unity'' vehicle performed the rendezvous and docking via ground control and the Russian automated rendezvous and docking system. ''Zarya'' computer transferred control of the station to ''Zvezda'' computer soon after docking. ''Zvezda'' added sleeping quarters, a toilet, kitchen, CO
2 scrubbers, dehumidifier, oxygen generators, and exercise equipment, plus data, voice and television communications with mission control, enabling permanent habitation of the station.
The first resident crew,
Expedition 1
Expedition 1 was the first long-duration stay on the International Space Station (ISS). The three-person crew stayed aboard the station for 136 days, from November 2000 to March 2001. It was the beginning of an uninterrupted human presence on the ...
, arrived in November 2000 on
Soyuz TM-31
Soyuz TM-31 was the first Soyuz spaceflight to dock with the International Space Station (ISS). The spacecraft carried the members of Expedition 1, the first long-duration ISS crew. It was launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan at 07 ...
. At the end of the first day on the station, astronaut
Bill Shepherd requested the use of the radio call sign "''Alpha''", which he and cosmonaut
Sergei Krikalev
Sergei Konstantinovich Krikalev (russian: Сергей Константинович Крикалёв, also transliterated as Sergei Krikalyov; born 27 August 1958) is a Russian mechanical engineer, former cosmonaut and former head of the Yuri Ga ...
preferred to the more cumbersome "''International Space Station''".
The name "''Alpha''" had previously been used for the station in the early 1990s,
and its use was authorised for the whole of Expedition 1.
Shepherd had been advocating the use of a new name to project managers for some time. Referencing a
naval tradition A naval tradition is a tradition that is, or has been, observed in one or more navies.
A basic tradition is that all ships commissioned in a navy are referred to as ships rather than vessels, with the exception of submarines, which are known as ...
in a pre-launch news conference he had said: "For thousands of years, humans have been going to sea in ships. People have designed and built these vessels, launched them with a good feeling that a name will bring good fortune to the crew and success to their voyage."
Yuri Semenov
Yuriy Ivanovich Semenov (born September 5, 1929) is a Soviet and Russian historian, philosopher, ethnologist, anthropologist, expert on the history of philosophy, history of primitive society, and the theory of knowledge. He is also the original ...
, the President of
Russian Space Corporation Energia at the time, disapproved of the name "''Alpha''" as he felt that ''Mir'' was the first modular space station, so the names "''Beta''" or "''Mir'' 2" for the ISS would have been more fitting.
Expedition 1 arrived midway between the Space Shuttle flights of missions
STS-92
STS-92 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle '' Discovery''. STS-92 marked the 100th mission of the Space Shuttle. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, 11 October 2000.
Crew
...
and
STS-97
STS-97 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle '' Endeavour''. The crew installed the first set of solar arrays to the ISS, prepared a docking port for arrival of the Destiny Laboratory Module, ...
. These two flights each added segments of the station's
Integrated Truss Structure
The Integrated Truss Structure (ITS) of the International Space Station (ISS) consists of a linear arranged sequence of connected trusses on which various unpressurized components are mounted such as logistics carriers, radiators, solar arrays, ...
, which provided the station with Ku-band communication for US television, additional attitude support needed for the additional mass of the USOS, and substantial solar arrays to supplement the station's four existing arrays. Over the next two years, the station continued to expand. A
Soyuz-U
The Soyuz-U launch vehicle was an improved version of the original Soyuz rocket. Soyuz-U was part of the R-7 family of rockets based on the R-7 Semyorka missile. Members of this rocket family were designed by the TsSKB design bureau and cons ...
rocket delivered the
''Pirs'' docking compartment. The Space Shuttles ''
Discovery
Discovery may refer to:
* Discovery (observation), observing or finding something unknown
* Discovery (fiction), a character's learning something unknown
* Discovery (law), a process in courts of law relating to evidence
Discovery, The Discovery ...
'', ''
Atlantis
Atlantis ( grc, Ἀτλαντὶς νῆσος, , island of Atlas (mythology), Atlas) is a fictional island mentioned in an allegory on the hubris of nations in Plato's works ''Timaeus (dialogue), Timaeus'' and ''Critias (dialogue), Critias'' ...
'', and ''
Endeavour'' delivered the ''Destiny'' laboratory and
''Quest'' airlock, in addition to the station's main robot arm, the Canadarm2, and several more segments of the Integrated Truss Structure.
The expansion schedule was interrupted in 2003 by the Space Shuttle ''
Columbia''
disaster
A disaster is a serious problem occurring over a short or long period of time that causes widespread human, material, economic or environmental loss which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources ...
and a resulting hiatus in flights. The Space Shuttle was grounded until 2005 with
STS-114
STS-114 was the first "Return to Flight" Space Shuttle mission following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' disaster. Space Shuttle Discovery, ''Discovery'' launched at 10:39 Eastern Time Zone, EDT (14:39 Coordinated ...
flown by ''Discovery''. Assembly resumed in 2006 with the arrival of
STS-115
STS-115 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by . It was the first assembly mission to the ISS after the ''Columbia'' disaster, following the two successful ''Return to Flight'' missions, STS-114 and STS-1 ...
with ''Atlantis'', which delivered the station's second set of solar arrays. Several more truss segments and a third set of arrays were delivered on
STS-116
STS-116 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle '' Discovery''. ''Discovery'' lifted off on 9 December 2006 at 20:47:35 EST. A previous launch attempt on 7 December had been canceled due to cl ...
,
STS-117
STS-117 ( ISS assembly flight 13A) was a Space Shuttle mission flown by Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launched from pad 39A of the Kennedy Space Center on 8 June 2007. ''Atlantis'' lifted off from the launch pad at 19:38 EDT. Damage from a hail ...
, and
STS-118
STS-118 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by the orbiter '' Endeavour''. STS-118 lifted off on 8 August 2007 from launch pad 39A at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida and landed at the Shuttle Landing Fac ...
. As a result of the major expansion of the station's power-generating capabilities, more pressurised modules could be accommodated, and the ''Harmony'' node and ''Columbus'' European laboratory were added. These were soon followed by the first two components of ''
Kibō''. In March 2009,
STS-119
STS-119 ( ISS assembly flight 15A) was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) which was flown by space shuttle Discovery during March 2009. It delivered and assembled the fourth starboard Integrated Truss Segment (S6), ...
completed the Integrated Truss Structure with the installation of the fourth and final set of solar arrays. The final section of ''Kibō'' was delivered in July 2009 on
STS-127
STS-127 ( ISS assembly flight 2J/A) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). It was the twenty-third flight of . The primary purpose of the STS-127 mission was to deliver and install the final two components of t ...
, followed by the Russian ''
Poisk Poisk may refer to:
*Poisk (computer), a Ukrainian(USSR) IBM PC XT clone (see List of Soviet computer systems)
*Poisk (ISS module)
''Poisk'' (russian: Поиск, , Search), also known as the Mini-Research Module 2 (MRM 2), , or ''МИМ 2'', ...
'' module. The third node, ''Tranquility'', was delivered in February 2010 during
STS-130
STS-130 ( ISS assembly flight 20A) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). 's primary payloads were the ''Tranquility'' module and the ''Cupola'', a robotic control station with six windows around its sides and ...
by the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', alongside the ''Cupola'', followed by the penultimate Russian module, ''Rassvet'', in May 2010. ''Rassvet'' was delivered by Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on
STS-132
STS-132 ( ISS assembly flight ULF4) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, during which Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' docked with the International Space Station on 16 May 2010. STS-132 was launched from the Kennedy Space Center on 14 May 2010. The prima ...
in exchange for the Russian Proton delivery of the US-funded ''Zarya'' module in 1998. The last pressurised module of the USOS, ''Leonardo'', was brought to the station in February 2011 on the final flight of ''Discovery'',
STS-133
STS-133 ( ISS assembly flight ULF5) was the 133rd mission in NASA's Space Shuttle program; during the mission, Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' docked with the International Space Station. It was ''Discoverys 39th and final mission. The mission l ...
. The
Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer
The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS-02) is a particle physics experiment module that is mounted on the International Space Station (ISS).Kristine Rainey (April 2, 2013)Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS): How It Works NASA. Retrieved June 2, 20 ...
was delivered by ''Endeavour'' on
STS-134
STS-134 ( ISS assembly flight ULF6) was the penultimate mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the 25th and last spaceflight of . This flight delivered the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer and an ExPRESS Logistics Carrier to the International ...
the same year.
By June 2011, the station consisted of 15 pressurised modules and the Integrated Truss Structure. Two power modules called
NEM-1 and NEM-2. are still to be launched. Russia's new primary research module ''Nauka'' docked in July 2021, along with the European Robotic Arm which will be able to relocate itself to different parts of the Russian modules of the station. Russia's latest addition, the nodal module ''
''Prichal'' docked in November 2021.
The gross mass of the station changes over time. The total launch mass of the modules on orbit is about (). The mass of experiments, spare parts, personal effects, crew, foodstuff, clothing, propellants, water supplies, gas supplies, docked spacecraft, and other items add to the total mass of the station. Hydrogen gas is constantly vented overboard by the oxygen generators.
Structure
The ISS is a modular space station. Modular stations can allow modules to be added to or removed from the existing structure, allowing greater flexibility.
File:ISS blueprint.png, Technical blueprint of components.
File:View_of_the_ISS_taken_during_Crew-2_flyaround_(ISS066-E-081311).jpg, The ISS exterior and steelwork taken on 8 November 2021, from the departing SpaceX Crew-2
SpaceX Crew-2 was the second operational flight of a Crew Dragon spacecraft, and the third overall crewed orbital flight of the Commercial Crew Program. The mission was launched on 23 April 2021 at 09:49:02 UTC, and docked to the Internationa ...
capsule.
File:Iss after installation of first 3 roll out solar arrays.jpg, Diagram structure of International Space Station after installation of iROSA solar arrays (as of 2022).
Below is a diagram of major station components. The blue areas are pressurised sections accessible by the crew without using spacesuits. The station's unpressurised superstructure is indicated in red. Planned components are shown in white, non installed, temporarily defunct or non-commissioned components are shown in brown and former ones in gray. Other unpressurised components are yellow. The ''Unity'' node joins directly to the ''Destiny'' laboratory. For clarity, they are shown apart. Similar cases are also seen in other parts of the structure.
Pressurised modules
''Zarya''
''Zarya'' (russian: Заря, , Dawn), also known as the Functional Cargo Block or FGB (from the russian: "Функционально-грузовой блок", , ''Funktsionalno-gruzovoy blok'', links=no or ''ФГБ''), is the first module of the ISS to have been launched.
[NASA, International Space Station]
Zarya
(accessed 19 Apr. 2014) The FGB provided electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance to the ISS during the initial stage of assembly. With the launch and assembly in orbit of other modules with more specialized functionality, ''Zarya,'' as of August 2021'','' is primarily be used for storage, both inside the pressurized section and in the externally mounted fuel tanks. The ''Zarya'' is a descendant of the
TKS spacecraft
The TKS spacecraft (russian: Транспортный корабль снабжения, , ''Transport Supply Spacecraft'', GRAU index 11F72) was a Soviet spacecraft conceived in the late 1960s for resupply flights to the military Almaz space s ...
designed for the Russian
''Salyut'' program. The name ''Zarya'' ("Dawn") was given to the FGB because it signified the dawn of a new era of international cooperation in space. Although it was built by a Russian company, it is owned by the United States.
''Unity''
The ''Unity'' connecting module, also known as Node 1, is the first U.S.-built component of the ISS. It connects the Russian and U.S. segments of the station, and is where crew eat meals together.
The module is cylindrical in shape, with six
berthing
A cabin or berthing is an enclosed space generally on a ship or an aircraft. A cabin which protrudes above the level of a ship's deck may be referred to as a deckhouse.
Sailing ships
In sailing ships, the officers and paying passengers wo ...
locations (
forward
Forward is a relative direction, the opposite of backward.
Forward may also refer to:
People
* Forward (surname)
Sports
* Forward (association football)
* Forward (basketball), including:
** Point forward
** Power forward (basketball)
** Sm ...
,
aft,
port
A port is a maritime facility comprising one or more wharves or loading areas, where ships load and discharge cargo and passengers. Although usually situated on a sea coast or estuary, ports can also be found far inland, such as Ham ...
,
starboard
Port and starboard are nautical terms for watercraft and aircraft, referring respectively to the left and right sides of the vessel, when aboard and facing the bow (front).
Vessels with bilateral symmetry have left and right halves which are ...
,
zenith
The zenith (, ) is an imaginary point directly "above" a particular location, on the celestial sphere. "Above" means in the vertical direction (plumb line) opposite to the gravity direction at that location (nadir). The zenith is the "highest" ...
, and
nadir
The nadir (, ; ar, نظير, naẓīr, counterpart) is the direction pointing directly ''below'' a particular location; that is, it is one of two vertical directions at a specified location, orthogonal to a horizontal flat surface.
The direc ...
) facilitating connections to other modules. ''Unity'' measures in diameter, is long, made of steel, and was built for NASA by
Boeing
The Boeing Company () is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, satellites, telecommunications equipment, and missiles worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product ...
in a manufacturing facility at the
Marshall Space Flight Center in
Huntsville, Alabama
Huntsville is a city in Madison County, Limestone County, and Morgan County, Alabama, United States. It is the county seat of Madison County. Located in the Appalachian region of northern Alabama, Huntsville is the most populous city in t ...
. ''Unity'' is the first of the three connecting modules; the other two are ''Harmony'' and ''Tranquility''.
''Zvezda''
''Zvezda'' (russian: Звезда, links=no, meaning "star"),
''Salyut'' DOS-8, is also known as the ''Zvezda'' Service Module. It was the third module launched to the station, and provides all of the station's
life support system
A life-support system is the combination of equipment that allows survival in an environment or situation that would not support that life in its absence. It is generally applied to systems supporting human life in situations where the outsid ...
s, some of which are supplemented in the USOS, as well as living quarters for two crew members. It is the structural and functional center of the
Russian Orbital Segment
The Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) is the name given to the components of the International Space Station (ISS) constructed in Russia and operated by the Russian Roscosmos. The ROS handles Guidance, Navigation, and Control for the entire Station ...
, which is the Russian part of the ISS. Crew assemble here to deal with emergencies on the station.
The module was manufactured by
RKK Energia
PAO S. P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia (russian: Ракетно-космическая корпорация «Энергия» им. С. П. Королёва, Raketno-kosmicheskaya korporatsiya "Energiya" im. S. P. Korolyov ...
, with major sub-contracting work by GKNPTs Khrunichev.
''Zvezda'' was launched on a
Proton rocket
Proton (Russian: Протон) (formal designation: UR-500) is an expendable launch system used for both commercial and Russian government space launches. The first Proton rocket was launched in 1965. Modern versions of the launch system are sti ...
on 12 July 2000, and docked with the ''Zarya'' module on 26 July 2000.
''Destiny''
The ''Destiny'' module, also known as the U.S. Lab, is the primary operating facility for U.S. research payloads aboard the ISS.
It was berthed to the ''Unity'' module and activated over a period of five days in February 2001.
''Destiny'' is NASA's first permanent operating orbital research station since
Skylab
Skylab was the first United States space station, launched by NASA, occupied for about 24 weeks between May 1973 and February 1974. It was operated by three separate three-astronaut crews: Skylab 2, Skylab 3, and Skylab 4. Major operations ...
was vacated in February 1974. The Boeing Company began construction of the research laboratory in 1995 at the
Michoud Assembly Facility
The Michoud Assembly Facility (MAF) is an manufacturing complex owned by NASA in New Orleans East, a district within New Orleans, Louisiana, in the United States. Organizationally it is part of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, and is current ...
and then the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.
''Destiny'' was shipped to the
Kennedy Space Center
The John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC, originally known as the NASA Launch Operations Center), located on Merritt Island, Florida, is one of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) ten field centers. Since December 1968 ...
in
Florida
Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...
in 1998, and was turned over to NASA for pre-launch preparations in August 2000. It launched on 7 February 2001, aboard the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on
STS-98
STS-98 was a 2001 Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle '' Atlantis''. It was the first human spaceflight launch of the 21st century. STS-98 delivered to the station the ''Destiny'' Laboratory Mod ...
.
Astronauts work inside the pressurized facility to conduct research in numerous scientific fields. Scientists throughout the world would use the results to enhance their studies in medicine, engineering, biotechnology, physics, materials science, and Earth science.
''Quest''
The Joint Airlock (also known as "Quest") is provided by the U.S. and provides the capability for ISS-based Extravehicular Activity (EVA) using either a U.S. Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) or Russian Orlan EVA suits. Before the launch of this airlock, EVAs were performed from either the U.S. Space Shuttle (while docked) or from the Transfer Chamber on the Service Module. Due to a variety of system and design differences, only U.S. space suits could be used from the Shuttle and only Russian suits could be used from the Service Module. The Joint Airlock alleviates this short-term problem by allowing either (or both) spacesuit systems to be used.
The Joint Airlock was launched on ISS-7A / STS-104 in July 2001 and was attached to the right hand docking port of Node 1. The Joint Airlock is 20 ft. long, 13 ft. in diameter, and weighs 6.5 tons. The Joint Airlock was built by Boeing at Marshall Space Flight Center. The Joint Airlock was launched with the High Pressure Gas Assembly. The High Pressure Gas Assembly was mounted on the external surface of the Joint Airlock and will support EVAs operations with breathing gases and augments the Service Module's gas resupply system.
The Joint Airlock has two main components: a crew airlock from which astronauts and cosmonauts exit the ISS and an equipment airlock designed for storing EVA gear and for so-called overnight "campouts" wherein Nitrogen is purged from astronaut's bodies overnight as pressure is dropped in preparation for spacewalks the following day. This alleviates the bends as the astronauts are repressurized after their EVA.
The crew airlock was derived from the Space Shuttle's external airlock. It is equipped with lighting, external handrails, and an Umbilical Interface Assembly (UIA). The UIA is located on one wall of the crew airlock and provides a water supply line, a wastewater return line, and an oxygen supply line. The UIA also provides communication gear and spacesuit power interfaces and can support two spacesuits simultaneously. This can be either two American EMU spacesuits, two Russian ORLAN spacesuits, or one of each design.
''Poisk''
''Poisk (russian: По́иск, , Search, links=no)'' was launched on 10 November 2009
attached to a modified
Progress spacecraft
The Progress (russian: Прогресс) is a Russian expendable cargo spacecraft. Its purpose is to deliver the supplies needed to sustain a human presence in orbit. While it does not carry a crew, it can be boarded by astronauts when docked t ...
, called
Progress M-MIM2
Progress M-MIM2 (russian: Прогресс М-МИМ2), or Progress M-MRM2, originally designated Progress M-SO2, was a modified Progress-M 11F615A55, Russian production No. 302, which was used to deliver the '' Poisk'' module to the International ...
, on a Soyuz-U rocket from
Launch Pad 1 at the
Baikonur Cosmodrome in
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country located mainly in Central Asia and partly in Eastern Europe. It borders Russia to the north and west, China to the east, Kyrgyzstan to the southeast, Uzbeki ...
. ''Poisk'' is used as the Russian airlock module, containing two identical EVA hatches. An outward-opening hatch on the ''Mir'' space station failed after it swung open too fast after unlatching, because of a small amount of air pressure remaining in the airlock. All EVA hatches on the ISS open inwards and are pressure-sealing. Poisk is used to store, service, and refurbish Russian
Orlan suits
image:iss022e023623.jpg, 270px, Cosmonaut Maksim Surayev next to two Orlan-MK models on the International Space Station
image:Sharipov one.jpg, 270px, Cosmonaut Salizhan Sharipov, next to the Orlan-M spacesuit.
The Orlan space suit (russian: Ор ...
and provides contingency entry for crew using the slightly bulkier American suits. The outermost docking port on the module allows docking of Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, and the automatic transfer of propellants to and from storage on the ROS. Since the departure of the identical Pirs module on July 26, 2021, Poisk has served as the only airlock on the ROS.
''Harmony''
''Harmony'', also known as ''Node 2'', is the "utility hub" of the ISS. It connects the laboratory modules of the United States, Europe and Japan, as well as providing electrical power and electronic data. Sleeping cabins for four of the crew are housed here.
''Harmony'' was successfully launched into space aboard Space Shuttle flight
STS-120
STS-120 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) that launched on 23 October 2007 from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The mission is also referred to as ISS-10A by the ISS program. STS-120 delivered the '' Harmony' ...
on 23 October 2007.
After temporarily being attached to the port side of the ''Unity'' node,
it was moved to its permanent location on the forward end of the ''Destiny'' laboratory on 14 November 2007.
''Harmony'' added to the station's living volume, an increase of almost 20 percent, from . Its successful installation meant that from NASA's perspective, the station was considered to be "U.S. Core Complete".
''Tranquility''
''Tranquility'', also known as Node 3, is a module of the ISS. It contains environmental control systems,
life support system
A life-support system is the combination of equipment that allows survival in an environment or situation that would not support that life in its absence. It is generally applied to systems supporting human life in situations where the outsid ...
s, a toilet, exercise equipment, and an observation
cupola
In architecture, a cupola () is a relatively small, most often dome-like, tall structure on top of a building. Often used to provide a lookout or to admit light and air, it usually crowns a larger roof or dome.
The word derives, via Italian, from ...
.
The European Space Agency and the
Italian Space Agency
The Italian Space Agency ( it, Agenzia Spaziale Italiana; ASI) is a government agency established in 1988 to fund, regulate and coordinate space exploration activities in Italy. The agency cooperates with numerous national and international entit ...
had ''Tranquility'' manufactured by
Thales Alenia Space
Thales Alenia Space () is a Franco-Italian aerospace manufacturer. A joint venture between the French technology corporation Thales Group (67%) and Italian defense conglomerate Leonardo (33%), the company is the largest satellite manufactur ...
. A ceremony on 20 November 2009 transferred ownership of the module to NASA. On 8 February 2010, NASA launched the module on the Space Shuttle's
STS-130
STS-130 ( ISS assembly flight 20A) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). 's primary payloads were the ''Tranquility'' module and the ''Cupola'', a robotic control station with six windows around its sides and ...
mission.
''Columbus''
''Columbus'' is a science laboratory that is part of the ISS and is the largest single contribution to the station made by the European Space Agency.
Like the ''Harmony'' and ''Tranquility'' modules, the ''Columbus'' laboratory was constructed in
Turin
Turin ( , Piedmontese language, Piedmontese: ; it, Torino ) is a city and an important business and cultural centre in Northern Italy. It is the capital city of Piedmont and of the Metropolitan City of Turin, and was the first Italian capital ...
, Italy by
Thales Alenia Space
Thales Alenia Space () is a Franco-Italian aerospace manufacturer. A joint venture between the French technology corporation Thales Group (67%) and Italian defense conglomerate Leonardo (33%), the company is the largest satellite manufactur ...
. The functional equipment and software of the lab was designed by
EADS
Airbus SE (; ; ; ) is a European multinational aerospace corporation. Airbus designs, manufactures and sells civil and military aerospace products worldwide and manufactures aircraft throughout the world. The company has three divisions: '' ...
in
Bremen
Bremen (Low German also: ''Breem'' or ''Bräm''), officially the City Municipality of Bremen (german: Stadtgemeinde Bremen, ), is the capital of the German state Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (''Freie Hansestadt Bremen''), a two-city-state consis ...
, Germany. It was also integrated in Bremen before being flown to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in an
Airbus Beluga
The Airbus A300-600ST (Super Transporter), or Beluga, is a version of the standard A300-600 wide-body airliner modified to carry aircraft parts and outsize cargo. It received the official name of ''Super Transporter'' early on; however, the nam ...
. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on 7 February 2008, on flight
STS-122
STS-122 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS), flown by the . STS-122 marked the 24th shuttle mission to the ISS, and the 121st Space Shuttle flight overall.
The mission was also referred to as ISS-1E by the ...
. It is designed for ten years of operation. The module is controlled by the
Columbus Control Centre
The Columbus Control Centre also known by its radio callsign, Mission Control Munich, is the mission control centre which is used to control the ''Columbus'' research laboratory, which is part of the International Space Station (ISS). The contr ...
, located at the
German Space Operations Center
The German Space Operations Center (GSOC; german: Deutsches Raumfahrt-Kontrollzentrum) is the mission control center of German Aerospace Center (DLR) in Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich, Germany.
Tasks
The GSOC performs the following tasks i ...
, part of the
German Aerospace Center
The German Aerospace Center (german: Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V., abbreviated DLR, literally ''German Center for Air- and Space-flight'') is the national center for aerospace, energy and transportation research of Germany ...
in
Oberpfaffenhofen
Oberpfaffenhofen is a village that is part of the municipality of Weßling in the district of Starnberg, Bavaria, Germany. It is located about from the city center of Munich.
Village
The village is home to the Oberpfaffenhofen Airport and a m ...
near
Munich
Munich ( ; german: München ; bar, Minga ) is the capital and most populous city of the States of Germany, German state of Bavaria. With a population of 1,558,395 inhabitants as of 31 July 2020, it is the List of cities in Germany by popu ...
, Germany.
The European Space Agency has spent
€
The euro sign () is the currency sign used for the euro, the official currency of the eurozone and unilaterally adopted by Kosovo and Montenegro. The design was presented to the public by the European Commission on 12 December 1996. It consists ...
1.4 billion (about
US$
The United States dollar (symbol: $; code: USD; also abbreviated US$ or U.S. Dollar, to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies; referred to as the dollar, U.S. dollar, American dollar, or colloquially buck) is the official ...
2 billion) on building ''Columbus'', including the experiments it carries and the ground control infrastructure necessary to operate them.
''Kibō''
The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), nicknamed , is a Japanese science module for the International Space Station (ISS) developed by JAXA. It is the largest single ISS module, and is attached to the ''Harmony'' module. The first two pieces of the module were launched on Space Shuttle missions
STS-123
STS-123 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) which was flown by Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''. STS-123 was the 1J/A ISS assembly mission. The original launch target date was 14 February 2008 but after the delay of ...
and
STS-124
STS-124 was a Space Shuttle mission, flown by Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' to the International Space Station. ''Discovery'' launched on 31 May 2008 at 17:02 EDT, moved from an earlier scheduled launch date of 25 May 2008, and landed safely at t ...
. The third and final components were launched on
STS-127
STS-127 ( ISS assembly flight 2J/A) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). It was the twenty-third flight of . The primary purpose of the STS-127 mission was to deliver and install the final two components of t ...
.
''Cupola''
The ''Cupola'' is an
ESA
, owners =
, headquarters = Paris, Île-de-France, France
, coordinates =
, spaceport = Guiana Space Centre
, seal = File:ESA emblem seal.png
, seal_size = 130px
, image = Views in the Main Control Room (1205 ...
-built observatory module of the ISS. Its name derives from the Italian word ', which means "
dome
A dome () is an architectural element similar to the hollow upper half of a sphere. There is significant overlap with the term cupola, which may also refer to a dome or a structure on top of a dome. The precise definition of a dome has been a m ...
". Its seven windows are used to conduct experiments, dockings and observations of Earth. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle mission STS-130 on 8 February 2010 and attached to the ''Tranquility'' (Node 3) module. With the ''Cupola'' attached, ISS assembly reached 85 percent completion. The ''Cupola'' central window has a diameter of .
''Rassvet''
''
Rassvet'' (russian: Рассвет; lit. "dawn"), also known as the Mini-Research Module 1 (MRM-1) (russian: Малый исследовательский модуль, ) and formerly known as the Docking Cargo Module (DCM), is a component of the International Space Station (ISS). The module's design is similar to the
''Mir'' Docking Module launched on
STS-74
STS-74 was the fourth mission of the US/Russian Shuttle-Mir Program, and the second docking of the Space Shuttle with '' Mir''. Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' lifted off from Kennedy Space Center launch pad 39A on 12 November 1995. The mission end ...
in 1995. ''Rassvet'' is primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft. It was flown to the ISS aboard Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on the
STS-132
STS-132 ( ISS assembly flight ULF4) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, during which Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' docked with the International Space Station on 16 May 2010. STS-132 was launched from the Kennedy Space Center on 14 May 2010. The prima ...
mission on 14 May 2010, and was connected to the ISS on 18 May 2010.
The hatch connecting ''Rassvet'' with the ISS was first opened on 20 May 2010. On 28 June 2010, the
Soyuz TMA-19 spacecraft performed the first docking with the module.
MLM outfittings
![MRM1 Rassvet](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/MRM1_Rassvet.png)
In May 2010, equipment for ''Nauka'' was launched on STS-132 (as part of an agreement with NASA) and delivered by Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Weighing 1.4 metric tons, the equipment was attached to the outside of ''Rassvet'' (MRM-1). It included a spare elbow joint for the European Robotic Arm (ERA) (which was launched with ''Nauka'') and an ERA-portable workpost used during EVAs, as well as RTOd heat radiator, internal hardware and an experiment airlock for launching
CubeSat
A CubeSat is a class of miniaturized satellite based around a form factor consisting of cubes. CubeSats have a mass of no more than per unit, and often use commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components for their electronics and structure. CubeSats ...
s to be positioned on the modified passive forward port near the nadir end of the ''Nauka'' module.
![AS-G Active](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/AS-G_Active.jpg)
The RTOd radiator will be used to add additional cooling capability to ''Nauka'', which will enable the module to host more scientific experiments. The airlock will be used only to pass experiments inside and outside the module, with the aid of ERAvery similar to the Japanese airlock and
Nanoracks Bishop Airlock
The Nanoracks Bishop Airlock is a commercially-funded airlock module launched to the International Space Station on SpaceX CRS-21 on 6 December 2020. It was berthed to the ''Tranquility'' module on 19 December 2020 by the Canadarm2. The modul ...
on the U.S. segment of the station.
The ERA will be used to remove the RTOd radiator and airlock from ''Rassvet'' and transfer them over to ''Nauka''. This process is expected to take several months. A portable work platform will also be transferred over, which can attach to the end of the ERA to allow cosmonauts to "ride" on the end of the arm during spacewalks.
Another MLM outfitting is a 4 segment external payload interface called means of attachment of large payloads (Sredstva Krepleniya Krupnogabaritnykh Obyektov, SKKO). Delivered in two parts to Nauka by
Progress MS-18 (LCCS part) and
Progress MS-21
Progress MS-21 (), Russian production No.451, identified by NASA as Progress 82P, is a Progress spaceflight launched by Roscosmos to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). It is the 174th flight of a Progress spacecraft.
History
The ...
(SCCCS part) as part of the module activation outfitting process. It was taken outside and installed on the ERA aft facing base point on Nauka during the VKD-55 spacewalk.
''Leonardo''
The ''Leonardo'' Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM) is a module of the International Space Station. It was flown into space aboard the Space Shuttle on
STS-133
STS-133 ( ISS assembly flight ULF5) was the 133rd mission in NASA's Space Shuttle program; during the mission, Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' docked with the International Space Station. It was ''Discoverys 39th and final mission. The mission l ...
on 24 February 2011 and installed on 1 March. ''Leonardo'' is primarily used for storage of spares, supplies and waste on the ISS, which was until then stored in many different places within the space station. It is also the personal hygiene area for the astronauts who live in the
US Orbital Segment
The US Orbital Segment (USOS) is the name given to the components of the International Space Station (ISS) constructed and operated by the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), European Space Agency (ESA), Canadi ...
. The ''Leonardo'' PMM was a
Multi-Purpose Logistics Module
A Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) is a large pressurized container that was used on Space Shuttle missions to transfer cargo to and from the International Space Station (ISS). Two MPLMs made a dozen trips in the Shuttle cargo bay and init ...
(MPLM) before 2011, but was modified into its current configuration. It was formerly one of two MPLM used for bringing cargo to and from the ISS with the Space Shuttle. The module was named for Italian polymath
Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 14522 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, Drawing, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially res ...
.
Bigelow Expandable Activity Module
![BEAM module expansion series](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/BEAM_module_expansion_series.jpg)
The
Bigelow Expandable Activity Module
The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) is an experimental expandable space station module developed by Bigelow Aerospace, under contract to NASA, for testing as a temporary module on the International Space Station (ISS) from 2016 to a ...
(BEAM) is an experimental
expandable space station module developed by
Bigelow Aerospace
Bigelow Aerospace is an American aeronautics and outer space technology company which manufactures and develops expandable space station modules. Bigelow Aerospace was founded by Robert Bigelow in 1998, and is based in North Las Vegas, Nevada. ...
, under contract to NASA, for testing as a temporary module on the International Space Station (ISS) from 2016 to at least 2020. It arrived at the ISS on 10 April 2016,
was berthed to the station on 16 April at Tranquility Node 3, and was expanded and pressurized on 28 May 2016.
International Docking Adapters
The
International Docking Adapter
The International Docking Adapter (IDA) is a spacecraft docking system adapter developed to convert APAS-95 to the NASA Docking System (NDS). An IDA is placed on each of the International Space Station's (ISS) two open Pressurized Mating Adapte ...
(IDA) is a
spacecraft docking system adapter developed to convert
APAS-95
The terms Androgynous Peripheral Attach System (APAS), Androgynous Peripheral Assembly System (APAS) and Androgynous Peripheral Docking System (APDS), are used interchangeably to describe a family of spacecraft docking mechanisms, and are also so ...
to the
NASA Docking System
The NASA Docking System (NDS) is a Docking and berthing of spacecraft, spacecraft docking and berthing mechanism used on the International Space Station (ISS), the Orion spacecraft, and the Boeing Starliner, Starliner. The NDS is NASA's implement ...
(NDS). An IDA is placed on each of the ISS's two open
Pressurized Mating Adapters
The Pressurized Mating Adapter (PMA) is a class of spacecraft adapters that convert the Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM) used on the US Orbital Segment to APAS-95 docking ports. There are three PMAs located on the International Space Station (I ...
(PMAs), both of which are connected to the ''Harmony'' module.
Two International Docking Adapters are currently installed aboard the Station. Originally,
IDA-1 was planned to be installed on PMA-2, located at ''Harmony''
's forward port, and
IDA-2 would be installed on PMA-3 at ''Harmony''
's zenith. After IDA 1 was destroyed in
a launch incident,
IDA-2 was installed on PMA-2 on 19 August 2016, while
IDA-3 was later installed on PMA-3 on 21 August 2019.
Bishop Airlock Module
The NanoRacks Bishop Airlock Module is a
commercially
Commerce is the large-scale organized system of activities, functions, procedures and institutions directly and indirectly related to the exchange (buying and selling) of goods and services among two or more parties within local, regional, nation ...
funded
airlock
An airlock, air-lock or air lock, often abbreviated to just lock, is a compartment with doors which can be sealed against pressure which permits the passage of people and objects between environments of differing pressure or atmospheric compo ...
module launched to the ISS on
SpaceX CRS-21
SpaceX CRS-21, also known as SpX-21, was a Commercial Resupply Service mission to the International Space Station which launched on 6 December 2020. The mission was contracted by NASA and was flown by SpaceX using a Cargo Dragon 2. This was t ...
on 6 December 2020.
The module was built by
NanoRacks
Nanoracks LLC is a private in-space services companywhich builds space hardware and in-space repurposing tools.The company also facilitates experiments and launches of CubeSats to Low Earth Orbit.
Nanoracks's main office is in Houston, Tex ...
,
Thales Alenia Space
Thales Alenia Space () is a Franco-Italian aerospace manufacturer. A joint venture between the French technology corporation Thales Group (67%) and Italian defense conglomerate Leonardo (33%), the company is the largest satellite manufactur ...
, and Boeing.
It will be used to deploy
CubeSat
A CubeSat is a class of miniaturized satellite based around a form factor consisting of cubes. CubeSats have a mass of no more than per unit, and often use commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components for their electronics and structure. CubeSats ...
s,
small satellite
A small satellite, miniaturized satellite, or smallsat is a satellite of low mass and size, usually under . While all such satellites can be referred to as "small", different classifications are used to categorize them based on mass. Satellites ca ...
s, and other external payloads for NASA,
CASIS
The Center for the Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS), a non-profit organization, is the manager of the International Space Station United States National Laboratory, a US government-funded laboratory with principal research facilities located ...
, and other commercial and governmental customers.
''Nauka''
''Nauka'' (russian: Наука, links=no, 3=Science), also known as the Multipurpose Laboratory Module-Upgrade (MLM-U), (Russian: ''Многоцелевой лабораторный модуль'', усоверше́нствованный, or ''МЛМ-У)'', is a Roscosmos-funded component of the ISS that was launched on 21 July 2021, 14:58 UTC. In the original ISS plans, ''Nauka'' was to use the location of the
Docking and Stowage Module (DSM), but the DSM was later replaced by the ''Rassvet'' module and moved to ''Zarya''s nadir port. ''Nauka'' was successfully docked to ''Zvezda''s nadir port on 29 July 2021, 13:29 UTC, replacing the ''Pirs'' module.
![1637984492234 Progress MS 17 undocking and Nauka nadir temporary docking adapter Removal 02](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/1637984492234_Progress_MS_17_undocking_and_Nauka_nadir_temporary_docking_adapter_Removal_02.jpg)
It had a temporary docking adapter on its nadir port for crewed and uncrewed missions until Prichal arrival, where just before its arrival it was removed by a departuring Progress spacecraft.
''Prichal''
''Prichal'', also known as ''Uzlovoy'' Module or UM (russian: Узловой Модуль Причал, links=no, 3=Nodal Module Berth), is a
ball-shaped module that will provide the Russian segment additional docking ports to receive Soyuz MS and Progress MS spacecraft. UM was launched in November 2021.
It was integrated with a special version of the Progress cargo spacecraft and launched by a standard Soyuz rocket, docking to the nadir port of the ''Nauka'' module. One port is equipped with an active hybrid docking port, which enables docking with the MLM module. The remaining five ports are passive hybrids, enabling docking of Soyuz and Progress vehicles, as well as heavier modules and future spacecraft with modified docking systems. The node module was intended to serve as the only permanent element of the cancelled
Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex
The Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex (russian: Орбитальный Пилотируемый Сборочно-Экспериментальный Комплекс, ''Orbital'nyj Pilotirujemyj Sborochno-Eksperimental'nyj Kompl ...
(OPSEK).
Unpressurised elements
![Truss breakdown](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Truss_breakdown.png)
The ISS has a large number of external components that do not require pressurisation. The largest of these is the
Integrated Truss Structure
The Integrated Truss Structure (ITS) of the International Space Station (ISS) consists of a linear arranged sequence of connected trusses on which various unpressurized components are mounted such as logistics carriers, radiators, solar arrays, ...
(ITS), to which the station's main
solar arrays
A photovoltaic system, also PV system or solar power system, is an electric power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and c ...
and
thermal radiators are mounted.
The ITS consists of ten separate segments forming a structure long.
The station was intended to have several smaller external components, such as six robotic arms, three
External Stowage Platform
External stowage platforms (ESPs) are key components of the International Space Station (ISS). Each platform is made from steel and serves as an external pallet that can hold spare parts, also known as orbital replacement units (ORUs), for the spa ...
s (ESPs) and four
ExPRESS Logistics Carrier
An EXpedite the PRocessing of Experiments to Space Station (ExPRESS) Logistics Carrier (ELC) is an unpressurized attached payload platform for the International Space Station (ISS) that provides mechanical mounting surfaces, electrical power, and ...
s (ELCs).
While these platforms allow experiments (including
MISSE
The Materials International Space Station Experiment (MISSE) is a series of experiments mounted externally on the International Space Station (ISS) that investigates the effects of long-term exposure of materials to the harsh space environment.
T ...
, the STP-H3 and the
Robotic Refueling Mission
The Robotic Refueling Mission (RRM) is a NASA technology demonstration mission with equipment launches in both 2011 and 2013 to increase the technological maturity of outer space, in-space rocket propellant propellant transfer, transfer technology ...
) to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space by providing electricity and processing experimental data locally, their primary function is to store spare
Orbital Replacement Unit
Orbital replacement units (or on-orbit replaceable unit) (ORUs) are key elements of the International Space Station that can be readily replaced when the unit either passes its design life or fails. ORUs are parts of the main systems and subsystems ...
s (ORUs). ORUs are parts that can be replaced when they fail or pass their design life, including pumps, storage tanks, antennas, and battery units. Such units are replaced either by astronauts during EVA or by robotic arms. Several shuttle missions were dedicated to the delivery of ORUs, including
STS-129
STS-129 (ISS assembly sequence, ISS assembly flight ULF3) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). ''Space Shuttle Atlantis, Atlantis'' was launched on November 16, 2009 at 14:28 Eastern Time Zone, EST, and land ...
,
STS-133 and STS-134. , only one other mode of transportation of ORUs had been utilisedthe Japanese cargo vessel
HTV-2which delivered an FHRC and CTC-2 via its Exposed Pallet (EP).
![STS-116 spacewalk 1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/STS-116_spacewalk_1.jpg)
There are also smaller exposure facilities mounted directly to laboratory modules; the ''Kibō''
Exposed Facility serves as an external "
porch
A porch (from Old French ''porche'', from Latin ''porticus'' "colonnade", from ''porta'' "passage") is a room or gallery located in front of an entrance of a building. A porch is placed in front of the facade of a building it commands, and form ...
" for the ''Kibō'' complex, and a facility on the European ''Columbus'' laboratory provides power and data connections for experiments such as the
European Technology Exposure Facility
The European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF) was a payload mounted on the exterior of the European ''Columbus'' laboratory, one of the modules of the International Space Station. The facility, mounted onto the exterior of ''Columbus'', provid ...
and the
Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space
''Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space'' (ACES) is a project led by the European Space Agency which will place ultra-stable atomic clocks on the International Space Station. Operation in the microgravity environment of the ISS will provide a stable and ...
. A
remote sensing
Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast to in situ or on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring information about Earth ...
instrument,
SAGE III-ISS, was delivered to the station in February 2017 aboard
CRS-10
SpaceX CRS-10, also known as SpX-10, was a Dragon Commercial Resupply Service mission to the International Space Station (ISS) which launched on 19 February 2017. The mission was contracted by NASA as part of its Commercial Resupply Services pr ...
,
and the
NICER
The Neutron Star Interior Composition ExploreR (NICER) is a NASA telescope on the International Space Station, designed and dedicated to the study of the extraordinary gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear physics environments embodied by ...
experiment was delivered aboard
CRS-11 in June 2017.
The largest scientific payload externally mounted to the ISS is the
Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer
The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS-02) is a particle physics experiment module that is mounted on the International Space Station (ISS).Kristine Rainey (April 2, 2013)Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS): How It Works NASA. Retrieved June 2, 20 ...
(AMS), a particle physics experiment launched on STS-134 in May 2011, and mounted externally on the ITS. The AMS measures cosmic rays to look for evidence of dark matter and antimatter.
The commercial ''
Bartolomeo'' External Payload Hosting Platform, manufactured by Airbus, was launched on 6 March 2020 aboard
CRS-20 and attached to the European ''Columbus'' module. It will provide an additional 12 external payload slots, supplementing the eight on the
ExPRESS Logistics Carrier
An EXpedite the PRocessing of Experiments to Space Station (ExPRESS) Logistics Carrier (ELC) is an unpressurized attached payload platform for the International Space Station (ISS) that provides mechanical mounting surfaces, electrical power, and ...
s, ten on ''Kibō'', and four on ''Columbus''. The system is designed to be robotically serviced and will require no astronaut intervention. It is named after Christopher Columbus's younger brother.
Robotic arms and cargo cranes
The Integrated Truss Structure serves as a base for the station's primary remote manipulator system, the
Mobile Servicing System
The Mobile Servicing System (MSS), is a robotic system on board the International Space Station (ISS). Launched to the ISS in 2001, it plays a key role in station assembly and maintenance; it moves equipment and supplies around the station, supp ...
(MSS), which is composed of three main components:
*
Canadarm2
The Mobile Servicing System (MSS), is a robotic system on board the International Space Station (ISS). Launched to the ISS in 2001, it plays a key role in station assembly and maintenance; it moves equipment and supplies around the station, supp ...
, the largest robotic arm on the ISS, has a mass of and is used to: dock and manipulate spacecraft and modules on the USOS; hold crew members and equipment in place during EVAs; and move Dextre around to perform tasks.
*
Dextre
Dextre, also known as the Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator (SPDM), is a two armed robot, or telemanipulator, which is part of the Mobile Servicing System on the International Space Station (ISS), and does repairs that would otherwise r ...
is a robotic manipulator that has two arms and a rotating torso, with power tools, lights, and video for replacing
orbital replacement unit
Orbital replacement units (or on-orbit replaceable unit) (ORUs) are key elements of the International Space Station that can be readily replaced when the unit either passes its design life or fails. ORUs are parts of the main systems and subsystems ...
s (ORUs) and performing other tasks requiring fine control.
* The
Mobile Base System
The Mobile Servicing System (MSS), is a robotic system on board the International Space Station (ISS). Launched to the ISS in 2001, it plays a key role in station assembly and maintenance; it moves equipment and supplies around the station, supp ...
(MBS) is a platform that rides on rails along the length of the station's main truss, which serves as a mobile base for Canadarm2 and Dextre, allowing the robotic arms to reach all parts of the USOS.
A
grapple fixture
Grapple fixtures are used on spacecraft or other objects to provide a secure connection for a robotic arm.
North America
The fixtures allowed the Space Shuttle's Canadarm (also known as the Shuttle Remote Manipulator System, or SRMS) to safely g ...
was added to ''Zarya'' on STS-134 to enable Canadarm2 to inchworm itself onto the Russian Orbital Segment.
Also installed during STS-134 was the
Orbiter Boom Sensor System
The Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS) was a 50-foot (15.24 m) boom carried on board NASA's Space Shuttles. The boom was grappled by the Canadarm and served as an extension of the arm, doubling its length to a combined total of 100 feet (30 m). At ...
(OBSS), which had been used to inspect heat shield tiles on Space Shuttle missions and which can be used on the station to increase the reach of the MSS.
Staff on Earth or the ISS can operate the MSS components using remote control, performing work outside the station without the need for space walks.
Japan's
Remote Manipulator System
Canadarm or Canadarm1 (officially Shuttle Remote Manipulator System or SRMS, also SSRMS) is a series of robotic arms that were used on the Space Shuttle orbiters to deploy, manoeuvre, and capture payloads. After the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' ...
, which services the ''Kibō'' Exposed Facility, was launched on
STS-124
STS-124 was a Space Shuttle mission, flown by Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' to the International Space Station. ''Discovery'' launched on 31 May 2008 at 17:02 EDT, moved from an earlier scheduled launch date of 25 May 2008, and landed safely at t ...
and is attached to the ''Kibō'' Pressurised Module. The arm is similar to the Space Shuttle arm as it is permanently attached at one end and has a latching end effector for standard grapple fixtures at the other.
The
European Robotic Arm
The European Robotic Arm (ERA) is a robotic arm that is attached
the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) of the International Space Station. Launched to the ISS in July 2021; it is the first robotic arm that is able to work on the Russian Segment of ...
, which will service the Russian Orbital Segment, was launched alongside the
''Nauka'' module. The ROS does not require spacecraft or modules to be manipulated, as all spacecraft and modules dock automatically and may be discarded the same way. Crew use the two ''Strela (crane), Strela'' (russian: Стрела́, , Arrow) cargo cranes during EVAs for moving crew and equipment around the ROS. Each Strela crane has a mass of .
Former module
''Pirs''
Pirs (Russian: Пирс, lit. 'Pier') was launched on 14 September 2001, as ISS Assembly Mission 4R, on a Russian Soyuz-U rocket, using a modified
Progress spacecraft
The Progress (russian: Прогресс) is a Russian expendable cargo spacecraft. Its purpose is to deliver the supplies needed to sustain a human presence in orbit. While it does not carry a crew, it can be boarded by astronauts when docked t ...
, Progress M-SO1, as an upper stage. Pirs was undocked by Progress MS-16 on 26 July 2021, 10:56 UTC, and deorbited on the same day at 14:51 UTC to make room for
''Nauka'' module to be attached to the space station. Prior to its departure, Pirs served as the primary Russian airlock on the station, being used to store and refurbish the Russian Orlan spacesuits.
Planned components
Axiom segment
In January 2020, NASA awarded Axiom Space a contract to build a commercial module for the ISS with a launch date of 2024. The contract is under the Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships, NextSTEP2 program. NASA negotiated with Axiom on a firm fixed-price contract basis to build and deliver the module, which will attach to the forward port of the space station's ''Harmony (Node 2)'' module. Although NASA has only commissioned one module, Axiom plans to build an entire segment consisting of five modules, including a node module, an orbital research and manufacturing facility, a crew habitat, and a "large-windowed Earth observatory". The Axiom segment is expected to greatly increase the capabilities and value of the space station, allowing for larger crews and private spaceflight by other organisations. Axiom plans to convert the segment into a stand-alone space station once the ISS is decommissioned, with the intention that this would act as a successor to the ISS. Canadarm 2 will also help to berth the Axiom Orbital Segment, Axiom Space Station modules to the ISS and will continue its operations on the Axiom Space Station after the retirement of ISS in late 2020s.
Proposed components
Xbase
Made by
Bigelow Aerospace
Bigelow Aerospace is an American aeronautics and outer space technology company which manufactures and develops expandable space station modules. Bigelow Aerospace was founded by Robert Bigelow in 1998, and is based in North Las Vegas, Nevada. ...
. In August 2016 Bigelow negotiated an agreement with NASA to develop a full-sized ground prototype Deep Space Habitation based on the B330 under the second phase of Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships. The module is called the Expandable Bigelow Advanced Station Enhancement (XBASE), as Bigelow hopes to test the module by attaching it to the International Space Station.
Independence-1
Nanoracks, after finalizing its contract with NASA, and after winning NextSTEPs Phase II award, is now developing its concept Independence-1 (previously known as Ixion), which would turn spent rocket tanks into a habitable living area to be tested in space. In Spring 2018, Nanoracks announced that Ixion is now known as the Independence-1, the first 'outpost' in Nanoracks' Space Outpost Program.
Nautilus-X Centrifuge Demonstration
If produced, this centrifuge will be the first in-space demonstration of sufficient scale centrifuge for artificial partial-g effects. It will be designed to become a sleep module for the ISS crew.
Cancelled components
![ISS Habitation module](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/ISS_Habitation_module.jpg)
Several modules planned for the station were cancelled over the course of the ISS programme. Reasons include budgetary constraints, the modules becoming unnecessary, and station redesigns after the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, ''Columbia'' disaster. The US Centrifuge Accommodations Module would have hosted science experiments in varying levels of artificial gravity. The US Habitation Module would have served as the station's living quarters. Instead, the living quarters are now spread throughout the station. The US Interim Control Module and ISS Propulsion Module would have replaced the functions of ''Zvezda'' in case of a launch failure. Two Russian Research Modules were planned for scientific research. They would have docked to a Russian Universal Docking Module. The Russian Science Power Platform would have supplied power to the Russian Orbital Segment independent of the ITS solar arrays.
Science Power Modules 1 and 2 (Repurposed Components)
Science Power Module 1 (SPM-1, also known as NEM-1) and Science Power Module 2 (SPM-2, also known as NEM-2) are modules that were originally planned to arrive at the ISS no earlier than 2024, and dock to the ''Prichal'' module, which is currently docked to the ''Nauka'' module.
In April 2021, Roscosmos announced that NEM-1 would be repurposed to function as the core module of the proposed Russian Orbital Service Station (ROSS), launching no earlier than 2025 and docking to the free-flying ''Nauka'' module either before or after the ISS has been deorbited. NEM-2 may be converted into another core "base" module, which would be launched in 2028.
Onboard systems
Life support
The critical systems are the atmosphere control system, the water supply system, the food supply facilities, the sanitation and hygiene equipment, and fire detection and suppression equipment. The Russian Orbital Segment's life support systems are contained in the ''Zvezda'' service module. Some of these systems are supplemented by equipment in the USOS. The ''Nauka'' laboratory has a complete set of life support systems.
Atmospheric control systems
![SpaceStationCycle](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/SpaceStationCycle.svg)
The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to Atmosphere of Earth, that of Earth. Normal air pressure on the ISS is ; the same as at sea level on Earth. An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1 crew.
Earth-like atmospheric conditions have been maintained on all Russian and Soviet spacecraft.
The ''Elektron (ISS), Elektron'' system aboard ''Zvezda'' and a similar system in ''Destiny'' generate oxygen aboard the station.
The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Vika oxygen generator, Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters, a chemical oxygen generator system.
Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the ISS ECLSS#Vozdukh, Vozdukh system in ''Zvezda''. Other by-products of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, are removed by Activated carbon, activated charcoal filters.
Part of the ROS atmosphere control system is the oxygen supply. Triple-redundancy is provided by the Elektron unit, solid fuel generators, and stored oxygen. The primary supply of oxygen is the Elektron unit which produces and by electrolysis of water and vents overboard. The system uses approximately one litre of water per crew member per day. This water is either brought from Earth or recycled from other systems. ''Mir'' was the first spacecraft to use recycled water for oxygen production. The secondary oxygen supply is provided by burning oxygen-producing Vika oxygen generator, Vika cartridges (see also ISS ECLSS). Each 'candle' takes 5–20 minutes to decompose at , producing of . This unit is manually operated.
The US Orbital Segment has redundant supplies of oxygen, from a pressurised storage tank on the ''Quest'' airlock module delivered in 2001, supplemented ten years later by ESA-built Advanced Closed-Loop System (ACLS) in the ''Tranquility'' module (Node 3), which produces by electrolysis. Hydrogen produced is combined with carbon dioxide from the cabin atmosphere and converted to water and methane.
Power and thermal control
Double-sided solar panel, solar arrays provide Electric power, electrical power to the ISS. These bifacial cells collect direct sunlight on one side and light Albedo, reflected off from the Earth on the other, and are more efficient and operate at a lower temperature than single-sided cells commonly used on Earth.
The Russian segment of the station, like most spacecraft, uses 28 volt, V Extra-low voltage, low voltage direct current, DC from two rotating solar arrays mounted on ''Zvezda''. The USOS uses 130–180 V DC from the USOS PV array, power is stabilised and distributed at 160 V DC and converted to the user-required 124 V DC. The High voltage, higher distribution voltage allows smaller, lighter conductors, at the expense of crew safety. The two station segments share power with converters.
The USOS solar arrays are arranged as four wing pairs, for a total production of 75 to 90 kilowatts. These arrays normally track the Sun to maximise power generation. Each array is about in area and long. In the complete configuration, the solar arrays track the Sun by rotating the ''alpha gimbal'' once per orbit; the ''beta gimbal'' follows slower changes in the angle of the Sun to the orbital plane. The Night Glider mode aligns the solar arrays parallel to the ground at night to reduce the significant aerodynamic drag at the station's relatively low orbital altitude.
The station originally used rechargeable nickel–hydrogen battery, nickel–hydrogen batteries () for continuous power during the 45 minutes of every 90-minute orbit that it is eclipsed by the Earth. The batteries are recharged on the day side of the orbit. They had a 6.5-year lifetime (over 37,000 charge/discharge cycles) and were regularly replaced over the anticipated 20-year life of the station. Starting in 2016, the nickel–hydrogen batteries were replaced by lithium-ion battery, lithium-ion batteries, which are expected to last until the end of the ISS program.
The station's large solar panels generate a high potential voltage difference between the station and the ionosphere. This could cause arcing through insulating surfaces and sputtering of conductive surfaces as ions are accelerated by the spacecraft plasma sheath. To mitigate this, plasma contactor units create current paths between the station and the ambient space plasma.
![EATCS](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/EATCS.png)
The station's systems and experiments consume a large amount of electrical power, almost all of which is converted to heat. To keep the internal temperature within workable limits, a passive thermal control system (PTCS) is made of external surface materials, insulation such as MLI, and heat pipes. If the PTCS cannot keep up with the heat load, an External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) maintains the temperature. The EATCS consists of an internal, non-toxic, water coolant loop used to cool and dehumidify the atmosphere, which transfers collected heat into an external liquid ammonia loop. From the heat exchangers, ammonia is pumped into external radiators that emit heat as infrared radiation, then back to the station. The EATCS provides cooling for all the US pressurised modules, including ''Kibō'' and ''Columbus'', as well as the main power distribution electronics of the S0, S1 and P1 trusses. It can reject up to 70 kW. This is much more than the 14 kW of the Early External Active Thermal Control System (EEATCS) via the Early Ammonia Servicer (EAS), which was launched on STS-105 and installed onto the P6 Truss.
Communications and computers
![ISS Communication Systems](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/ISS_Communication_Systems.png)
Radio communications provide telemetry and scientific data links between the station and mission control center, mission control centres. Radio links are also used during Space rendezvous, rendezvous and docking procedures and for audio and video communication between crew members, flight controllers and family members. As a result, the ISS is equipped with internal and external communication systems used for different purposes.
The Russian Orbital Segment communicates directly with the ground via the ''Lira (ISS), Lira'' Antenna (radio), antenna mounted to ''Zvezda''.
The ''Lira'' antenna also has the capability to use the ''Luch (satellite), Luch'' data relay satellite system.
This system fell into disrepair during the 1990s, and so was not used during the early years of the ISS,
although two new ''Luch'' satellites''Luch''-5A and ''Luch''-5Bwere launched in 2011 and 2012 respectively to restore the operational capability of the system. Another Russian communications system is the Voskhod-M, which enables internal telephone communications between ''Zvezda'', ''Zarya'', ''Pirs'', ''Poisk'', and the USOS and provides a VHF radio link to ground control centres via antennas on ''Zvezda'' exterior.
The
US Orbital Segment
The US Orbital Segment (USOS) is the name given to the components of the International Space Station (ISS) constructed and operated by the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), European Space Agency (ESA), Canadi ...
(USOS) makes use of two separate radio links: S band (audio, telemetry, commanding – located on the P1/S1 truss) and Ku band, K
u band (audio, video and data – located on the Z1 truss) systems. These transmissions are routed via the United States Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) in geostationary orbit, allowing for almost continuous real-time communications with Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center (MCC-H) in Houston.
Data channels for the Canadarm2, European ''Columbus'' laboratory and Japanese ''Kibō'' modules were originally also routed via the S band and K
u band systems, with the European Data Relay System and a similar Japanese system intended to eventually complement the TDRSS in this role.
Communications between modules are carried on an internal wireless network.
Ultra high frequency, UHF radio is used by astronauts and cosmonauts conducting EVAs and other spacecraft that dock to or undock from the station.
Automated spacecraft are fitted with their own communications equipment; the ATV uses a laser attached to the spacecraft and the Proximity Communications Equipment attached to ''Zvezda'' to accurately dock with the station.
The ISS is equipped with about 100 ThinkPad#Use in space, IBM/Lenovo ThinkPad and HP ZBook, HP ZBook 15 laptop computers. The laptops have run Windows 95, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows 7, Windows 10 and Linux operating systems. Each computer is a commercial off-the-shelf purchase which is then modified for safety and operation including updates to connectors, cooling and power to accommodate the station's 28V DC power system and weightless environment. Heat generated by the laptops does not rise but stagnates around the laptop, so additional forced ventilation is required. Portable Computer System (PCS) laptops connect to the Primary Command & Control computer (C&C MDM) as remote terminals via a USB to MIL-STD-1553, 1553 adapter. Station Support Computer (SSC) laptops aboard the ISS are connected to the station's wireless LAN via Wi-Fi and ethernet, which connects to the ground via K
u band. While originally this provided speeds of 10 Megabit per second, Mbit/s download and 3 Mbit/s upload from the station,
NASA upgraded the system in late August 2019 and increased the speeds to 600 Mbit/s. Laptop hard drives occasionally fail and must be replaced. Other computer hardware failures include instances in 2001, 2007 and 2017; some of these failures have required EVAs to replace computer modules in externally mounted devices.
The operating system used for key station functions is the Debian Linux distribution. The migration from Microsoft Windows to Linux was made in May 2013 for reasons of reliability, stability and flexibility.
In 2017, an SG100 Cloud Computer was launched to the ISS as part of OA-7 mission.
It was manufactured by NCSIST of Taiwan and designed in collaboration with Academia Sinica, and National Central University under contract for NASA.
ISS crew members have access to the Internet, and thus World Wide Web, the web.
This was first enabled in 2010,
allowing NASA astronaut T.J. Creamer to make the first Twitter, tweet from space. Access is achieved via an Internet-enabled computer in Houston, using Remote desktop software, remote desktop mode, thereby protecting the ISS from virus infection and hacking attempts.
Operations
Expeditions
Each permanent crew is given an expedition number. Expeditions run up to six months, from launch until undocking, an 'increment' covers the same time period, but includes cargo spacecraft and all activities. Expeditions 1 to 6 consisted of three-person crews. Expeditions 7 to 12 were reduced to the safe minimum of two following the destruction of the NASA Shuttle ''Columbia''. From Expedition 13 the crew gradually increased to six around 2010.
With the arrival of crew on US Development of the Commercial Crew Program, commercial vehicles beginning in 2020, NASA has indicated that expedition size may be increased to seven crew members, the number ISS was originally designed for.
Gennady Padalka, member of Expeditions Expedition 9, 9, Expedition 19, 19/Expedition 20, 20, Expedition 31, 31/Expedition 32, 32, and Expedition 43, 43/Expedition 44, 44, and Commander of Expedition 11, has spent more time in space than anyone else, a total of 878 days, 11 hours, and 29 minutes. Peggy Whitson has spent the most time in space of any American, totalling 665 days, 22 hours, and 22 minutes during her time on Expeditions Expedition 5, 5, Expedition 16, 16, and Expedition 50, 50/Expedition 51, 51/Expedition 52, 52.
Private flights
Travellers who pay for their own passage into space are termed spaceflight participants by Roscosmos and NASA, and are sometimes referred to as "space tourists", a term they generally dislike. , seven space tourists have visited the ISS; all seven were transported to the ISS on Russian Soyuz spacecraft. When professional crews change over in numbers not divisible by the three seats in a Soyuz, and a short-stay crewmember is not sent, the spare seat is sold by MirCorp through Space Adventures. Space tourism was halted in 2011 when the Space Shuttle was retired and the station's crew size was reduced to six, as the partners relied on Russian transport seats for access to the station. Soyuz flight schedules increased after 2013, allowing five Soyuz flights (15 seats) with only two expeditions (12 seats) required. The remaining seats were to be sold for around US$40 million to members of the public who could pass a medical exam. ESA and NASA criticised private spaceflight at the beginning of the ISS, and NASA initially resisted training Dennis Tito, the first person to pay for his own passage to the ISS.
Anousheh Ansari became the first self-funded woman to fly to the ISS as well as the first Iranian in space. Officials reported that her education and experience made her much more than a tourist, and her performance in training had been "excellent." She did Russian and European studies involving medicine and microbiology during her 10-day stay. The 2009 documentary ''Space Tourists'' follows her journey to the station, where she fulfilled "an age-old dream of man: to leave our planet as a 'normal person' and travel into outer space."
In 2008, spaceflight participant Richard Garriott placed a geocache aboard the ISS during his flight. This is currently the only non-terrestrial geocache in existence. At the same time, the Immortality Drive, an electronic record of eight digitised human DNA sequences, was placed aboard the ISS.
Fleet operations
![Commercial Crew Program vehicles](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Commercial_Crew_Program_vehicles.jpg)
A wide variety of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft have supported the station's activities. Flights to the ISS include 37 Space Shuttle missions, 83 Progress resupply spacecraft (including the modified Progress M-MIM2, M-MIM2, Progress M-SO1, M-SO1 and Progress M-UM, M-UM module transports), 63 crewed Soyuz spacecraft, 5 European Automated Transfer Vehicle, ATVs, 9 Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle, HTVs, 1 Boeing Starliner, 30 SpaceX Dragon ( both crewed and uncrewed) and 18
Cygnus missions.
There are currently twelve available docking ports for visiting spacecraft:
# ''
Harmony'' forward (with International Docking Adapter, ''IDA 2'')
# ''Harmony'' zenith (with International Docking Adapter, ''IDA 3'')
# ''Harmony'' nadir
# ''
Unity
Unity may refer to:
Buildings
* Unity Building, Oregon, Illinois, US; a historic building
* Unity Building (Chicago), Illinois, US; a skyscraper
* Unity Buildings, Liverpool, UK; two buildings in England
* Unity Chapel, Wyoming, Wisconsin, US; ...
'' nadir
# ''Prichal (ISS module), Prichal'' nadir
# ''Prichal (ISS module), Prichal'' aft
# ''Prichal (ISS module), Prichal'' forward
# ''Prichal (ISS module), Prichal'' starboard
# ''Prichal (ISS module), Prichal'' port
# ''Nauka (ISS module), Nauka'' forward
[
just for Nauka (ISS module)#Installation of outfitting equipment, Nauka Experimental Airlock Module, that will be berthed to the forward port at its aft docking port by European Robotic Arm, ERA, thereby being attached permanently to it.]
# ''
Poisk Poisk may refer to:
*Poisk (computer), a Ukrainian(USSR) IBM PC XT clone (see List of Soviet computer systems)
*Poisk (ISS module)
''Poisk'' (russian: Поиск, , Search), also known as the Mini-Research Module 2 (MRM 2), , or ''МИМ 2'', ...
'' zenith
# ''
Rassvet'' nadir
# ''
Zvezda'' aft
Crewed
, 256 people from 20 countries had visited the space station, many of them multiple times. The United States sent 158 people, Russia sent 55, 11 were Japanese, nine were Canadian, five were Italian, four were French, four were German, and there were one each from Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, Great Britain, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, the Netherlands, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Israel, Sweden and the United Arab Emirates.
Uncrewed
Uncrewed spaceflights to the International Space Station, Uncrewed spaceflights to the ISS are made primarily to deliver cargo, however several Russian modules have also docked to the outpost following uncrewed launches. Resupply missions typically use the Russian
Progress
Progress is the movement towards a refined, improved, or otherwise desired state. In the context of progressivism, it refers to the proposition that advancements in technology, science, and social organization have resulted, and by extension w ...
spacecraft, former European Automated Transfer Vehicle, ATVs, Japanese Kounotori (spacecraft), Kounotori vehicles, and the American SpaceX Dragon, Dragon and
Cygnus spacecraft. The primary docking system for Progress spacecraft is the automated Kurs (docking navigation system), Kurs system, with the manual TORU system as a backup. ATVs also used Kurs, however they were not equipped with TORU. Progress and former ATV can remain docked for up to six months. The other spacecraftthe Japanese HTV, the SpaceX Dragon (under CRS phase 1), and the Northrop Grumman Cygnusrendezvous with the station before being grappled using Canadarm2 and berthed at the nadir port of the ''Harmony'' or ''Unity'' module for one to two months. Under CRS phase 2, SpaceX Dragon 2, Cargo Dragon docks autonomously at IDA-2 or IDA-3. , Progress spacecraft List of Progress missions, have flown most of the uncrewed missions to the ISS.
Currently docked/berthed
Modules/spacecraft pending relocation/installation
Scheduled missions
* All dates are UTC. Dates are the earliest possible dates and may change.
* Forward ports are at the front of the station according to its normal direction of travel and orientation (Yaw, pitch and roll#Aircraft attitudes, attitude). Aft is at the rear of the station, used by spacecraft boosting the station's orbit. Nadir is closest the Earth,
zenith
The zenith (, ) is an imaginary point directly "above" a particular location, on the celestial sphere. "Above" means in the vertical direction (plumb line) opposite to the gravity direction at that location (nadir). The zenith is the "highest" ...
is on top. port and starboard, Port is to the left if pointing one's feet towards the Earth and looking in the direction of travel; port and starboard, starboard to the right.
Docking
![Progress M-14M](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Progress_M-14M.jpg)
All Russian spacecraft and self-propelled modules are able to rendezvous and dock to the space station without human intervention using the Kurs (docking system), Kurs radar docking system from over 200 kilometres away. The European ATV uses star sensors and GPS to determine its intercept course. When it catches up it uses laser equipment to Computer vision, optically recognise ''Zvezda'', along with the Kurs system for redundancy. Crew supervise these craft, but do not intervene except to send abort commands in emergencies. Progress and ATV supply craft can remain at the ISS for six months, allowing great flexibility in crew time for loading and unloading of supplies and trash.
From the initial station programs, the Russians pursued an automated docking methodology that used the crew in override or monitoring roles. Although the initial development costs were high, the system has become very reliable with standardisations that provide significant cost benefits in repetitive operations.
Soyuz spacecraft used for crew rotation also serve as lifeboats for emergency evacuation; they are replaced every six months and were used after the ''Columbia'' disaster to return stranded crew from the ISS. The average expedition requires of supplies, and by 9 March 2011, crews had consumed a total of around .
Soyuz crew rotation flights and Progress resupply flights visit the station on average two and three times respectively each year.
Other vehicles berth instead of docking. The Japanese
H-II Transfer Vehicle parked itself in progressively closer orbits to the station, and then awaited 'approach' commands from the crew, until it was close enough for a robotic arm to grapple and berth the vehicle to the USOS. Berthed craft can transfer International Standard Payload Racks. Japanese spacecraft berth for one to two months. The berthing Cygnus and SpaceX Dragon were contracted to fly cargo to the station under phase 1 of the Commercial Resupply Services program.
From 26 February 2011 to 7 March 2011 four of the governmental partners (United States, ESA, Japan and Russia) had their spacecraft (NASA Shuttle, ATV, HTV, Progress and Soyuz) docked at the ISS, the only time this has happened to date. On 25 May 2012, SpaceX delivered the first commercial cargo with a Dragon spacecraft.
Launch and docking windows
Prior to a spacecraft's docking to the ISS, navigation and attitude control (Guidance, navigation, and control, GNC) is handed over to the ground control of the spacecraft's country of origin. GNC is set to allow the station to drift in space, rather than fire its thrusters or turn using gyroscopes. The solar panels of the station are turned edge-on to the incoming spacecraft, so residue from its thrusters does not damage the cells. Before its retirement, Shuttle launches were often given priority over Soyuz, with occasional priority given to Soyuz arrivals carrying crew and time-critical cargoes, such as biological experiment materials.
Repairs
![Astronaut Mike Hopkins on Dec](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Astronaut_Mike_Hopkins_on_Dec._24_Spacewalk.jpg)
Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs) are spare parts that can be readily replaced when a unit either passes its design life or fails. Examples of ORUs are pumps, storage tanks, controller boxes, antennas, and battery units. Some units can be replaced using robotic arms. Most are stored outside the station, either on small pallets called
ExPRESS Logistics Carrier
An EXpedite the PRocessing of Experiments to Space Station (ExPRESS) Logistics Carrier (ELC) is an unpressurized attached payload platform for the International Space Station (ISS) that provides mechanical mounting surfaces, electrical power, and ...
s (ELCs) or share larger platforms called
External Stowage Platform
External stowage platforms (ESPs) are key components of the International Space Station (ISS). Each platform is made from steel and serves as an external pallet that can hold spare parts, also known as orbital replacement units (ORUs), for the spa ...
s which also hold science experiments. Both kinds of pallets provide electricity for many parts that could be damaged by the cold of space and require heating. The larger logistics carriers also have local area network (LAN) connections for telemetry to connect experiments. A heavy emphasis on stocking the USOS with ORU's occurred around 2011, before the end of the NASA shuttle programme, as its commercial replacements, Cygnus and Dragon, carry one tenth to one quarter the payload.
Unexpected problems and failures have impacted the station's assembly time-line and work schedules leading to periods of reduced capabilities and, in some cases, could have forced abandonment of the station for safety reasons. Serious problems include an air leak from the USOS in 2004, the venting of fumes from an ''Elektron (ISS), Elektron'' oxygen generator in 2006, and the failure of the computers in the ROS in 2007 during
STS-117
STS-117 ( ISS assembly flight 13A) was a Space Shuttle mission flown by Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launched from pad 39A of the Kennedy Space Center on 8 June 2007. ''Atlantis'' lifted off from the launch pad at 19:38 EDT. Damage from a hail ...
that left the station without thruster, ''Elektron'', ''ISS ECLSS#Vozdukh, Vozdukh'' and other environmental control system operations. In the latter case, the root cause was found to be condensation inside electrical connectors leading to a short circuit.
During STS-120 in 2007 and following the relocation of the P6 truss and solar arrays, it was noted during unfurling that the solar array had torn and was not deploying properly.
An EVA was carried out by Scott E. Parazynski, Scott Parazynski, assisted by Douglas H. Wheelock, Douglas Wheelock. Extra precautions were taken to reduce the risk of electric shock, as the repairs were carried out with the solar array exposed to sunlight.
The issues with the array were followed in the same year by problems with the starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ), which rotates the arrays on the starboard side of the station. Excessive vibration and high-current spikes in the array drive motor were noted, resulting in a decision to substantially curtail motion of the starboard SARJ until the cause was understood. Inspections during EVAs on STS-120 and
STS-123
STS-123 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) which was flown by Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''. STS-123 was the 1J/A ISS assembly mission. The original launch target date was 14 February 2008 but after the delay of ...
showed extensive contamination from metallic shavings and debris in the large drive gear and confirmed damage to the large metallic bearing surfaces, so the joint was locked to prevent further damage.
Repairs to the joints were carried out during STS-126 with lubrication and the replacement of 11 out of 12 trundle bearings on the joint.
In September 2008, damage to the S1 radiator was first noticed in Soyuz imagery. The problem was initially not thought to be serious.
The imagery showed that the surface of one sub-panel has peeled back from the underlying central structure, possibly because of micro-meteoroid or debris impact. On 15 May 2009 the damaged radiator panel's ammonia tubing was mechanically shut off from the rest of the cooling system by the computer-controlled closure of a valve. The same valve was then used to vent the ammonia from the damaged panel, eliminating the possibility of an ammonia leak.
It is also known that a Service Module thruster cover struck the S1 radiator after being jettisoned during an EVA in 2008, but its effect, if any, has not been determined.
In the early hours of 1 August 2010, a failure in cooling Loop A (starboard side), one of two external cooling loops, left the station with only half of its normal cooling capacity and zero redundancy in some systems.
The problem appeared to be in the ammonia pump module that circulates the ammonia cooling fluid. Several subsystems, including two of the four CMGs, were shut down.
Planned operations on the ISS were interrupted through a series of EVAs to address the cooling system issue. A first EVA on 7 August 2010, to replace the failed pump module, was not fully completed because of an ammonia leak in one of four quick-disconnects. A second EVA on 11 August successfully removed the failed pump module. A third EVA was required to restore Loop A to normal functionality.
The USOS's cooling system is largely built by the US company Boeing, which is also the manufacturer of the failed pump.
The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS. Each MBSU has two power channels that feed 160V DC from the arrays to two DC-to-DC power converters (DDCUs) that supply the 124V power used in the station. In late 2011 MBSU-1 ceased responding to commands or sending data confirming its health. While still routing power correctly, it was scheduled to be swapped out at the next available EVA. A spare MBSU was already on board, but a 30 August 2012 EVA failed to be completed when a bolt being tightened to finish installation of the spare unit jammed before the electrical connection was secured. The loss of MBSU-1 limited the station to 75% of its normal power capacity, requiring minor limitations in normal operations until the problem could be addressed.
On 5 September 2012, in a second six-hour EVA, astronauts Sunita Williams and Akihiko Hoshide successfully replaced MBSU-1 and restored the ISS to 100% power.
On 24 December 2013, astronauts installed a new ammonia pump for the station's cooling system. The faulty cooling system had failed earlier in the month, halting many of the station's science experiments. Astronauts had to brave a "mini blizzard" of ammonia while installing the new pump. It was only the second Christmas Eve spacewalk in NASA history.
Mission control centres
The components of the ISS are operated and monitored by their respective space agencies at mission control centres across the globe, including RKA Mission Control Center, ATV Control Centre, JEM Control Center and HTV Control Center at
Tsukuba Space Center
The Tsukuba Space Center (TKSC) also known by its radio callsign Tsukuba, is the operations facility and headquarters for the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) located in Tsukuba Science City in Ibaraki Prefecture. The facility opened ...
, Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center, Payload Operations and Integration Center, Columbus Control Center and
Mobile Servicing System
The Mobile Servicing System (MSS), is a robotic system on board the International Space Station (ISS). Launched to the ISS in 2001, it plays a key role in station assembly and maintenance; it moves equipment and supplies around the station, supp ...
Control.
Life aboard
Crew activities
![S122e007776 orig](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/S122e007776_orig.jpg)
A typical day for the crew begins with a wake-up at 06:00, followed by post-sleep activities and a morning inspection of the station. The crew then eats breakfast and takes part in a daily planning conference with Mission Control before starting work at around 08:10. The first scheduled exercise of the day follows, after which the crew continues work until 13:05. Following a one-hour lunch break, the afternoon consists of more exercise and work before the crew carries out its pre-sleep activities beginning at 19:30, including dinner and a crew conference. The scheduled sleep period begins at 21:30. In general, the crew works ten hours per day on a weekday, and five hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time their own for relaxation or work catch-up.
The time zone used aboard the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The windows are covered during night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets per day. During visiting Space Shuttle missions, the ISS crew mostly followed the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which was a flexible time zone based on the launch time of the Space Shuttle mission.
The station provides crew quarters for each member of the expedition's crew, with two "sleep stations" in the ''Zvezda'', one in ''Nauka'' and four more installed in ''Harmony''. The USOS quarters are private, approximately person-sized soundproof booths. The ROS crew quarters in ''Zvezda'' include a small window, but provide less ventilation and sound proofing. A crew member can sleep in a crew quarter in a tethered sleeping bag, listen to music, use a laptop, and store personal items in a large drawer or in nets attached to the module's walls. The module also provides a reading lamp, a shelf and a desktop.
Visiting crews have no allocated sleep module, and attach a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall. It is possible to sleep floating freely through the station, but this is generally avoided because of the possibility of bumping into sensitive equipment.
It is important that crew accommodations be well ventilated; otherwise, astronauts can wake up oxygen-deprived and gasping for air, because a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide has formed around their heads.
During various station activities and crew rest times, the lights in the ISS can be dimmed, switched off, and color temperature, colour temperatures adjusted.
Food and personal hygiene
![Meal STS127](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Meal_STS127.jpg)
On the USOS, most of the food aboard is vacuum sealed in plastic bags; cans are rare because they are heavy and expensive to transport. Preserved food is not highly regarded by the crew and taste is reduced in microgravity,
so efforts are taken to make the food more palatable, including using more spices than in regular cooking. The crew looks forward to the arrival of any spacecraft from Earth as they bring fresh fruit and vegetables. Care is taken that foods do not create crumbs, and liquid condiments are preferred over solid to avoid contaminating station equipment. Each crew member has individual food packages and cooks them using the on-board galley. The galley features two food warmers, a refrigerator (added in November 2008), and a water dispenser that provides both heated and unheated water.
Drinks are provided as dehydrated powder that is mixed with water before consumption.
Drinks and soups are sipped from plastic bags with straws, while solid food is eaten with a knife and fork attached to a tray with magnets to prevent them from floating away. Any food that floats away, including crumbs, must be collected to prevent it from clogging the station's air filters and other equipment.
Showers on space stations were introduced in the early 1970s on ''Skylab'' and ''Salyut'' 3.
[Benson, Charles Dunlap and William David Compton. ]
Living and Working in Space: A History of Skylab
'. NASA publication SP-4208. By ''Salyut'' 6, in the early 1980s, the crew complained of the complexity of showering in space, which was a monthly activity.
The ISS does not feature a shower; instead, crewmembers wash using a water jet and wet wipes, with soap dispensed from a toothpaste tube-like container. Crews are also provided with rinseless shampoo and edible toothpaste to save water.
There are two space toilets on the ISS, both of Russian design, located in ''Zvezda'' and ''Tranquility''.
These Waste and Hygiene Compartments use a fan-driven suction system similar to the Space Shuttle Waste Collection System. Astronauts first fasten themselves to the toilet seat, which is equipped with spring-loaded restraining bars to ensure a good seal.
A lever operates a powerful fan and a suction hole slides open: the air stream carries the waste away. Solid waste is collected in individual bags which are stored in an aluminium container. Full containers are transferred to Progress spacecraft for disposal.
Liquid waste is evacuated by a hose connected to the front of the toilet, with anatomically correct "urine funnel adapters" attached to the tube so that men and women can use the same toilet. Urine diversion, The diverted urine is collected and transferred to the Water Recovery System, where it is recycled into drinking water.
In 2021, the arrival of the Nauka module also brought a third toilet to the ISS.
Crew health and safety
Overall
On 12 April 2019, NASA reported medical results from the ISS year long mission, Astronaut Twin Study. Astronaut Scott Kelly (astronaut), Scott Kelly spent a year in space on the ISS, while Mark Kelly, his twin spent the year on Earth. Several long-lasting changes were observed, including those related to alterations in DNA and cognition, when one twin was compared with the other.
In November 2019, researchers reported that astronauts experienced serious Hemodynamics, blood flow and Thrombus, clot problems while on board the ISS, based on a six-month study of 11 healthy astronauts. The results may influence long-term spaceflight, including a mission to the planet Mars, according to the researchers.
Radiation
The ISS is partially protected from the space environment by Earth's magnetic field. From an average distance of about from the Earth's surface, depending on Solar activity, the magnetosphere begins to deflect
solar wind
The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun, called the corona. This plasma mostly consists of electrons, protons and alpha particles with kinetic energy between . The composition of the sol ...
around Earth and the space station. Solar flares are still a hazard to the crew, who may receive only a few minutes warning. In 2005, during the initial "proton storm" of an X-3 class solar flare, the crew of Expedition 10 took shelter in a more heavily shielded part of the ROS designed for this purpose.
Subatomic charged particles, primarily protons from cosmic rays and solar wind, are normally absorbed by Earth's atmosphere. When they interact in sufficient quantity, their effect is visible to the naked eye in a phenomenon called an aurora. Outside Earth's atmosphere, ISS crews are exposed to approximately one millisievert each day (about a year's worth of natural exposure on Earth), resulting in a higher risk of cancer. Radiation can penetrate living tissue and damage the DNA and chromosomes of lymphocytes; being central to the immune system, any damage to these cells could contribute to the lower immunity (medical), immunity experienced by astronauts. Radiation has also been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in astronauts. Protective shielding and medications may lower the risks to an acceptable level.
Radiation levels on the ISS are between 12 and 28.8 milli rads per day,
about five times greater than those experienced by airline passengers and crew, as Earth's electromagnetic field provides almost the same level of protection against solar and other types of radiation in low Earth orbit as in the stratosphere. For example, on a 12-hour flight, an airline passenger would experience 0.1 millisieverts of radiation, or a rate of 0.2 millisieverts per day; this is only one fifth the rate experienced by an astronaut in LEO. Additionally, airline passengers experience this level of radiation for a few hours of flight, while the ISS crew are exposed for their whole stay on board the station.
Stress
![Nikolai Budarin in a sleep station in Zvezda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Nikolai_Budarin_in_a_sleep_station_in_Zvezda.jpg)
There is considerable evidence that psychosocial stressors are among the most important impediments to optimal crew morale and performance. Cosmonaut Valery Ryumin wrote in his journal during a particularly difficult period on board the Salyut 6, ''Salyut'' 6 space station: "All the conditions necessary for murder are met if you shut two men in a cabin measuring 18 feet by 20 [5.5 m × 6 m] and leave them together for two months."
NASA's interest in Stress (psychological), psychological stress caused by space travel, initially studied when their crewed missions began, was rekindled when astronauts joined cosmonauts on the Russian space station ''Mir''. Common sources of stress in early US missions included maintaining high performance under public scrutiny and isolation from peers and family. The latter is still often a cause of stress on the ISS, such as when the mother of NASA astronaut Daniel M. Tani, Daniel Tani died in a car accident, and when Michael Fincke was forced to miss the birth of his second child.
A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks are a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment. ISS crew flights typically last about five to six months.
The ISS working environment includes further stress caused by living and working in cramped conditions with people from very different cultures who speak a different language. First-generation space stations had crews who spoke a single language; second- and third-generation stations have crew from many cultures who speak many languages. Astronauts must speak English and Russian, and knowing additional languages is even better.
Due to the lack of gravity, confusion often occurs. Even though there is no up and down in space, some crew members feel like they are oriented upside down. They may also have difficulty measuring distances. This can cause problems like getting lost inside the space station, pulling switches in the wrong direction or misjudging the speed of an approaching vehicle during docking.
Medical
![Frank De Winne on treadmill cropped](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Frank_De_Winne_on_treadmill_cropped.jpg)
The physiology, physiological effects of long-term weightlessness include
muscle atrophy, deterioration of the skeleton spaceflight osteopenia, (osteopenia), fluid redistribution, a slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, and puffiness of the face.
Sleep is regularly disturbed on the ISS because of mission demands, such as incoming or departing spacecraft. Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high. The atmosphere is unable to thermosiphon naturally, so fans are required at all times to process the air which would stagnate in the freefall (zero-G) environment.
To prevent some of the adverse effects on the body, the station is equipped with: two Treadmill with Vibration Isolation Stabilization, TVIS treadmills (including the COLBERT); the ARED (Advanced Resistive Exercise Device), which enables various weightlifting exercises that add muscle without raising (or compensating for) the astronauts' reduced bone density; and a stationary bicycle. Each astronaut spends at least two hours per day exercising on the equipment.
Astronauts use bungee cords to strap themselves to the treadmill.
Microbiological environmental hazards
Hazardous molds that can foul air and water filters may develop aboard space stations. They can produce acids that degrade metal, glass, and rubber. They can also be harmful to the crew's health. Microbiological hazards have led to a development of the LOCAD#Portable Test System, LOCAD-PTS which identifies common bacteria and molds faster than standard methods of Cell culture, culturing, which may require a sample to be sent back to Earth. Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence of five ''Enterobacter, Enterobacter bugandensis'' bacterial strains on the ISS (none of which are pathogenic to humans), that microorganisms on the ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.
Contamination on space stations can be prevented by reduced humidity, and by using paint that contains mold-killing chemicals, as well as the use of antiseptic solutions. All materials used in the ISS are tested for resistance against fungi.
In April 2019, NASA reported that a comprehensive study had been conducted into the microorganisms and fungi present on the ISS. The results may be useful in improving the health and safety conditions for astronauts.
Noise
Space flight is not inherently quiet, with noise levels exceeding acoustic standards as far back as the Apollo missions. For this reason, NASA and the International Space Station international partners have developed noise control and hearing loss prevention goals as part of the health program for crew members. Specifically, these goals have been the primary focus of the ISS Multilateral Medical Operations Panel (MMOP) Acoustics Subgroup since the first days of ISS assembly and operations.
The effort includes contributions from Acoustical engineering, acoustical engineers, audiologists, industrial hygienists, and physicians who comprise the subgroup's membership from NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).
When compared to terrestrial environments, the noise levels incurred by astronauts and cosmonauts on the ISS may seem insignificant and typically occur at levels that would not be of major concern to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration – rarely reaching 85 dBA. But crew members are exposed to these levels 24 hours a day, seven days a week, with current missions averaging six months in duration. These levels of noise also impose risks to crew health and performance in the form of sleep interference and communication, as well as reduced alarm Hearing, audibility.
Over the 19 plus year history of the ISS, significant efforts have been put forth to limit and reduce noise levels on the ISS. During design and pre-flight activities, members of the Acoustic Subgroup have written acoustic limits and verification requirements, consulted to design and choose quietest available payloads, and then conducted acoustic verification tests prior to launch.
During spaceflights, the Acoustics Subgroup has assessed each ISS module's in flight sound levels, produced by a large number of vehicle and science experiment noise sources, to assure compliance with strict acoustic standards. The acoustic environment on ISS changed when additional modules were added during its construction, and as additional spacecraft arrive at the ISS. The Acoustics Subgroup has responded to this dynamic operations schedule by successfully designing and employing acoustic covers, absorptive materials, noise barriers, and vibration isolators to reduce noise levels. Moreover, when pumps, fans, and ventilation systems age and show increased noise levels, this Acoustics Subgroup has guided ISS managers to replace the older, noisier instruments with quiet fan and pump technologies, significantly reducing ambient noise levels.
NASA has adopted most-conservative damage risk criteria (based on recommendations from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and the World Health Organization), in order to protect all crew members. The MMOP Acoustics Subgroup has adjusted its approach to managing noise risks in this unique environment by applying, or modifying, terrestrial approaches for hearing loss prevention to set these conservative limits. One innovative approach has been NASA's Noise Exposure Estimation Tool (NEET), in which noise exposures are calculated in a task-based approach to determine the need for hearing protection devices (HPDs). Guidance for use of HPDs, either mandatory use or recommended, is then documented in the Noise Hazard Inventory, and posted for crew reference during their missions. The Acoustics Subgroup also tracks spacecraft noise exceedances, applies engineering controls, and recommends hearing protective devices to reduce crew noise exposures. Finally, hearing thresholds are monitored on-orbit, during missions.
There have been no persistent mission-related hearing threshold shifts among US Orbital Segment crewmembers (JAXA, CSA, ESA, NASA) during what is approaching 20 years of ISS mission operations, or nearly 175,000 work hours. In 2020, the MMOP Acoustics Subgroup received the Safe-In-Sound Award for Innovation for their combined efforts to mitigate any health effects of noise.
Fire and toxic gases
An onboard fire or a toxic gas leak are other potential hazards. Ammonia is used in the external radiators of the station and could potentially leak into the pressurised modules.
Orbit
Altitude and orbital inclination
The ISS is currently maintained in a nearly circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of and a maximum of , in the centre of the thermosphere, at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to Earth's equator with an eccentricity of 0.007. This orbit was selected because it is the lowest inclination that can be directly reached by Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft launched from
Baikonur Cosmodrome at 46° N latitude without overflying China or dropping spent rocket stages in inhabited areas.
It travels at an average speed of , and completes orbits per day (93 minutes per orbit).
The station's altitude was allowed to fall around the time of each NASA shuttle flight to permit heavier loads to be transferred to the station. After the retirement of the shuttle, the nominal orbit of the space station was raised in altitude (from about 350 km to about 400 km).
Other, more frequent supply spacecraft do not require this adjustment as they are substantially higher performance vehicles.
Atmospheric drag reduces the altitude by about 2 km a month on average. Orbital boosting can be performed by the station's two main engines on the ''Zvezda'' service module, or Russian or European spacecraft docked to ''Zvezda'' aft port. The Automated Transfer Vehicle is constructed with the possibility of adding a Automated Transfer Vehicle#ATV evolution proposals, second docking port to its aft end, allowing other craft to dock and boost the station. It takes approximately two orbits (three hours) for the boost to a higher altitude to be completed.
Maintaining ISS altitude uses about 7.5 tonnes of chemical fuel per annum
at an annual cost of about $210 million.
![ISS orbits 04132013](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/ISS_orbits_04132013.jpg)
The Russian Orbital Segment contains the Data Management System, which handles Guidance, Navigation and Control (ROS GNC) for the entire station.
Initially, ''Zarya'', the first module of the station, controlled the station until a short time after the Russian service module ''Zvezda'' docked and was transferred control. ''Zvezda'' contains the ESA built DMS-R Data Management System.
Using two fault-tolerant computers (FTC), ''Zvezda'' computes the station's position and orbital trajectory using redundant Earth horizon sensors, Solar horizon sensors as well as Sun and star trackers. The FTCs each contain three identical processing units working in parallel and provide advanced fault-masking by majority voting.
Orientation
''Zvezda'' uses gyroscopes (reaction wheels) and thrusters to turn itself around. Gyroscopes do not require propellant; instead they use electricity to 'store' momentum in flywheels by turning in the opposite direction to the station's movement. The USOS has its own computer-controlled gyroscopes to handle its extra mass. When gyroscopes Control moment gyroscope#Saturation, 'saturate', thrusters are used to cancel out the stored momentum. In February 2005, during Expedition 10, an incorrect command was sent to the station's computer, using about 14 kilograms of propellant before the fault was noticed and fixed. When attitude control computers in the ROS and USOS fail to communicate properly, this can result in a rare 'force fight' where the ROS GNC computer must ignore the USOS counterpart, which itself has no thrusters.
Docked spacecraft can also be used to maintain station attitude, such as for troubleshooting or during the STS-117, installation of the S3/S4 truss, which provides electrical power and data interfaces for the station's electronics.
Orbital debris threats
The low altitudes at which the ISS orbits are also home to a variety of space debris, including spent rocket stages, defunct satellites, explosion fragments (including materials from anti-satellite weapon tests), paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, and coolant released by US-A nuclear-powered satellites. These objects, in addition to natural micrometeoroids, are a significant threat. Objects large enough to destroy the station can be tracked, and are not as dangerous as smaller debris.
Objects too small to be detected by optical and radar instruments, from approximately 1 cm down to microscopic size, number in the trillions. Despite their small size, some of these objects are a threat because of their kinetic energy and direction in relation to the station. Spacewalking crew in spacesuits are also at risk of suit damage and consequent Space exposure, exposure to vacuum.
Ballistic panels, also called micrometeorite shielding, are incorporated into the station to protect pressurised sections and critical systems. The type and thickness of these panels depend on their predicted exposure to damage. The station's shields and structure have different designs on the ROS and the USOS. On the USOS, Whipple Shields are used. The US segment modules consist of an inner layer made from 2219 aluminium alloy, aluminium, a intermediate layers of Kevlar and Nextel (a ceramic fabric), and an outer layer of stainless steel, which causes objects to shatter into a cloud before hitting the hull, thereby spreading the energy of impact. On the ROS, a carbon fibre reinforced polymer honeycomb screen is spaced from the hull, an aluminium honeycomb screen is spaced from that, with a screen-vacuum thermal insulation covering, and glass cloth over the top.
Space debris is tracked remotely from the ground, and the station crew can be notified. If necessary, thrusters on the Russian Orbital Segment can alter the station's orbital altitude, avoiding the debris. These Debris Avoidance Manoeuvres (DAMs) are not uncommon, taking place if computational models show the debris will approach within a certain threat distance. Ten DAMs had been performed by the end of 2009.
Usually, an increase in orbital velocity of the order of 1 m/s is used to raise the orbit by one or two kilometres. If necessary, the altitude can also be lowered, although such a manoeuvre wastes propellant.
If a threat from orbital debris is identified too late for a DAM to be safely conducted, the station crew close all the hatches aboard the station and retreat into their spacecraft in order to be able to evacuate in the event the station was seriously damaged by the debris. This partial station evacuation has occurred on 13 March 2009, 28 June 2011, 24 March 2012 and 16 June 2015.
In November 2021, a debris cloud from the destruction of Kosmos 1408 by an anti-satellite weapons test threatened the ISS, leading to the announcement of a yellow alert, leading to crew sheltering in the crew capsules. A couple of weeks later, it had to perform an unscheduled maneuver to drop the station by 310 meters to avoid a collision with hazardous space debris.
File:SDIO KEW Lexan projectile.jpg , A 7-gram object (shown in centre) shot at , the orbital velocity of the ISS, made this crater in a solid block of aluminium.
File:Debris-GEO1280.jpg , Radar-trackable objects, including debris, with distinct ring of Geostationary orbit, geostationary satellites
File:ISS impact risk.jpg, Example of risk management: A NASA model showing areas at high risk from impact for the International Space Station.
File:Micrometerioid Shielding Design (Whipple Shield) blueprint.png, A blueprint of a typical debris "Whipple Shield" design.
Sightings from Earth
The ISS is visible to the
naked eye
Naked eye, also called bare eye or unaided eye, is the practice of engaging in visual perception unaided by a magnifying, light-collecting optical instrument, such as a telescope or microscope, or eye protection. Vision corrected to normal ...
as a slow-moving, bright white dot because of reflected sunlight, and can be seen in the hours after sunset and before sunrise, when the station remains sunlit but the ground and sky are dark.
The ISS takes about 10 minutes to pass from one horizon to another, and will only be visible part of that time because of moving into or out of the Earth's shadow. Because of the size of its reflective surface area, the ISS is the brightest artificial object in the sky (excluding other satellite flares), with an approximate maximum apparent magnitude, magnitude of −4 when in sunlight and overhead (similar to Venus), and a maximum angular size of 63 arcseconds.
The ISS, like many satellites including the Iridium constellation, can also produce flares of up to 16 times the brightness of Venus as sunlight glints off reflective surfaces.
The ISS is also visible in broad daylight, albeit with a great deal more difficulty.
Tools are provided by a number of websites such as Heavens-Above (see #Live viewing, ''Live viewing'' below) as well as smartphone applications that use ephemeris, orbital data and the observer's longitude and latitude to indicate when the ISS will be visible (weather permitting), where the station will appear to rise, the altitude above the horizon it will reach and the duration of the pass before the station disappears either by setting below the horizon or entering into Earth's shadow.
In November 2012 NASA launched its "Spot the Station" service, which sends people text and email alerts when the station is due to fly above their town. The station is visible from 95% of the inhabited land on Earth, but is not visible from extreme northern or southern latitudes.
Under specific conditions, the ISS can be observed at night on five consecutive orbits. Those conditions are 1) a mid-latitude observer location, 2) near the time of the solstice with 3) the ISS passing in the direction of the pole from the observer near midnight local time. The three photos show the first, middle and last of the five passes on 5–6 June 2014.
File:ISS 2008-01-10.jpg, Skytrack long duration exposure of the ISS
File:The ISS passing nearly overhead shortly after sunset in June 2014.jpg, The ISS on its first pass of the night passing nearly overhead shortly after sunset in June 2014
File:The ISS passing north near local midnight in June 2014.jpg, The ISS passing north on its third pass of the night near local midnight in June 2014
The ISS passing west on its 5th pass of the night before sunrise in June 2014.jpg, The ISS passing west on its fifth pass of the night before sunrise in June 2014
Astrophotography
![Isshtv120090917200858nm](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Isshtv120090917200858nm.jpg)
Using a telescope-mounted camera to photograph the station is a popular hobby for astronomers, while using a mounted camera to photograph the Earth and stars is a popular hobby for crew. The use of a telescope or binoculars allows viewing of the ISS during daylight hours.
![Composite of 6 photos of the ISS transiting the gibbous Moon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Composite_of_6_photos_of_the_ISS_transiting_the_gibbous_Moon.jpg)
Transit (astronomy), Transits of the ISS in front of the Sun, particularly during an Solar eclipse, eclipse (and so the Earth, Sun, Moon, and ISS are all positioned approximately in a single line) are of particular interest for amateur astronomers.
International co-operation
![ISS Agreements](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/ISS_Agreements.jpg)
Involving five space programs and fifteen countries,
the International Space Station is the most politically and legally complex space exploration programme in history. The 1998 Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement sets forth the primary framework for international cooperation among the parties. A series of subsequent agreements govern other aspects of the station, ranging from jurisdictional issues to a code of conduct among visiting astronauts.
Following the
2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
On 24 February 2022, in a major escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War, which began in 2014. The invasion has resulted in tens of thousands of deaths on both sides. It has caused Europe's largest refugee crisis since World War II. ...
, continued cooperation between Russia and other countries on the International Space Station has been put into question. British Prime Minister Boris Johnson commented on the current status of cooperation, saying "I have been broadly in favour of continuing artistic and scientific collaboration, but in the current circumstances it's hard to see how even those can continue as normal." On the same day, Roscosmos Director General Dmitry Rogozin insinuated that Russian withdrawal could cause the International Space Station to de-orbit due to lack of reboost capabilities, writing in a series of tweets, "If you block cooperation with us, who will save the ISS from an unguided de-orbit to impact on the territory of the US or Europe? There's also the chance of impact of the 500-ton construction in India or China. Do you want to threaten them with such a prospect? The ISS doesn't fly over Russia, so all the risk is yours. Are you ready for it?" Rogozin later tweeted that normal relations between ISS partners could only be restored once sanctions have been lifted, and indicated that Roscosmos would submit proposals to the Russian government on ending cooperation. NASA stated that, if necessary, US corporation
Northrop Grumman
Northrop Grumman Corporation is an American multinational aerospace and defense technology company. With 90,000 employees and an annual revenue in excess of $30 billion, it is one of the world's largest weapons manufacturers and military techn ...
has offered a reboost capability that would keep the ISS in orbit.
On 26 July 2022, Yury Borisov, Rogozin's successor as head of Roscosmos, submitted to Russian President Putin plans for withdrawal from the programme after 2024.
However, Robyn Gatens, the NASA official in charge of the space station, responded that NASA had not received any formal notices from Roscosmos concerning withdrawal plans.
Participating countries
* (1997–2007)
*
*
European Space Agency
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
*
*
*
End of mission
According to the Outer Space Treaty, the United States and Russia are legally responsible for all modules they have launched. Several possible disposal options were considered: Natural orbital decay with random reentry (as with Skylab), boosting the station to a higher altitude (which would delay reentry), and a controlled targeted de-orbit to a remote ocean area.
In late 2010, the preferred plan was to use a slightly modified Progress spacecraft to de-orbit the ISS.
This plan was seen as the simplest, cheapest and with the .
[
Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex, OPSEK was previously intended to be constructed of modules from the Russian Orbital Segment after the ISS is decommissioned. The modules under consideration for removal from the current ISS included the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (''Nauka''), launched in July 2021, and the other new Russian modules that are proposed to be attached to ''Nauka''. These newly launched modules would still be well within their useful lives in 2024.]
At the end of 2011, the Exploration Gateway Platform concept also proposed using leftover USOS hardware and ''Zvezda 2'' as a refuelling depot and service station located at one of the Earth-Moon Lagrange points. However, the entire USOS was not designed for disassembly and will be discarded.
On 30 September 2015, Boeing's contract with NASA as prime contractor for the ISS was extended to 30 September 2020. Part of Boeing's services under the contract related to extending the station's primary structural hardware past 2020 to the end of 2028.
There have also been suggestions in the commercial space industry that the station could be converted to commercial operations after it is retired by government entities.
In July 2018, the Space Frontier Act of 2018 was intended to extend operations of the ISS to 2030. This bill was unanimously approved in the Senate, but failed to pass in the U.S. House. In September 2018, the Leading Human Spaceflight Act was introduced with the intent to extend operations of the ISS to 2030, and was confirmed in December 2018. Congress later passed similar provisions in its CHIPS and Science Act, signed into law by President Joe Biden on 9 August 2022.
In January 2022, NASA announced a planned date of January 2031 to de-orbit the ISS using a deorbit module and direct any remnants into a remote area of the South Pacific Ocean.
Cost
The ISS has been described as the Lists of most expensive items by category, most expensive single item ever constructed. As of 2010, the total cost was US$150 billion. This includes NASA's budget of $58.7 billion ($89.73 billion in 2021 dollars) for the station from 1985 to 2015, Russia's $12 billion, Europe's $5 billion, Japan's $5 billion, Canada's $2 billion, and the cost of 36 shuttle flights to build the station, estimated at $1.4 billion each, or $50.4 billion in total. Assuming 20,000 person-days of use from 2000 to 2015 by two- to six-person crews, each person-day would cost $7.5 million, less than half the inflation-adjusted $19.6 million ($5.5 million before inflation) per person-day of Skylab.[ See author correction in comments.]
In film
Beside numerous documentaries such as the IMAX documentaries Space Station 3D from 2002, or ''A Beautiful Planet'' from 2016, the ISS is subject of feature films such as ''The Day After Tomorrow'' (2004), ''Life (2017 film), Life'' (2017), ''Love (2011 film), Love'' (2011), ortogether with the Chinese station Tiangong space stationin ''Gravity (2013 film), Gravity'' (2013).
See also
* ''A Beautiful Planet'' – 2016 IMAX documentary film showing scenes of Earth, as well as astronaut life aboard the ISS
* Center for the Advancement of Science in Space – operates the US National Laboratory on the ISS
* List of commanders of the International Space Station
* List of space stations
* List of spacecraft deployed from the International Space Station
* Politics of outer space
* Science diplomacy
* ''Space Station 3D'' – 2002 Canadian documentary
Notes
References
Attribution:
*
Further reading
*
*
* O'Sullivan, John. ''European Missions to the International Space Station: 2013 to 2019'' (Springer Nature, 2020).
* Ruttley, Tara M., Julie A. Robinson, and William H. Gerstenmaier. "The International Space Station: Collaboration, Utilization, and Commercialization." ''Social Science Quarterly'' 98.4 (2017): 1160–1174
online
External links
*
ISS Location
Agency ISS websites
* &nbs
Canadian Space Agency
* &nbs
European Space Agency
* &nbs
Centre national d'études spatiales (National Centre for Space Studies)
* &nbs
* &nbs
Italian Space Agency
* &nbs
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
* &nbs
* &nbs
Russian Federal Space Agency
* &nbs
Research
NASA: Daily ISS Reports
ESA: ''Columbus''
Live viewing
Live ISS webcam
by NASA at uStream.tv
Live HD ISS webcams
by NASA High Definition Earth Viewing cameras, HDEV at uStream.tv
Sighting opportunities
at NASA.gov
Complete Orbital Position
at KarhuKoti.com
Real-time position
at Heavens-above.com
Real-time tracking and position
at uphere.space
Multimedia
Johnson Space Center image gallery
at Flickr.com
ISS tour with Sunita Williams
by NASA at YouTube.com
Journey to the ISS
by ESA at YouTube.com
''The Future of Hope'', ''Kibō'' module documentary
by JAXA at YouTube.com
* Seán Doran's compiled videos of orbital photography from the ISS
''Orbit – Remastered''
''Orbit: Uncut''
''The Four Seasons''
''Nocturne – Earth at Night''
''Earthbound''
''The Pearl''
(se
Flickr album
for more)
{{Orbit, datasource, HN
International Space Station,
Satellites in low Earth orbit
Populated places established in 1998
Spacecraft launched in 1998
Articles containing video clips
International science experiments
Science diplomacy
Canada–United States relations
Japan–United States relations
Russia–United States relations