In
philosophy,
psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries betwe ...
,
sociology
Sociology is a social science that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life. It uses various methods of empirical investigation and ...
, and
anthropology
Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including past human species. Social anthropology studies patterns of be ...
, intersubjectivity is the
relation or
intersection between people's
cognitive perspectives.
Definition
is a term coined by social scientists to refer to a variety of types of human interaction. For example, social psychologists Alex Gillespie and Flora Cornish listed at least seven definitions of intersubjectivity (and other disciplines have additional definitions):
* people's agreement on the shared definition of a concept;
* people's mutual awareness of agreement or disagreement, or of understanding or misunderstanding each other;
* people's attribution of intentionality, feelings, and beliefs to each other;
* people's implicit or automatic behavioral orientations towards other people;
* people's interactive performance within a situation;
* people's shared and taken-for-granted background assumptions, whether consensual or contested; and
* "the variety of possible relations between people's perspectives".
has been used in social science to refer to agreement. There is intersubjectivity between people if they agree on a given set of meanings or share the same perception of a situation. Similarly,
Thomas Scheff defines as "the sharing of subjective states by two or more individuals".
also has been used to refer to the
common-sense, shared meanings constructed by people in their interactions with each other and used as an everyday resource to interpret the meaning of elements of social and cultural life. If people share common sense, then they share a definition of the situation.
The term has also been used to refer to shared (or partially shared) of meaning.
Self-presentation, lying, practical jokes, and social emotions, for example, all
entail not a shared definition of the situation but partially shared divergences of meaning. Someone who is telling a lie is engaged in an intersubjective act because they are working with two different definitions of the situation. Lying is thus genuinely ''inter''subjective (in the sense of operating between two subjective definitions of reality).
Among the early authors who explored this conception in psychoanalysis, in an explicit or implicit way, were
Jacques Lacan,
Heinz Kohut,
Robert Stolorow, George E. Atwood,
Jessica Benjamin in the United States, and
Silvia Montefoschi
Silvia Montefoschi (1926 – 2011) was an Italian Jungian psychoanalyst.
Montefoschi was born in Rome. She started studying psychoanalysis after the degree in medicine and in biology. She was a student of Ernst Bernhard, (in turn student of J ...
in Italy.
Psychoanalyst Jessica Benjamin, in ''The Bonds of Love'', wrote, "The concept of intersubjectivity has its origins in the social theory of
Jürgen Habermas (1970), who used the expression 'the intersubjectivity of mutual understanding' to designate an individual capacity and a social domain." Psychoanalyst Molly Macdonald argued in 2011 that a "potential point of origin" for the term was in
Jean Hyppolite's use of ''l'inter-subjectivité'' in an essay from 1955 on "The Human Situation in the Hegelian Phenomenology". However, the phenomenologist
Edmund Husserl
, thesis1_title = Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung (Contributions to the Calculus of Variations)
, thesis1_url = https://fedora.phaidra.univie.ac.at/fedora/get/o:58535/bdef:Book/view
, thesis1_year = 1883
, thesis2_title ...
, whose work Habermas and Hyppolite draw upon, was the first to develop the term, which was subsequently elaborated upon by other phenomenologists such as
Edith Stein,
Emmanuel Levinas
Emmanuel Levinas (; ; 12 January 1906 – 25 December 1995) was a French philosopher of Lithuanian Jews, Lithuanian Jewish ancestry who is known for his work within Jewish philosophy, existentialism, and Phenomenology (philosophy), phenomenology, ...
, and
Maurice Merleau-Ponty.
Philosophy
Contemporarily, intersubjectivity is the major topic in both the
analytic and the
continental traditions of philosophy. Intersubjectivity is considered crucial not only at the relational level but also at the epistemological and even metaphysical levels. For example, intersubjectivity is postulated as playing a role in establishing the truth of propositions, and constituting the so-called objectivity of objects.
A central concern in consciousness studies of the past 50 years is the so-called problem of ''other minds,'' which asks how we can justify our belief that people have minds much like our own and predict others' mind-states and behavior, as our experience shows we often can. Contemporary philosophical theories of intersubjectivity need to address the problem of other minds.
In the debate between cognitive individualism and cognitive universalism, some aspects of thinking are neither solely personal nor fully universal. Cognitive sociology proponents argue for ''intersubjectivity''—an intermediate perspective of social cognition that provides a balanced view between personal and universal views of our social cognition. This approach suggests that, instead of being individual or universal thinkers, human beings subscribe to "thought communities"—communities of differing beliefs. Thought community examples include churches, professions, scientific beliefs, generations, nations, and political movements.
This perspective explains why each individual thinks differently from another (individualism): person A may choose to adhere to expiry dates on foods, but person B may believe that expiry dates are only guidelines and it is still safe to eat the food days past the expiry date. But not all human beings think the same way (universalism).
Intersubjectivity argues that each thought community shares social experiences that are different from the social experiences of other thought communities, creating differing beliefs among people who subscribe to different thought communities. These experiences transcend our subjectivity, which explains why they can be shared by the entire thought community.
Proponents of intersubjectivity support the view that individual beliefs are often the result of thought community beliefs, not just personal experiences or universal and objective human beliefs. Beliefs are recast in terms of standards, which are set by thought communities.
Phenomenology
Edmund Husserl
, thesis1_title = Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung (Contributions to the Calculus of Variations)
, thesis1_url = https://fedora.phaidra.univie.ac.at/fedora/get/o:58535/bdef:Book/view
, thesis1_year = 1883
, thesis2_title ...
, the founder of
phenomenology
Phenomenology may refer to:
Art
* Phenomenology (architecture), based on the experience of building materials and their sensory properties
Philosophy
* Phenomenology (philosophy), a branch of philosophy which studies subjective experiences and a ...
, recognized the importance of intersubjectivity, and wrote extensively on the topic. In German, his writings on intersubjectivity are gathered in volumes 13–15 of the ''
Husserliana''. In English, his best-known text on intersubjectivity is the ''
Cartesian Meditations
''Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Phenomenology'' (french: Méditations cartésiennes: Introduction à la phénoménologie) is a book by the philosopher Edmund Husserl, based on four lectures he gave at the University of Paris, Sorbonne, ...
'' (it is this text that features solely in the Husserl reader entitled ''The Essential Husserl''). Although Husserlian phenomenology is often charged with methodological
solipsism, in the fifth Cartesian Meditation, Husserl attempts to grapple with the problem of intersubjectivity and puts forward his theory of transcendental, monadological intersubjectivity.
Husserl's student
Edith Stein extended intersubjectivity's basis in empathy in her 1917 doctoral dissertation, ''On the Problem of Empathy'' (''Zum Problem der Einfühlung'').
Intersubjectivity also helps to constitute objectivity: in the experience of the world as available not only to oneself, but also to the other, there is a bridge between the personal and the shared, the self and the others.
Psychology
Discussions and theories of intersubjectivity are prominent and of importance in contemporary psychology, theory of mind, and consciousness studies. Three major contemporary theories of intersubjectivity are theory theory, simulation theory, and interaction theory.
Shannon Spaulding, Assistant Professor of Philosophy at
Oklahoma State University, wrote:
Simulation theorists, on the other hand, claim that we explain and predict others' behaviour by using our own minds as a model and "putting ourselves in another's shoes"—that is, by imagining what our mental states would be and how we would behave if we were in the other's situation. More specifically, we simulate what the other's mental states could have been to cause the observed behaviour, then use the simulated mental states, pretend beliefs, and pretend desires as input, running them through our own decision-making mechanism. We then take the resulting conclusion and attribute it to the other person.
Authors like
Vittorio Gallese have proposed a theory of embodied simulation that refers to neuroscientific research on mirror neurons and phenomenological research.
Spaulding noted that this debate has stalled in the past few years, with progress limited to articulating various hybrid simulation theories—"theory theory" accounts.
To resolve this impasse, authors like
Shaun Gallagher
Shaun Gallagher is an American philosopher known for his work on embodied cognition, social cognition, agency and the philosophy of psychopathology. Since 2011 he has held the Lillian and Morrie Moss Chair of Excellence in Philosophy at the Un ...
put forward interaction theory. Gallagher writes that an "... important shift is taking place in social cognition research, away from a focus on the individual mind and toward ... participatory aspects of social understanding...." Interaction theory is put forward to "galvanize" the interactive turn in explanations of intersubjectivity. Gallagher defines an interaction as two or more autonomous agents engaged in co-regulated coupling behavior. For example, when walking a dog, both the owner's behavior is regulated by the dog stopping and sniffing, and the dog's behavior is regulated by the lead and the owner's commands. Ergo, walking the dog is an example of an interactive process. For Gallagher, interaction and direct perception constitute what he terms "primary" (or basic) intersubjectivity.
Studies of dialogue and
dialogism reveal how language is deeply intersubjective. When we speak, we always address our interlocutors, taking their perspective and orienting to what we think they think (or, more often, don't think). Within this tradition of research, it has been argued that the structure of individual signs or symbols, the basis of language, is intersubjective and that the psychological process of self-reflection entails intersubjectivity. Recent research on
mirror neurons
A mirror neuron is a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting. Such neurons ha ...
provides evidence for the deeply intersubjective basis of human psychology, and arguably much of the literature on
empathy
Empathy is the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within their frame of reference, that is, the capacity to place oneself in another's position. Definitions of empathy encompass a broad range of social, cog ...
and
theory of mind
In psychology, theory of mind refers to the capacity to understand other people by ascribing mental states to them (that is, surmising what is happening in their mind). This includes the knowledge that others' mental states may be different fro ...
relates directly to intersubjectivity.
In child development
Colwyn Trevarthen has applied intersubjectivity to the very rapid cultural development of new born infants. Research suggests that as babies, humans are biologically wired to "coordinate their actions with others".
This ability to coordinate and sync with others facilitates cognitive and emotional learning through social interaction. Additionally, the most socially productive relationship between children and adults is bidirectional, where both parties actively define a shared culture.
The bidirectional aspect lets the active parties organize the relationship how they see fit—what they see as important receives the most focus. Emphasis is placed on the idea that children are actively involved in how they learn, using intersubjectivity.
Across cultures
The ways intersubjectivity occurs varies across cultures. In certain Indigenous American communities,
nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication (NVC) is the transmission of messages or signals through a nonverbal platform such as eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, posture, and body language. It includes the use of social cues, kinesics, distance (p ...
is so prevalent that intersubjectivity may occur regularly amongst all members of the community, in part perhaps due to a "joint cultural understanding" and a history of shared endeavors.
[Correa-Chávez, M., & Roberts, A. (2012). A cultural analysis is necessary in understanding intersubjectivity. Culture & Psychology, 18(1), 99-108. doi: 10.1177/1354067X11427471] This "joint cultural understanding" may develop in small, Indigenous American communities where children have grown up embedded in their community's values, expectations, and livelihoods—learning through participation with adults rather than through intent verbal instruction—working in cohesion with one another in shared endeavors on a daily basis. Having grown up within this context may have led to members of this community to have what is described by some as a "blending of agendas",
or by others as a "dovetailing of motives". If community or family members have the same general goals in mind they may thus act cohesively within an overlapping state of mind. Whether persons are in each other's presence or merely within the same community this blending of agendas or dovetailing of motives enables intersubjectivity to occur within these shared endeavors.
The cultural value of ''respeto'' may also contribute to intersubjectivity in some communities; unlike the English definition of 'respect', ''respeto'' refers loosely to a mutual consideration for others' activities, needs, wants, etc.
Similar to "putting yourself in another's shoes" the prevalence of ''respeto'' in certain Indigenous American communities in Mexico and South America may promote intersubjectivity as persons act in accordance with one another within consideration for the community or the individual's current needs or state of mind.
Shared reference during an activity facilitates learning. Adults either teach by doing the task with children, or by directing attention toward experts. Children that had to ask questions in regard to how to perform a task were scolded for not learning by another's example, as though they were ignoring the available resources to learn a task, as seen in
Tz'utujil Maya parents who scolded questioning children and asking "if they had eyes".
Children from the
Chillihuani
Ch'illiwani ( Aymara ''ch'illiwa'' a species of grass'' (Festuca dolichophylla)'', ''-ni'' a suffix, "the one with the ''ch'illiwa'' grass", also spelled ''Chillihuani'') is a mountain in the Bolivian Andes which reaches a height of approximately ...
village in the Andean mountains learned to
weave without explicit instruction. They learned the basic technique from others by observing, eager to participate in their community. The learning process was facilitated by watching adults and by being allowed to play and experiment using tools to create their own weaving techniques.
See also
*
Intersubjective verifiability Intersubjective verifiability is the capacity of a concept to be readily and accurately communicated between different individuals (" intersubjectively"), and to be reproduced under varying circumstances for the purposes of verification. It is a co ...
*
Intersubjective psychoanalysis
*
Intertextuality
Intertextuality is the shaping of a text's meaning by another text, either through deliberate Composition (language), compositional strategies such as quotation, allusion, calque, plagiarism, translation, pastiche or parody,Gerard Genette (1997) ' ...
*
Perspectivism
References
Further reading
Psychoanalysis
* Brandchaft, Doctors & Sorter (2010). Toward an Emancipatory Psychoanalysis. Routledge: New York.
*
Laplanche, J. & Pontalis, J. B. (1974). ''The Language of Psycho-Analysis'', Edited by W. W. Norton & Company,
* Orange, Atwood & Stolorow (1997). Working Intersubjectively. The Analytic Press: Hillsdale, NJ.
* Stolorow, R. D., Atwood, G. E., & Orange, D. M. (2002). Worlds of Experience: Interweaving Philosophical and Clinical Dimensions in Psychoanalysis. New York: Basic Books.
* Stolorow & Atwood (1992). Contexts of Being. The Analytic Press: Hillsdale, NJ.
* Stolorow, Brandchaft & Atwood (1987). Psychoanalytic Treatment: An Intersubjective Approach. The Analytic Press:Hillsdale, NJ.
Philosophy
*
Edmund Husserl
, thesis1_title = Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung (Contributions to the Calculus of Variations)
, thesis1_url = https://fedora.phaidra.univie.ac.at/fedora/get/o:58535/bdef:Book/view
, thesis1_year = 1883
, thesis2_title ...
''Zur Phänomenologie der Intersubjektivität. Texte aus dem Nachlass 1905-1920''
*
Edmund Husserl
, thesis1_title = Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung (Contributions to the Calculus of Variations)
, thesis1_url = https://fedora.phaidra.univie.ac.at/fedora/get/o:58535/bdef:Book/view
, thesis1_year = 1883
, thesis2_title ...
'' Zur Phänomenologie der Intersubjektivität. Texte aus dem Nachlass 1921-1928''
*
Edmund Husserl
, thesis1_title = Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung (Contributions to the Calculus of Variations)
, thesis1_url = https://fedora.phaidra.univie.ac.at/fedora/get/o:58535/bdef:Book/view
, thesis1_year = 1883
, thesis2_title ...
''Zur Phänomenologie der Intersubjektivität. Texte aus dem Nachlass 1929-1935''
*
Edmund Husserl
, thesis1_title = Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung (Contributions to the Calculus of Variations)
, thesis1_url = https://fedora.phaidra.univie.ac.at/fedora/get/o:58535/bdef:Book/view
, thesis1_year = 1883
, thesis2_title ...
''
Cartesian Meditations
''Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Phenomenology'' (french: Méditations cartésiennes: Introduction à la phénoménologie) is a book by the philosopher Edmund Husserl, based on four lectures he gave at the University of Paris, Sorbonne, ...
'', Edited by S. Strasser, 1950. {{ISBN, 978-90-247-0068-4
External links
Critique of intersubjectivityArticle by Mats Winther
Edmund Husserl: Empathy, intersubjectivity and lifeworld Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Epistemology
Philosophy of mind
Sociological terminology
Philosophical anthropology