Indo-Jamaicans are the descendants of people who came from the
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
to
Jamaica
Jamaica (; ) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of His ...
. Indians form the third largest ethnic group in Jamaica after
Africans and
Multiracials.
History
Due to deteriorating socioeconomic of conditions in
British India
The provinces of India, earlier presidencies of British India and still earlier, presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance on the Indian subcontinent. Collectively, they have been called British India. In one ...
, more than 36,000 Indians came to
British Jamaica as
indentured labourers under the Indian indenture system between 1845 and 1917, mostly from
Bhojpur and
Awadh
Awadh (), known in British historical texts as Avadh or Oudh, is a region in the modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, which was before independence known as the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. It is synonymous with the Kośāla region of ...
in the
Hindi Belt
The Hindi Belt, also known as the Hindi Heartland, is a linguistic region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern and western India where various Central Indo-Aryan languages subsumed under the term 'Hindi' (for example, by the ...
as well as other parts of
North India
North India is a loosely defined region consisting of the northern part of India. The dominant geographical features of North India are the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Himalayas, which demarcate the region from the Tibetan Plateau and Central ...
. A significant minority were from
South India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...
. Around two-thirds of the labourers who came remained on the island. The demand for their labour came after the end of slavery in 1830 and the failure to attract workers from Europe. Indian labourers, who had proved their worth in similar conditions in
Mauritius
Mauritius ( ; french: Maurice, link=no ; mfe, label=Mauritian Creole, Moris ), officially the Republic of Mauritius, is an island nation in the Indian Ocean about off the southeast coast of the African continent, east of Madagascar. It incl ...
, were sought by the British Jamaican government, in addition to workers coming from
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
.
Indian workers were actually paid less than the ex-slaves, who were of West African origin. While slaves obviously were not paid for their labour, when they were emancipated in the 1830s, their wages were more than those given to Indian indentured servants. Indian immigrants therefore undercut the wages of the ex-slaves. This, along with fundamental cultural and linguistic differences and a tendency to not mix with the local population, caused the Africans as well as the British to look down on them. Indians were harassed with the derogatory term, "
coolie
A coolie (also spelled koelie, kuli, khuli, khulie, cooli, cooly, or quli) is a term for a low-wage labourer, typically of South Asian or East Asian descent.
The word ''coolie'' was first popularized in the 16th century by European traders acros ...
," referring to their worker status. Despite such hardships, many Indians in Jamaica have retained their culture and religions like
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
and
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
.
The
British Indian government encouraged indentured labour and recruiting depots were established in
Calcutta
Kolkata (, or , ; also known as Calcutta , List of renamed places in India#West Bengal, the official name until 2001) is the Capital city, capital of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of West Bengal, on the eastern ba ...
and
Madras
Chennai (, ), formerly known as Madras ( the official name until 1996), is the capital city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost Indian state. The largest city of the state in area and population, Chennai is located on the Coromandel Coast of th ...
, although agents were paid significantly less per recruit than for a European worker. Most Indians who signed contracts did so in the hope of returning to India with the fruits of their labour rather than intending to migrate permanently. The Indian Government appointed a Protector of Immigrants in Jamaica, although this office tended to protect the interests of the employers rather than the workers. Although technically the workers had to appear before a magistrate and fully understand their terms and conditions, these were written in English and many workers, signing only with a thumb print, did not comprehend the nature of their service.
In the mid-20th century, smaller numbers of Indians from the
Sindh
Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province ...
,
Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
,
Kutch,
Bengal
Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...
and
Punjab
Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising ...
regions came to
Jamaica
Jamaica (; ) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of His ...
not as labourers but as merchants conducting business alongside Chinese and Arab immigrants.
Some Indians have married into the local population of
Africans,
Creoles,
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
,
Hispanic
The term ''Hispanic'' ( es, hispano) refers to people, Spanish culture, cultures, or countries related to Spain, the Spanish language, or Hispanidad.
The term commonly applies to countries with a cultural and historical link to Spain and to Vic ...
s-
Latinos
Hispanic and Latino Americans ( es, Estadounidenses hispanos y latinos; pt, Estadunidenses hispânicos e latinos) are Americans of Spaniards, Spanish and/or Latin Americans, Latin American ancestry. More broadly, these demographics include a ...
,
Arabs
The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Wester ...
and
Europeans. Today the Indian population of Jamaica is either full-blooded Indian who are recent immigrants or their descendants, full-blooded Indians who are the descendants of the original indentured laborers, or mixed Indians, such as
Dougla
Dougla people (plural ''Douglas'') are Caribbean people who are of mixed African and Indian descent. The word ''Dougla'' (also Dugla or Dogla) is used throughout the Dutch and English-speaking Caribbean.
Definition
The word ''Dougla'' origin ...
s,
Chindian
Chindian ( zh, c=中印人, p=Zhōngyìnrén, cy=Jūngyanyàn; ta, சிந்தியன்; is an informal term used to refer to a person of mixed Chinese and Indian ancestry; i.e. from any of the host of ethnic groups native to modern Ch ...
s, and
Anglo-Indian
Anglo-Indian people fall into two different groups: those with mixed Indian and British ancestry, and people of British descent born or residing in India. The latter sense is now mainly historical, but confusions can arise. The ''Oxford English ...
s.
Arrival in Jamaica
The first ship carrying workers from India, the "Maidstone", landed at Old Harbour Bay in 1845. It bore 200 men, 28 women under 30 years old and 33 children under 12 years old from various towns and villages in Northern India. The numbers arriving increased to 2,439 three years later, at which point the Indian Government halted the scheme to examine its working. The programme resumed in 1859 and continued until the outbreak of
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, although by the 1870s stories of the hardships suffered by Indian indentured workers were causing disquiet on the subcontinent.
Indian indentureship ended in 1917 to the Caribbean, in the territories of Jamaica, Trinidad, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Grenada, St. Kitts, St. Croix, Guadeloupe, Martinique, British Guiana (now Guyana), Dutch Guiana (now Suriname), French Guiana, and British Honduras (now Belize).
Two shillings and six pence were deducted from their meagre wages for the rice, flour, dried fish or goat, peas and seasoning which constituted their rations. Children received half rations but the plantation managers were warned to treat the children well, with quarterly medical checkups theoretically provided. The overwhelming majority of the immigrant labourers were Hindu but little provision was made for their faith and cultural practices. Non-
Christian
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
unions were not recognized until 1956 and many accepted Christianity and adopted English names. Higher caste Indians were prohibited from emigrating to the Caribbean so many did not give their family names as they embarked.
The conditions of the indenture varied from between one and five years, with the workers being released if they fell ill or bought themselves out of their contract. They were not allowed to leave the plantation without a permit, on pain of fines or even imprisonment. Many of the workers and their families suffered from yaws, hookworm, and malaria.
Surnames
The original Indentured labourers arriving in Jamaica during the mid to late 19th century mostly did not have surnames back in India. Once arriving in Jamaica, in order to assimilate easier into Jamaican society, they often took Anglo/British originated family names due to those being the majority in the country. However, some families took the names of the villages they came from in India and also their one name was used as the surname for their children.
It was not until the later merchants and businessmen immigrated in the early 20th century that more "Indian" sounding names became more common.
Some Jamaican Indian surnames include Mangaroo, Babooram, Sirjue, Partab (Pratap), Bhoorasingh, Mykoo,
Maragh,
Singh
Singh (IPA: ) is a title, middle name or surname that means " lion" in various South Asian and Southeast Asian communities. Traditionally used by the Hindu Kshatriya community, it eventually became a common surname adopted by different comm ...
, Bandoo, Santokie,
Persad
Persaud is a Hindu surname, primarily found in Guyana, Suriname, Fiji, South Africa, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, and other parts of the Caribbean. It is derived from the Hindi surname प्रसाद which is predominantly transliterate ...
, Ameer, Amair, Mahabeer, Baboolal, Gopaul, Gopie, Kissoon, Bridgmohan, Setal, Badwah, Rambaran, Coomar (
Kumar
A coin, around 200 BCE, of the Yaudheyas with depiction of Kumāra Karttikeya">Yaudheyas.html" ;"title="BCE, of the Yaudheyas">BCE, of the Yaudheyas with depiction of Kumāra Karttikeya
Kumar (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: wikt:कुमा ...
), Ali, Mohammed, Baccus, Hussaney and Lala.
Settlement and repatriation
Although most of the workers originally planned to return to India, the planters lobbied the Government to allow them to stay and defray their settlement costs, largely to save on the costs of returning them to the Indian subcontinent. Money and land were used as incentives, with time expired Indians offered 10 or of Crown land.
The monetary grants were suspended in 1879, with the land grants being halted from 1897 to 1903 and abandoned in 1906 as there was little difference in the costs of repatriating a worker (£15 per person) and offering land grants of £12 per head.
Problems in returning
The lack of ships available to repatriate the workers was another factor in many of them staying on. Ships refused to sail if not full, and at other times were oversubscribed, leading to some time expired workers being left behind. During
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
German submarine warfare and a lack of ships further cut the numbers able to return. The Indian Government did not encourage the return of workers as many were destitute, ill or had lost touch with their own culture.
The Indian workers tended their own gardens after the work on the plantations was done to supplement their diet. They introduced tamarind to the island, in addition to cannabis and the
chillum pipe. Hindu festivals such as
Diwali
Diwali (), Dewali, Divali, or Deepavali ( IAST: ''dīpāvalī''), also known as the Festival of Lights, related to Jain Diwali, Bandi Chhor Divas, Tihar, Swanti, Sohrai, and Bandna, is a religious celebration in Indian religions. It is ...
were celebrated although many became Christians over time. Gradually workers left the
plantation
A plantation is an agricultural estate, generally centered on a plantation house, meant for farming that specializes in cash crops, usually mainly planted with a single crop, with perhaps ancillary areas for vegetables for eating and so on. The ...
s for
Kingston and took jobs that better utilized their existing and newly learned skills. The Indian community adopted English as their first language and became jewellers, fishermen, barbers, and shopkeepers.
Impact on Jamaican culture and economy
Despite being a small percentage of the population, Indians have made an outsized impact on their adopted island nation by significantly contributing to its culture. They maintain their own cultural organizations that work for the benefit of the Indian community, while being assimilated into the wider Jamaican community in all facets of life. The once influence of the caste system has largely atrophied and arranged marriages are no longer common.
Indian jewellery, in the form of intricately wrought gold bangles, are common in Jamaica, with their manufacture and sale going back to the 1860s. During the first half of the 20th century, Indians such as the Jadusinghs owned several jewellery shops in Kingston specializing in pure 18-karat gold.
Alongside Hinduism and Sufi Islam,
ganja
Ganja (, ; ) is one of the oldest and most commonly used synonyms for marijuana. Its usage in English dates to before 1689.
Etymology
''Ganja'' is borrowed from Hindi/Urdu ( hi, गांजा, links=no, ur, , links=no, IPA: aːɲd ...
was introduced to Jamaica from India. Hindu use of ganja for spiritual and medicinal purposes, including religious practices and sometimes recreation were adopted into Jamaican culture. The smoking of ganja has become a spiritual tradition by Rastafarians and is a central tenet in their way of life.
Indians have contributed to the culinary tapestry of the island as well. Foods, such as
pumpkin tarkari,
curry goat
(''hseik-tha hnat'')
hi, Bakri curry id, kari kambing ms, kari kambing
, country = Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia
, region = Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Indonesia and Malaysia) and the Caribbean (Tri ...
and
roti
Roti (also known as chapati) is a round flatbread native to the Indian subcontinent. It is popular in India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Maldives, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Guyana, Suriname, Jamaica, Trinid ...
are popular, and seen as part of the national cuisine.
In 1995, the Government of Jamaica proclaimed May 10 Indian Heritage Day in recognition of the Indians’ contribution to the social and economic development of the country. The arrival of the Indians more than 170 years ago is commemorated in stamps.
On March 1, 1998, the National Council for Indian Culture in Jamaica was formed. It is the umbrella organization of Indian associations with the mission to preserve and promote Indian culture.
Notable Jamaicans of Indian descent
Notable Indo-Jamaicans
*
Shaun Bridgmohan
Shaun Xavier Bridgmohan (born June 24, 1979 in Spanish Town, Jamaica) is a jockey in American Thoroughbred horse racing.
At age thirteen, Bridgmohan's family emigrated to the United States, settling in South Florida where he developed an interes ...
, jockey, first Jamaican in the
Kentucky Derby
The Kentucky Derby is a horse race held annually in Louisville, Kentucky, United States, almost always on the first Saturday in May, capping the two-week-long Kentucky Derby Festival. The competition is a Grade I stakes race for three-year ...
*
Jean Lowrie-Chin, public relations practitioner
*
Kamala Harris
Kamala Devi Harris ( ; born October 20, 1964) is an American politician and attorney who is the 49th vice president of the United States. She is the first female vice president and the highest-ranking female official in U.S. history, as well ...
*
Kamala-Jean Gopie, political activist
*
Maya Harris
Maya Lakshmi Harris (born January 30, 1967) is an American lawyer, public policy advocate, and writer. Harris was one of three senior policy advisors for Hillary Clinton's 2016 presidential campaign's policy agenda and she also served as chair o ...
*
Lee Gopthal, record label owner and promoter
*Henry W. Jaghai, author and community activist
*
Rajiv Maragh
Rajiv Maragh (born July 9, 1985, in Spanish Town, Jamaica) is a jockey in American Thoroughbred horse racing. An Indo-Jamaican, he is the son of a jockey who rode in Jamaica before relocating to Florida where he began a career as a horse trainer. ...
, jockey
*Johnny Mykoo,
chutney
A chutney is a spread in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent. Chutneys are made in a wide variety of forms, such as a tomato relish, a ground peanut garnish, yogurt or curd, cucumber, spicy coconut, spicy onion or mint dipping sauce.
...
singer
*Tony Patel, veteran TV broadcaster
Notable Jamaicans of partial Indian descent
*
Esther Anderson, actress
*
Sabrina Colie
Sabrina Diana Colie is an actor and film and theatre director. She was born in Mandeville, Jamaica and resides in New York City.
Education
Colie completed her elementary education at Mt. St. Joseph Preparatory and high school and sixth form at ...
, actress
*
Five Star
Five Star (also styled as 5 Star) are a British pop group, formed in 1983 and comprising siblings Stedman, Lorraine, Denise, Doris and Delroy Pearson. Between 1985 and 1988, Five Star had four top 20 albums and 15 top 40 singles in the UK, ...
, R&B/pop group
*
Jackie Mittoo
Donat Roy Mittoo (3 March 1948 – 16 December 1990), better known as Jackie Mittoo, was a Jamaican-Canadian keyboardist, songwriter and musical director. He was a member of The Skatalites and musical director of the Studio One record label.
...
, ska musician
*
Amy Ashwood Garvey
Amy Ashwood Garvey (''née'' Ashwood; 10 January 1897 – 3 May 1969) was a Jamaican Pan-Africanist activist. She was a director of the Black Star Line Steamship Corporation, and along with her former husband Marcus Garvey she founded the ''Neg ...
, activist
*
Jamie Gunns, model
*
Stuart Hall, cultural theorist
*
Lisa Hanna
Lisa Rene Shanti Hanna (born August 20, 1975) is a Jamaican politician and beauty queen who was crowned Miss World 1993, becoming the third Jamaican to win the title. A member of the opposition People's National Party, Hanna currently serves a ...
, Miss World 1993, MP Saint Ann South Eastern
*
Lester Holt
Lester Don Holt Jr. (born March 8, 1959) is an American journalist and news anchor for the weekday edition of ''NBC Nightly News'' and ''Dateline NBC''. On June 18, 2015, Holt was made the permanent anchor of ''NBC Nightly News'' following the ...
, U.S. news anchor and journalist
[Today Show: "Lester and Jenna trace their Jamaican roots"]
Aired on September 9, 2012
*
Diana King
Diana King (born 8 November 1970) is a Jamaican-American singer-songwriter who performs a mixture and fusion of reggae, reggae fusion and dancehall. They were born to an Indo-Jamaican mother and an Afro-Jamaican father. They are best known f ...
, R&B and dancehall artist
*
Doreen Lawrence
Doreen Delceita Lawrence, Baroness Lawrence of Clarendon, OBE (''née'' Graham; born 1952) is a British Jamaican campaigner and the mother of Stephen Lawrence, a black British teenager who was murdered in a racist attack in South East London ...
, campaigner and parliamentarian
*
Marlene Malahoo Forte
Marlene Patricia Malahoo Forte is a Jamaican politician. She currently serves as Jamaica's Minister of Legal and Constitutional Affairs and was the Attorney General of Jamaica from 7 March 2016 to 10 January 2022. She served as a Senator f ...
, attorney general
*
Connie Mark
Constance Winifred Mark, MBE, BEM (née McDonald, previously Goodridge; 21 December 1923 – 3 June 2007) was a Jamaican-born community organiser and activist. She served as a medical secretary in the Auxiliary Territorial Service in World War ...
, community organiser and activist
*
Yendi Phillipps
Yendi Amira Phillipps (born 8 September 1985) is a Jamaican TV host, model and beauty queen who was the winner of the Miss Jamaica World 2007 beauty pageant, as well as the Miss Jamaica Universe 2010 pageant. She represented Jamaica at the Mi ...
, winner of the Miss Jamaica World beauty pageant
*
Krishmar Santokie
Krishmar Santokie (born 20 December 1984) is a cricketer who plays for Jamaica and has represented the West Indies at international Twenty20 level. He bowls left-arm medium pace and is a lower order batsman.
Domestic career
He represented the Guy ...
, cricketer
*
Edward Seaga
Edward Philip George Seaga ( or ; 28 May 1930 – 28 May 2019) was a Jamaican politician. He was the fifth Prime Minister of Jamaica, from 1980 to 1989, and the leader of the Jamaica Labour Party from 1974 to 2005.[Prime Minister of Jamaica
The prime minister of Jamaica is Jamaica's head of government, currently Andrew Holness. Holness, as leader of the governing Jamaica Labour Party (JLP), was sworn in as prime minister on 7 September 2020, having been re-elected as a result of ...]
*
Toni-Ann Singh
Toni-Ann Singh (born February 1996) is a Jamaican beauty queen who won Miss World 2019. She was previously crowned Miss Jamaica World 2019 and is the fourth woman from Jamaica to win Miss World. She is also the longest-reigning Miss World in th ...
, Miss World 2019
*
Justine Skye
Justine Indira Skyers (born August 24, 1995), known professionally as Justine Skye, is an American singer. Skye, whose initial fame was from Tumblr, found a career in the music industry and signed with Atlantic Records at the age of 19.
Early l ...
, R&B singer
*
Special Ed, rapper and producer
*
Super Cat
William Anthony Maragh (born 25 June 1963),Huey, Steve " Super Cat Biography, Allmusic, retrieved 18 July 2010 also known as Super Cat, is a Jamaican deejay who achieved widespread popularity during the late 1980s and early 1990s dancehall mo ...
, dancehall artist
*
XXXTentacion
Jahseh Dwayne Ricardo Onfroy (January 23, 1998 – June 18, 2018), known professionally as XXXTentacion, was an American rapper and singer-songwriter. Though a controversial figure due to his widely publicized legal troubles, XXXTentacion ga ...
, rapper
See also
*
Indo-Guyanese
Indo-Guyanese or Indian-Guyanese, are people of Indian origin who are Guyanese nationals tracing their ancestry to India and the wider subcontinent. They are the descendants of indentured servants and settlers who migrated from India beginnin ...
*
Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonian
Indo-Trinidadians and Tobagonians or Indian-Trinidadians and Tobagonians, are people of Indian origin who are nationals of Trinidad and Tobago whose ancestors came from India and the wider subcontinent beginning in 1845.
Indo-Trinidadians and ...
*
Indo-Caribbean
*
Indo-Caribbean music
Indo-Caribbean music is the musical traditions of the Indo-Caribbean people of the Caribbean music area. Indo-Caribbean music is most common in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Jamaica, and Suriname.
Indo-Caribbean traditional music often reflects ...
*
British Indo-Caribbean community
*
Indo-Caribbean Americans
Indo-Caribbean Americans or Indian-Caribbean Americans, are Americans who trace their ancestry ultimately to India, though whose recent ancestors lived in the Caribbean, where they migrated beginning in 1838 as indentured laborers. There are l ...
*
Indo-Canadians
Indian Canadians are Canadians who have ancestry from India. The terms ''Indo-Canadian'' or ''East Indian'' are sometimes used to avoid confusion with the Indigenous Peoples of Canada. Categorically, Indian Canadians comprise a subgroup of ...
*
India–Jamaica relations
References
Sources
* Mansingh, L. and A. "The Indian tradition lives on", in ''A tapestry of Jamaica: The best of Skywritings, Air Jamaica's in-flight magazine''. Kingston: Creative Communications Ltd. and Oxford: Macmillan Publishers. pp. 364–366.
* Mansingh, L. and A. "Indian heritage in Jamaica", ''The Jamaica Journal'' 10 (2,3,4): 10–19.
* Parboosingh, I.S. "An Indo-Jamaica beginning" ''The Jamaica Journal'' 18 (2): 2-10, 12.
* Sherlock, P. and Bennett, H. (1998) ''The story of the Jamaican people''. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers,
* Shepherd, V. "Transients to citizens: The development of a settled East Indian Community", ''The Jamaica Journal'' 18 (3): 17–21.
* .
{{Indian diaspora
Ethnic groups in Jamaica
Indian diaspora in Jamaica
*
Indo-Caribbean