The Imperial Russian Navy () operated as the
navy
A navy, naval force, or maritime force is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval warfare, naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral zone, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and ...
of the
Russian Tsardom
The Tsardom of Russia or Tsardom of Rus' also externally referenced as the Tsardom of Muscovy, was the centralized Russian state from the assumption of the title of Tsar by Ivan IV in 1547 until the foundation of the Russian Empire by Peter I in ...
and later the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War. ...
from 1696 to 1917. Formally established in 1696, it lasted until dissolved in the wake of the
February Revolution
The February Revolution ( rus, Февра́льская револю́ция, r=Fevral'skaya revolyutsiya, p=fʲɪvˈralʲskəjə rʲɪvɐˈlʲutsɨjə), known in Soviet historiography as the February Bourgeois Democratic Revolution and somet ...
of 1917. It developed from a smaller force that had existed prior to Tsar
Peter the Great
Peter I ( – ), most commonly known as Peter the Great,) or Pyotr Alekséyevich ( rus, Пётр Алексе́евич, p=ˈpʲɵtr ɐlʲɪˈksʲejɪvʲɪtɕ, , group=pron was a Russian monarch who ruled the Tsardom of Russia from t ...
's founding of the modern Russian navy during the
Second Azov campaign in 1696. It expanded in the second half of the 18th century and reached its peak strength by the early part of the 19th century, behind only the British and French fleets in terms of size.
The Imperial Navy drew its officers from the aristocracy of the Empire, who belonged to the state
Russian Orthodox Church
, native_name_lang = ru
, image = Moscow July 2011-7a.jpg
, imagewidth =
, alt =
, caption = Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow, Russia
, abbreviation = ROC
, type ...
. Young aristocrats began to be trained for
leadership
Leadership, both as a research area and as a practical skill, encompasses the ability of an individual, group or organization to "lead", influence or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations. The word "leadership" often gets view ...
at a national naval school. From 1818 on, only officers of the Imperial Russian Navy were appointed to the position of Chief Manager of the
Russian-American Company
The Russian-American Company Under the High Patronage of His Imperial Majesty (russian: Под высочайшим Его Императорского Величества покровительством Российская-Американс ...
, based in
Russian America
Russian America (russian: Русская Америка, Russkaya Amerika) was the name for the Russian Empire's colonial possessions in North America from 1799 to 1867. It consisted mostly of present-day Alaska in the United States, but a ...
(present-day
Alaska
Alaska ( ; russian: Аляска, Alyaska; ale, Alax̂sxax̂; ; ems, Alas'kaaq; Yup'ik: ''Alaskaq''; tli, Anáaski) is a state located in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America. A semi-exclave of the U.S., ...
) for colonization and fur-trade development. Although the early Imperial Navy initially employed paid foreign sailors, the government began to recruit native-born sailors as conscripts, drafted (as were men to serve in the army). Service in the navy was lifelong. Many naval commanders and recruits came from Imperial Russia's non-Russian lands with maritime traditions -
Finland and (especially) the
Baltic governorates
The Baltic governorates (russian: Прибалтийские губернии), originally the Ostsee governorates (german: Ostseegouvernements, russian: Остзейские губернии), was a collective name for the administrative units ...
.
The Russian Navy went into a period of decline due to the Empire's slow technical and economic development in the first half of the 19th century. It had a revival in the latter part of the century during the reign of Emperor
Nicholas II (), but most of its
Pacific Fleet (along with the
Baltic Fleet
, image = Great emblem of the Baltic fleet.svg
, image_size = 150
, caption = Baltic Fleet Great ensign
, dates = 18 May 1703 – present
, country =
, allegiance = (1703–1721) (1721–1917) (1917–1922) (1922–1991)(1991–present)
...
sent to the Far East) was destroyed in the humiliating
Russo-Japanese War
The Russo-Japanese War ( ja, 日露戦争, Nichiro sensō, Japanese-Russian War; russian: Ру́сско-япóнская войнá, Rússko-yapónskaya voyná) was fought between the Empire of Japan and the Russian Empire during 1904 and 1 ...
of 1904-1905.
The navy had mixed experiences during the
First World War
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, with the
Germans
, native_name_lang = de
, region1 =
, pop1 = 72,650,269
, region2 =
, pop2 = 534,000
, region3 =
, pop3 = 157,000
3,322,405
, region4 =
, pop4 = ...
generally gaining the upper hand in the
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the North and Central European Plain.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from ...
, while the Russians took control of the
Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
. The
Russian Revolution
The Russian Revolution was a period of Political revolution (Trotskyism), political and social revolution that took place in the former Russian Empire which began during the First World War. This period saw Russia abolish its monarchy and ad ...
marked the end of the Imperial Navy; its officers had mostly aligned with the
emperor, and the sailors split to fight on either side during the
Russian Civil War
, date = October Revolution, 7 November 1917 – Yakut revolt, 16 June 1923{{Efn, The main phase ended on 25 October 1922. Revolt against the Bolsheviks continued Basmachi movement, in Central Asia and Tungus Republic, the Far East th ...
of 1917-1922. The
Soviet Navy, established as the Red Fleet in 1918 after the Revolution, took over the available surviving ships.
Strategically, the Imperial Russian Navy faced two over-arching issues: the use of ice-free ports and open access to the high seas.
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg ( rus, links=no, Санкт-Петербург, a=Ru-Sankt Peterburg Leningrad Petrograd Piter.ogg, r=Sankt-Peterburg, p=ˈsankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk), formerly known as Petrograd (1914–1924) and later Leningrad (1924–1991), i ...
and the other Baltic ports, as well as
Vladivostok
Vladivostok ( rus, Владивосто́к, a=Владивосток.ogg, p=vɫədʲɪvɐˈstok) is the largest city and the administrative center of Primorsky Krai, Russia. The city is located around the Zolotoy Rog, Golden Horn Bay on the Sea ...
, could not operate in winter, hence the push for Russia to establish naval facilities on the Black Sea coast and (eventually) at
Murmansk
Murmansk (Russian: ''Мурманск'' lit. "Norwegian coast"; Finnish: ''Murmansk'', sometimes ''Muurmanski'', previously ''Muurmanni''; Norwegian: ''Norskekysten;'' Northern Sámi: ''Murmánska;'' Kildin Sámi: ''Мурман ланнҍ'') i ...
. And even substantial naval forces in the
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the North and Central European Plain.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from ...
remained confined by the lack of free access to the Atlantic via the
Øresund
Øresund or Öresund (, ; da, Øresund ; sv, Öresund ), commonly known in English as the Sound, is a strait which forms the Danish–Swedish border, separating Zealand (Denmark) from Scania (Sweden). The strait has a length of ; its width v ...
, just as the
Black Sea Fleet
Chernomorskiy flot
, image = Great emblem of the Black Sea fleet.svg
, image_size = 150px
, caption = Great emblem of the Black Sea fleet
, dates = May 13, ...
could not always rely on passage through the
Bosphorus
The Bosporus Strait (; grc, Βόσπορος ; tr, İstanbul Boğazı 'Istanbul strait', colloquially ''Boğaz'') or Bosphorus Strait is a natural strait and an internationally significant waterway located in Istanbul in northwestern Tu ...
and the
Dardanelles
The Dardanelles (; tr, Çanakkale Boğazı, lit=Strait of Çanakkale, el, Δαρδανέλλια, translit=Dardanéllia), also known as the Strait of Gallipoli from the Gallipoli peninsula or from Classical Antiquity as the Hellespont (; ...
. As a result, separate naval groupings developed in relative isolation in the Baltic, the Black Sea, the Russian Far East and the Arctic.
Background
Under Tsar
Mikhail I (''Mikhail Fyodorovich Romanov)'', the first three-masted ships built within Russia were finished in 1636.
Danish
Danish may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to the country of Denmark
People
* A national or citizen of Denmark, also called a "Dane," see Demographics of Denmark
* Culture of Denmark
* Danish people or Danes, people with a Danish a ...
shipbuilders from
Holstein
Holstein (; nds, label=Northern Low Saxon, Holsteen; da, Holsten; Latin and historical en, Holsatia, italic=yes) is the region between the rivers Elbe and Eider. It is the southern half of Schleswig-Holstein, the northernmost state of German ...
built it in
Balakhna
Balakhna (russian: Балахна́) is a town and the administrative center of Balakhninsky District in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located on the right bank of the Volga River, north of Nizhny Novgorod, the administrative center of the obl ...
according to contemporary European design. The ship was christened ''Frederick''; during its maiden voyage on the
Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea is the world's largest inland body of water, often described as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged sea. An endorheic basin, it lies between Europe and Asia; east of the Caucasus, west of the broad steppe of Central Asia ...
, the ship sailed into a heavy storm and was lost at sea.
During the
Russo-Swedish War, 1656-1658, Russian forces seized the
Swedish
Swedish or ' may refer to:
Anything from or related to Sweden, a country in Northern Europe. Or, specifically:
* Swedish language, a North Germanic language spoken primarily in Sweden and Finland
** Swedish alphabet, the official alphabet used by ...
fortresses of
Dünaburg
Daugavpils (; russian: Двинск; ltg, Daugpiļs ; german: Dünaburg, ; pl, Dyneburg; see #Names, other names) is a state city in south-eastern Latvia, located on the banks of the Daugava River, from which the city gets its name. The parts ...
and
Kokenhusen
Koknese () is a town in Aizkraukle Municipality in the Vidzeme region of Latvia, on the right bank of the Daugava River. It has a population of nearly 3,000.
According to the provisions of the Administrative divisions of Latvia, 2021 Latvian admi ...
on the
Western Dvina
, be, Заходняя Дзвіна (), liv, Vēna, et, Väina, german: Düna
, image = Fluss-lv-Düna.png
, image_caption = The drainage basin of the Daugava
, source1_location = Valdai Hills, Russia
, mouth_location = Gulf of Riga, Baltic Se ...
. They renamed the former as ''Borisoglebsk'' and the latter as ''Tsarevich-Dmitriyev''. A
boyar
A boyar or bolyar was a member of the highest rank of the Feudalism, feudal nobility in many Eastern European states, including Kievan Rus', Bulgarian Empire, Bulgaria, Russian nobility, Russia, Boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia, Wallachia and ...
named
Afanasy Ordin-Nashchokin
Afanasy Lavrentievich Ordin-Nashchokin (russian: Афанасий Лаврентьевич Ордин-Нащокин) (1605–1680) was a Russian statesman of the 17th century. He was the first junior noble to attain the '' boyar'' title and high ...
founded a shipyard at Tsarevich-Dmitriev fortress and began constructing vessels to sail in the Baltic Sea. In 1661, however, Russia lost this and other captured territories by the Peace of Cardis. Russia agreed to surrender to Sweden all captured territories, and it ordered all vessels constructed at Tsarevich-Dmitriev to be destroyed.
![Flag of Oryol ship (variant)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Flag_of_Oryol_ship_%28variant%29.svg)
''Boyar'' Ordin-Nashchokin turned his attention to the
Volga River
The Volga (; russian: Во́лга, a=Ru-Волга.ogg, p=ˈvoɫɡə) is the List of rivers of Europe#Rivers of Europe by length, longest river in Europe. Situated in Russia, it flows through Central Russia to Southern Russia and into the Cas ...
and Caspian Sea. With the Tsar's approval, the ''boyar'' brought Dutch shipbuilding experts to the town of Dedinovo near the confluence of the
Oka
Oka or OKA may refer to:
Cars
* Oka (automobile), a small car designed by AvtoVAZ and produced by ZMA and SeAZ
* OKA 4wd, a large 4-wheel-drive vehicle made in Western Australia by OKA
Military
* 2B1 Oka, Soviet 420 mm self-propelled mor ...
and Volga rivers. Shipbuilding commenced in the winter of 1667. Within two years, four vessels had been completed: one 22-gun galley, christened ''Орёл'' ("Oryol" = "Eagle"), and three smaller ships. ''Орёл'' was Russia's first own three-masted, European-designed sailing ship. It was captured in
Astrakhan
Astrakhan ( rus, Астрахань, p=ˈastrəxənʲ) is the largest city and administrative centre of Astrakhan Oblast in Southern Russia. The city lies on two banks of the Volga, in the upper part of the Volga Delta, on eleven islands of the ...
by rebellious
Cossack
The Cossacks , es, cosaco , et, Kasakad, cazacii , fi, Kasakat, cazacii , french: cosaques , hu, kozákok, cazacii , it, cosacchi , orv, коза́ки, pl, Kozacy , pt, cossacos , ro, cazaci , russian: казаки́ or ...
s led by
Stepan Razin
Stepan Timofeyevich Razin (russian: Степа́н Тимофе́евич Ра́зин, ; 1630 – ), known as Stenka Razin ( ), was a Cossack leader who led a major uprising against the nobility and tsarist bureaucracy in southern Russia in 16 ...
. The Cossacks ransacked ''Орёл'' and abandoned it, half-submerged, in an estuary of the Volga.
During much of the 17th century, independent Russian merchants and Cossacks, using
koch boats, sailed across the
White Sea
The White Sea (russian: Белое море, ''Béloye móre''; Karelian and fi, Vienanmeri, lit. Dvina Sea; yrk, Сэрако ямʼ, ''Serako yam'') is a southern inlet of the Barents Sea located on the northwest coast of Russia. It is su ...
, exploring the rivers
Lena
Lena or LENA may refer to:
Places
* Léna Department, a department of Houet Province in Burkina Faso
* Lena, Manitoba, an unincorporated community located in Killarney-Turtle Mountain municipality in Manitoba, Canada
* Lena, Norway, a village in ...
,
Kolyma
Kolyma (russian: Колыма́, ) is a region located in the Russian Far East. It is bounded to the north by the East Siberian Sea and the Arctic Ocean, and by the Sea of Okhotsk to the south. The region gets its name from the Kolyma River an ...
and
Indigirka
The Indigirka ( rus, Индиги́рка, r=; sah, Индигиир, translit=Indigiir) is a river in the Sakha Republic in Russia between the Yana (river), Yana to the west and the Kolyma River, Kolyma to the east. It is long. The area of its ...
, and founding settlements in the region of the upper
Amur
The Amur (russian: река́ Аму́р, ), or Heilong Jiang (, "Black Dragon River", ), is the world's List of longest rivers, tenth longest river, forming the border between the Russian Far East and Northeast China, Northeastern China (Inne ...
. The most celebrated Russian explorer was
Semyon Dezhnev
Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnyov ( rus, Семён Ива́нович Дежнёв, p=sʲɪˈmʲɵn ɪˈvanəvʲɪtɕ dʲɪˈʐnʲɵf; sometimes spelled Dezhnyov; c. 1605 – 1673) was a Russian explorer of Siberia and the first European to sail through t ...
who, in 1648, sailed along the entire northern expanse of present-day Russia by way of the
Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceans. It spans an area of approximately and is known as the coldest of all the oceans. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, a ...
. Rounding the
Chukotsk Peninsula
The Chukchi Peninsula (also Chukotka Peninsula or Chukotski Peninsula; russian: Чуко́тский полуо́стров, ''Chukotskiy poluostrov'', short form russian: Чуко́тка, ''Chukotka''), at about 66° N 172° W, is the eastern ...
, Dezhnev passed through the
Bering Sea
The Bering Sea (, ; rus, Бе́рингово мо́ре, r=Béringovo móre) is a marginal sea of the Northern Pacific Ocean. It forms, along with the Bering Strait, the divide between the two largest landmasses on Earth: Eurasia and The Ameri ...
and sailed into the Pacific Ocean.
Reign of Peter the Great
Peter the Great
Peter I ( – ), most commonly known as Peter the Great,) or Pyotr Alekséyevich ( rus, Пётр Алексе́евич, p=ˈpʲɵtr ɐlʲɪˈksʲejɪvʲɪtɕ, , group=pron was a Russian monarch who ruled the Tsardom of Russia from t ...
established the modern Russian Navy. During the
Second Azov campaign of 1696 against Turkey, the Russians for the first time used 2 warships, 4
fireship
A fire ship or fireship, used in the days of wooden rowed or sailing ships, was a ship filled with combustibles, or gunpowder deliberately set on fire and steered (or, when possible, allowed to drift) into an enemy fleet, in order to destroy sh ...
s, 23
galley
A galley is a type of ship that is propelled mainly by oars. The galley is characterized by its long, slender hull, shallow draft, and low freeboard (clearance between sea and gunwale). Virtually all types of galleys had sails that could be used ...
s and 1300
strugs, built on the
Voronezh River
The Voronezh (russian: Воро́неж, ), also romanized as Voronež, is a river in Tambov, Lipetsk, and Voronezh oblasts in Russia, a left tributary of the Don. The Voronezh is long, with a drainage basin of .[Azov
Azov (russian: Азов), previously known as Azak,
is a town in Rostov Oblast, Russia, situated on the Don River just from the Sea of Azov, which derives its name from the town. Population:
History
Early settlements in the vicinity
The mo ...]
fortress, the
Boyar Duma
A duma (russian: дума) is a Russian assembly with advisory or legislative functions.
The term ''boyar duma'' is used to refer to advisory councils in Russia from the 10th to 17th centuries. Starting in the 18th century, city dumas were for ...
looked into Peter's report of this military campaign. It passed a decree on October 20, 1696 to commence construction of a navy. This date is considered the official founding of the Imperial Russian Navy.
During the
Great Northern War
The Great Northern War (1700–1721) was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Northern, Central and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the anti-Swedi ...
of 1700–1721, the Russians built the
Baltic Fleet
, image = Great emblem of the Baltic fleet.svg
, image_size = 150
, caption = Baltic Fleet Great ensign
, dates = 18 May 1703 – present
, country =
, allegiance = (1703–1721) (1721–1917) (1917–1922) (1922–1991)(1991–present)
...
. The construction of the oared fleet (galley fleet) took place in 1702–1704 at several
shipyard
A shipyard, also called a dockyard or boatyard, is a place where ships are built and repaired. These can be yachts, military vessels, cruise liners or other cargo or passenger ships. Dockyards are sometimes more associated with maintenance a ...
s (
estuaries
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environment ...
of the rivers
Syas,
Luga and
Olonka). In order to defend the conquered coastline and attack enemy's maritime communications in the
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the North and Central European Plain.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from ...
, the Russians created a sailing fleet from ships built in Russia and others imported from abroad.
From 1703 to 1723, the main naval
base of the Baltic Fleet was located in
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg ( rus, links=no, Санкт-Петербург, a=Ru-Sankt Peterburg Leningrad Petrograd Piter.ogg, r=Sankt-Peterburg, p=ˈsankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk), formerly known as Petrograd (1914–1924) and later Leningrad (1924–1991), i ...
and then in
Kronstadt
Kronstadt (russian: Кроншта́дт, Kronshtadt ), also spelled Kronshtadt, Cronstadt or Kronštádt (from german: link=no, Krone for "crown" and ''Stadt'' for "city") is a Russian port city in Kronshtadtsky District of the federal city of ...
. Bases were also created in Reval (
Tallinn
Tallinn () is the most populous and capital city of Estonia. Situated on a bay in north Estonia, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea, Tallinn has a population of 437,811 (as of 2022) and administratively lies in the Harju ' ...
) and in
Vyborg
Vyborg (; rus, Вы́борг, links=1, r=Výborg, p=ˈvɨbərk; fi, Viipuri ; sv, Viborg ; german: Wiborg ) is a town in, and the administrative center of, Vyborgsky District in Leningrad Oblast, Russia. It lies on the Karelian Isthmus ne ...
after it was ceded by Sweden after
Russo-Swedish War (1741-1743)
Wars between Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and ...
.
Vladimirsky Prikaz
A prikaz (russian: прика́з, ''prikaz''; , plural: ) was an administrative, judicial, territorial, or executive office functioning on behalf of palace, civil, military, or church authorities in Muscovy and in Russia from the 15th to the 1 ...
was the first organization in charge of shipbuilding. Later on, these functions were transferred to the
Admiralteyskiy Prikaz (admiralty in St. Petersburg).
In 1745 the Russian Navy had 130 sailing vessels, including 36 ships of the line, 9
frigate
A frigate () is a type of warship. In different eras, the roles and capabilities of ships classified as frigates have varied somewhat.
The name frigate in the 17th to early 18th centuries was given to any full-rigged ship built for speed and ...
s, 3 ''shnyavas'' (''шнява'' — a light two-mast ship used for
reconnaissance
In military operations, reconnaissance or scouting is the exploration of an area by military forces to obtain information about enemy forces, terrain, and other activities.
Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops (skirmisher ...
and messenger services), 5 bombardier ships, and 77 auxiliary vessels. The oared fleet consisted of 396 vessels, including 253 galleys and semi-galleys (called ''скампавеи'', or ; a light high-speed galley) and 143
brigantine
A brigantine is a two-masted sailing vessel with a fully square-rigged foremast and at least two sails on the main mast: a square topsail and a gaff sail mainsail (behind the mast). The main mast is the second and taller of the two masts.
Older ...
s. The ships were being constructed at 24 shipyards, including the ones in
Voronezh
Voronezh ( rus, links=no, Воро́неж, p=vɐˈronʲɪʂ}) is a city and the administrative centre of Voronezh Oblast in southwestern Russia straddling the Voronezh River, located from where it flows into the Don River. The city sits on the ...
,
Kazan
Kazan ( ; rus, Казань, p=kɐˈzanʲ; tt-Cyrl, Казан, ''Qazan'', IPA: ɑzan is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Tatarstan in Russia. The city lies at the confluence of the Volga and the Kazanka rivers, covering a ...
,
Pereyaslavl,
Arkhangelsk
Arkhangelsk (, ; rus, Арха́нгельск, p=ɐrˈxanɡʲɪlʲsk), also known in English as Archangel and Archangelsk, is a types of inhabited localities in Russia, city and the administrative center of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia. It lies o ...
,
Olonets
Olonets (russian: Оло́нец; krl, Anus, olo, Anuksenlinnu; fi, Aunus, Aunuksenkaupunki or Aunuksenlinna) is a town and the administrative center of Olonetsky District of the Republic of Karelia, Russia, located on the Olonka River to th ...
, Petersburg and
Astrakhan
Astrakhan ( rus, Астрахань, p=ˈastrəxənʲ) is the largest city and administrative centre of Astrakhan Oblast in Southern Russia. The city lies on two banks of the Volga, in the upper part of the Volga Delta, on eleven islands of the ...
.
The naval officers came from ''
dvoryane
The Russian nobility (russian: дворянство ''dvoryanstvo'') originated in the 14th century. In 1914 it consisted of approximately 1,900,000 members (about 1.1% of the population) in the Russian Empire.
Up until the February Revolution ...
'' (noblemen, aristocrats who belonged to the state Russian Orthodox Church). The regular sailors were
conscripts
Conscription (also called the draft in the United States) is the state-mandated enlistment of people in a national service, mainly a military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and it continues in some countries to the present day un ...
, drafted into military service. The service in the navy was lifelong. Children of noblemen were educated for naval service at the School for Mathematical and Navigational Sciences, which had been founded in 1701 in Moscow's Sukharev Tower. Students were often sent abroad for training in foreign fleets. The Navy also hired foreign nationals, with significant naval experience, to serve in the Russian Navy, such as the Norwegian-Dutch
Cornelius Cruys
Cornelius Cruys ( no, Niels Creutz, i=no, russian: Корнелий Крюйс, i=no; 14 June 1655 – 14 June 1727) was a Norwegian–Dutch admiral of the Imperial Russian Navy, and the first commander of the Russian Baltic Fleet.
Early ...
, the Greek
Ivan Botsis Count Ivan Fedoseevich Botsis ( el, Ιωάννης Μπότσης, russian: Иван Федосеевич Боцис, died 18 May 1714 , or the Scotsman
Thomas Gordon. In 1718, the Admiralty Board (Адмиралтейств-коллегия) was established as the highest naval authority in Russia.
![Kronstadt old Andreevsky sobor](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Kronstadt_old_Andreevsky_sobor.jpg)
The organizational principles of the Russian Navy, educational and training methods for preparing future staff, and methods for conducting military action were all summarized in the Naval Charter (1720), written by Peter I himself.
Peter the Great
Peter I ( – ), most commonly known as Peter the Great,) or Pyotr Alekséyevich ( rus, Пётр Алексе́евич, p=ˈpʲɵtr ɐlʲɪˈksʲejɪvʲɪtɕ, , group=pron was a Russian monarch who ruled the Tsardom of Russia from t ...
,
Feodor Apraksin,
Alexey Senyavin,
Naum Senyavin Naum Akimovich Senyavin (''Наум Акимович Сенявин'' in Russian) (c. 1680 – ) was a Vice Admiral (1727) of the Imperial Russian Navy.
Naum Senyavin began his military career as a soldier of the Preobrazhensky regiment in 169 ...
, Admiral
Mikhail Golitsyn
Prince Mikhail Mikhailovich Golitsyn or Galitzin (russian: Михаи́л Миха́йлович Голи́цын, tr. ; 1 November 1675 in Moscow – 10 December 1730) was a Russian Imperial field marshal (1725) and a president of the Colleg ...
and others are generally credited for the development of the Russian art of
naval warfare
Naval warfare is combat in and on the sea, the ocean, or any other battlespace involving a major body of water such as a large lake or wide river. Mankind has fought battles on the sea for more than 3,000 years. Even in the interior of large la ...
. The main principles of naval warfare were further developed by
Grigory Spiridov
Grigory Andreyevich Spiridov () (1713, Vyborg - , Moscow) was a leading Russian naval commander and admiral (1769).
Grigory Spiridov began his career in the Russian Navy in 1723. He was promoted to an Officer (armed forces), officer rank in 1733. ...
,
Feodor Ushakov, and
Dmitry Senyavin
Dmitry Nikolayevich Senyavin or Seniavin (russian: Дми́трий Никола́евич Сеня́вин; – ) was a Russian admiral during the Napoleonic Wars.
Service under Ushakov
Senyavin belonged to a notable noble family of sea ...
.
Between 1688 and 1725, a period spanning most of Peter's reign, some 1,260 seagoing
vessels
Vessel(s) or The Vessel may refer to:
Biology
*Blood vessel, a part of the circulatory system and function to transport blood throughout the body
*Lymphatic vessel, a thin walled, valved structure that carries lymph
*Vessel element, a narrow wat ...
were built in Russian shipyards for the Imperial Russian Navy. Fleets were launched successively on the
White Sea
The White Sea (russian: Белое море, ''Béloye móre''; Karelian and fi, Vienanmeri, lit. Dvina Sea; yrk, Сэрако ямʼ, ''Serako yam'') is a southern inlet of the Barents Sea located on the northwest coast of Russia. It is su ...
, the
Sea of Azov
The Sea of Azov ( Crimean Tatar: ''Azaq deñizi''; russian: Азовское море, Azovskoye more; uk, Азовське море, Azovs'ke more) is a sea in Eastern Europe connected to the Black Sea by the narrow (about ) Strait of Kerch, ...
(with access to the
Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
), the
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the North and Central European Plain.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from ...
, and the
Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea is the world's largest inland body of water, often described as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged sea. An endorheic basin, it lies between Europe and Asia; east of the Caucasus, west of the broad steppe of Central Asia ...
(
Russo-Persian War of 1722-1723). In 1700, the majority of sailors in the Imperial Russian Navy were foreigners at the start of the
Great Northern War
The Great Northern War (1700–1721) was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Northern, Central and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the anti-Swedi ...
. But by 1721, at the end of the same war, the navy had 7,215 native-born sailors.
18th century
In the second half of the 18th century, the Russian Navy was built up to support the government's foreign policy. The nation conducted the
Russo-Turkish wars
The Russo-Turkish wars (or Ottoman–Russian wars) were a series of twelve wars fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 20th centuries. It was one of the longest series of military conflicts in European histor ...
for supremacy in the
Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
. For the first time, Russia sent its
squadrons from the Baltic Sea to distant
theaters of operations (''see
Archipelago expeditions of the Russian Navy'').
Admiral
Admiral is one of the highest ranks in some navies. In the Commonwealth nations and the United States, a "full" admiral is equivalent to a "full" general in the army or the air force, and is above vice admiral and below admiral of the fleet, ...
Spiridov's squadron gained supremacy in the
Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea ; tr, Ege Denizi (Greek language, Greek: Αιγαίο Πέλαγος: "Egéo Pélagos", Turkish language, Turkish: "Ege Denizi" or "Adalar Denizi") is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Asia. It ...
by destroying the
Turkish fleet in the
Battle of Chesma
The naval Battle of Chesme took place on 5–7 July 1770 during the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) near and in Çeşme (Chesme or Chesma) Bay, in the area between the western tip of Anatolia and the island of Chios, which was the site of a numb ...
in 1770. In 1771, the
Russian army
The Russian Ground Forces (russian: Сухопутные войска В Sukhoputnyye voyska V, also known as the Russian Army (, ), are the Army, land forces of the Russian Armed Forces.
The primary responsibilities of the Russian Gro ...
conquered the coasts of the
Kerch Strait
The Kerch Strait, uk, Керченська протока, crh, Keriç boğazı, ady, Хы ТӀуалэ is a strait in Eastern Europe. It connects the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, separating the Kerch Peninsula of Crimea in the west from ...
and
fortress
A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin ''fortis'' ("strong") and ''facere'' ...
es of
Kerch
Kerch ( uk, Керч; russian: Керчь, ; Old East Slavic: Кърчевъ; Ancient Greek: , ''Pantikápaion''; Medieval Greek: ''Bosporos''; crh, , ; tr, Kerç) is a city of regional significance on the Kerch Peninsula in the east of t ...
and
Yenikale
Yeni-Kale ( uk, Єні-Кале; russian: Еникале; tr, Yenikale; crh, Yeñi Qale, also spelled as ''Yenikale'' and ''Eni-Kale'' and ''Yeni-Kaleh'' or ''Yéni-Kaleb'') is a fortress on the shore of Kerch Strait in the city of Kerch.
Histor ...
.
After having advanced to the
Danube
The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , pa ...
, the Russians formed the
Danube Military Flotilla for the purpose of guarding the Danube estuary. In 1771 they were guests to the
Republic of Ragusa
hr, Sloboda se ne prodaje za sve zlato svijeta it, La libertà non si vende nemmeno per tutto l'oro del mondo"Liberty is not sold for all the gold in the world"
, population_estimate = 90 000 in the XVI Century
, currency = ...
. The
Beluga caviar
Beluga caviar is caviar consisting of the roe (or eggs) of the beluga sturgeon ''Huso huso''. The fish is found primarily in the Caspian Sea, which is bordered by Iran, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan. It can also be found in th ...
from the Danube was famous, and merchants from the Republic of Ragusa dominated the import-export business in
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
with the
Habsburg monarchy
The Habsburg monarchy (german: Habsburgermonarchie, ), also known as the Danubian monarchy (german: Donaumonarchie, ), or Habsburg Empire (german: Habsburgerreich, ), was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and other polities ...
.
In 1773 the vessels of the
Azov Flotilla
The Azov Flotilla or Azov Naval Flotilla was the name given to several Russian naval forces operated on the Sea of Azov as part of the Imperial Russian Navy, by both the Soviets and the White Russians during the Russian Civil War, and as part of ...
(created anew in 1771) sailed into the Black Sea. Russia defeated Turkey in the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774, gaining control of the
Sea of Azov
The Sea of Azov ( Crimean Tatar: ''Azaq deñizi''; russian: Азовское море, Azovskoye more; uk, Азовське море, Azovs'ke more) is a sea in Eastern Europe connected to the Black Sea by the narrow (about ) Strait of Kerch, ...
and a part of the Black Sea coastline between the rivers
Bug and
Dniester
The Dniester, ; rus, Дне́стр, links=1, Dnéstr, ˈdⁿʲestr; ro, Nistru; grc, Τύρᾱς, Tyrās, ; la, Tyrās, la, Danaster, label=none, ) ( ,) is a transboundary river in Eastern Europe. It runs first through Ukraine and th ...
. The
Crimea
Crimea, crh, Къырым, Qırım, grc, Κιμμερία / Ταυρική, translit=Kimmería / Taurikḗ ( ) is a peninsula in Ukraine, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, that has been occupied by Russia since 2014. It has a pop ...
was pronounced independent under Russia's
protectorate
A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a State (polity), state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over m ...
and was annexed by Russia in 1783. In 1778, the Russians founded the port of
Kherson
Kherson (, ) is a port city of Ukraine
Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers appr ...
. The first battleship of the
Black Sea Fleet
Chernomorskiy flot
, image = Great emblem of the Black Sea fleet.svg
, image_size = 150px
, caption = Great emblem of the Black Sea fleet
, dates = May 13, ...
was commissioned here in 1783. A year later, a squadron had been developed.
19th century
![Ruadmiralty](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Ruadmiralty.jpg)
By the second half of the 18th century, the Russian Navy had the fourth-largest fleet in the world after Great Britain, Spain and France. The Black Sea Fleet possessed 35 line-of-battle ships and 19 frigates (1787), and the Baltic Fleet had 23 ships of the line and 130 frigates (1788). In the early 19th century, the Russian Navy consisted of the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets,
Caspian Flotilla
Kaspiyskaya flotiliya
, image = Great emblem of the Caspian Flotilla.svg
, image_size = 150px
, caption = Great emblem of the Caspian Flotilla
, dates = No ...
,
White Sea Flotilla and
Okhotsk Flotilla.
During the
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European states formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of Fren ...
, the Russian Navy had limited sea-going capability, with the 1802 Committee to Improve the Condition of the Navy concluding that the dire state of the ships of the Baltic Fleet, suffering as they did from extensive rot and a lack of copper plating, was incapable of defending
Kronstadt
Kronstadt (russian: Кроншта́дт, Kronshtadt ), also spelled Kronshtadt, Cronstadt or Kronštádt (from german: link=no, Krone for "crown" and ''Stadt'' for "city") is a Russian port city in Kronshtadtsky District of the federal city of ...
and
St Petersburg
Saint Petersburg ( rus, links=no, Санкт-Петербург, a=Ru-Sankt Peterburg Leningrad Petrograd Piter.ogg, r=Sankt-Peterburg, p=ˈsankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk), formerly known as Petrograd (1914–1924) and later Leningrad (1924–1991), i ...
. The Committee's chairman, Vorontsov, concluded that "It is impossible for Russia to be considered a major naval power, but there is no predictable need or advantage in this status." Consequently, the Committee recommended nothing more than limited measures to rectify the state of the fleets, and the Russians retained limited capability at sea thereafter, relying on their land power to defeat
Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
. In 1802, the Ministry of Naval Military Forces was established (renamed to Naval Ministry in 1815).
![Russians at navarino](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Russians_at_navarino.jpg)
This attitude changed with the accession of
Nicholas I in 1825, who less than a month into his reign declared that "Russia must become the third naval power after England and France and must be more powerful than any coalition of secondary naval powers." As a consequence, the 1825 Committee to Organise the Fleet was formed, which outlined an ambitious shipbuilding project which aimed to create the third largest navy in Europe.
The growth of the Navy in the years after this greatly bolstered Russian naval capability, expanding both the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets. A Russian squadron under the Dutch Admiral
Lodewijk van Heiden
Lodewijk Sigismund Vincent Gustaaf Reichsgraf van Heiden (german: Ludwig Sigismund Vinzent Gustav Reichsgraf van Heyden, russian: Ло́ггин Петро́вич Ге́йден, transliterated Russian name: ''Loggin Petrovich Geyden''; 6 Septemb ...
fought at the
Battle of Navarino
The Battle of Navarino was a naval battle fought on 20 October (O. S. 8 October) 1827, during the Greek War of Independence (1821–29), in Navarino Bay (modern Pylos), on the west coast of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the Ionian Sea. Allied fo ...
in 1827. The Navy was used to great effect during the subsequent
Russo-Turkish War (1828-29)
The Russo-Turkish wars (or Ottoman–Russian wars) were a series of twelve wars fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 20th centuries. It was one of the longest series of military conflicts in History of Euro ...
, utilising the Mediterranean squadron and the Black Sea Fleet to gain command of the Sea from the Ottomans, which contributed to Russian victory and the signing of the
Treaty of Adrianople in 1829.
In 1826 the Russians built their first armed
steamboat
A steamboat is a boat that is marine propulsion, propelled primarily by marine steam engine, steam power, typically driving propellers or Paddle steamer, paddlewheels. Steamboats sometimes use the ship prefix, prefix designation SS, S.S. or S/S ...
''Izhora'' (), equipped with eight
cannon
A cannon is a large- caliber gun classified as a type of artillery, which usually launches a projectile using explosive chemical propellant. Gunpowder ("black powder") was the primary propellant before the invention of smokeless powder ...
s. In 1836, they constructed the first
paddle steam frigate of the Russian Navy called
''Bogatyr'' (displacement — , power — , armament — 28 cannons).
The Imperial Russian Navy sent out exploratory expeditions. Between 1803 and 1855, their ships undertook more than 40
circumnavigation
Circumnavigation is the complete navigation around an entire island, continent, or astronomical object, astronomical body (e.g. a planet or natural satellite, moon). This article focuses on the circumnavigation of Earth.
The first recorded circ ...
s and long-distant voyages, most of which were in support of their North Americans colonies in Russian America (Alaska) and Fort Ross in northern California, and their Pacific ports on the eastern seaboard of
Siberia
Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a part of ...
. These voyages produced important scientific research materials and discoveries in Pacific, Antarctic and Arctic theatres of operations.
In 1863, during the
American Civil War
The American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865; also known by other names) was a civil war in the United States. It was fought between the Union ("the North") and the Confederacy ("the South"), the latter formed by states th ...
, the Russian Navy's Atlantic and Pacific fleets wintered in the American ports of New York and San Francisco, respectively. Some historians credit this visit as a major factor in deterring France and the
UK from entering the war on the
Confederate
Confederacy or confederate may refer to:
States or communities
* Confederate state or confederation, a union of sovereign groups or communities
* Confederate States of America, a confederation of secessionist American states that existed between 1 ...
side. Delahaye states that besides supporting the Union, Russia was also preparing for a war with France and the UK should they intervene in the Polish insurrection of 1863. The Russian Navy was weak and could easily be blockaded in its home ports, but if it was in the US when the war started it could more easily attack British and French commerce.
The Imperial Russian Navy continued to expand in the later part of the century becoming the third largest fleet in the world after the UK and France. The expansion accelerated under Emperor
Nicholas II
Nicholas II or Nikolai II Alexandrovich Romanov; spelled in pre-revolutionary script. ( 186817 July 1918), known in the Russian Orthodox Church as Saint Nicholas the Passion-Bearer,. was the last Emperor of Russia, King of Congress Pola ...
who had been influenced by the American naval theoretician
Alfred Thayer Mahan
Alfred Thayer Mahan (; September 27, 1840 – December 1, 1914) was a United States naval officer and historian, whom John Keegan called "the most important American strategist of the nineteenth century." His book '' The Influence of Sea Power ...
. Russian industry, although growing in capacity, was not able to meet the demands and some ships were ordered from the UK, France, Germany, USA, and Denmark. French naval architects in particular had a considerable influence on Russian designs.
Crimean War and aftermath
![Vladimir vs Pervaz-i Bahri](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Vladimir_vs_Pervaz-i_Bahri.jpg)
Russia's slow technical and economic development in the first half of the 19th century caused her to fall behind other European countries in the field of
steamboat
A steamboat is a boat that is marine propulsion, propelled primarily by marine steam engine, steam power, typically driving propellers or Paddle steamer, paddlewheels. Steamboats sometimes use the ship prefix, prefix designation SS, S.S. or S/S ...
construction. By the outbreak of the
Crimean War
The Crimean War, , was fought from October 1853 to February 1856 between Russia and an ultimately victorious alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, the United Kingdom and Piedmont-Sardinia.
Geopolitical causes of the war included the de ...
in 1853, Russia had the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets, Arkhangelsk Flotilla, Caspian Flotilla and
Okhotsk Flotilla (altogether, 40 battleships, 15 frigates, 24
corvette
A corvette is a small warship. It is traditionally the smallest class of vessel considered to be a proper (or " rated") warship. The warship class above the corvette is that of the frigate, while the class below was historically that of the slo ...
s and
brig
A brig is a type of sailing vessel defined by its rig: two masts which are both square rig, square-rigged. Brigs originated in the second half of the 18th century and were a common type of smaller merchant vessel or warship from then until the ...
s, 16 steam frigates etc.).
The combined number of staff of all the fleets equaled 91,000 people. Despite all this, the reactionary
serfdom
Serfdom was the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism, and similar systems. It was a condition of debt bondage and indentured servitude with similarities to and differences from slavery, which develop ...
system had an adverse effect on the development of the Russian Navy. It was especially typical of the Baltic Fleet, which was known for its harsh military drill.
Thanks to admirals
Mikhail Lazarev
Admiral Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev (russian: Михаил Петрович Лазарев, 3 November 1788 – 11 April 1851) was a Russian Naval fleet, fleet commander and an explorer.
Education and early career
Lazarev was born in Vladimir, R ...
,
Pavel Nakhimov
Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov (russian: Павел Степанович Нахимов, ; – ) was a Russian Admiral in the Imperial Russian Navy known for his victory in the Battle of Sinop and his leadership in the Siege of Sevastopol (18 ...
,
Vladimir Kornilov
Vice Admiral Vladimir Alexeyevich Kornilov (; 13 February 1806 – 17 October 1854) was a Russian naval officer who took part in the Crimean War and is known for his battle against the Pervaz-ı Bahrî in what is considered the first battle ...
, and
Vladimir Istomin
Vladimir (Vladislav) Ivanovich Istomin (russian: Владимир (Владислав) Иванович Истомин; – ) was a Russian rear admiral (1853) and hero of the Siege of Sevastopol.
Biography
In 1827, Vladimir Istomin gradua ...
, the sailors of the Black Sea Fleet were taught the art of warfare and upholding of military traditions of the Russian Navy, formed in the times of Admiral Ushakov.
The
Battle of Sinop
The Battle of Sinop, or the Battle of Sinope, was a naval battle that took place on 30 November 1853 between Imperial Russia and the Ottoman Empire, during the opening phase of the Crimean War (1853–1856). It took place at Sinop, a sea port o ...
in 1853 the Black Sea Fleet under Nakhimov made a number of tactical innovations. During the
Siege of Sevastopol in 1854–1855, the Russian sailors used all means possible to defend their base from land and sea. In accordance with the
Treaty of Paris Treaty of Paris may refer to one of many treaties signed in Paris, France:
Treaties
1200s and 1300s
* Treaty of Paris (1229), which ended the Albigensian Crusade
* Treaty of Paris (1259), between Henry III of England and Louis IX of France
* Trea ...
, Russia lost the right to have a military fleet in the Black Sea. In the 1860s, the Russian fleet which had relied upon sails lost its significance and was gradually replaced by steam.
After the Crimean War, Russia commenced construction of steam-powered
ironclad
An ironclad is a steam engine, steam-propelled warship protected by Wrought iron, iron or steel iron armor, armor plates, constructed from 1859 to the early 1890s. The ironclad was developed as a result of the vulnerability of wooden warships ...
s, Monitor warship type, monitors, and floating batteries. These vessels had strong artillery and thick armor, but lacked seaworthiness, speed and long-distance abilities. In 1861, they built the first steel-armored gunboat ''Opyt'' (Опыт). In 1869, the Russians began the construction of one of the first seafaring ironclads, (Пётр Великий).
Russo-Japanese War
On the night of 8 February 1904, the Imperial Japanese Navy, Japanese naval fleet under Admiral Heihachiro Togo opened the war with a surprise attack by torpedo boat destroyers on the Russian ships at Port Arthur, badly damaging two Russian battleships. The attacks developed into the Battle of Port Arthur the next morning. A series of indecisive naval engagements followed, in which the Japanese were unable to attack the Russian fleet successfully under shore batteries (''coastal guns'') of the harbor and the Russians declined to leave the harbor for the open seas, especially after the death of Admiral Stepan Osipovich Makarov on 13 April 1904.
After the attack on Port Arthur, the Japanese attempted to deny the Russians use of the port. On the night of 13/14 February, the Japanese attempted to block the entrance to Port Arthur by sinking several cement-filled steamers in the deep water channel to the port. But the steamers, driven off course by Russian gunfire were unable to sink them in the designated places, rendering them ineffective. Another attempt to block the harbor entrance on the night of 3/4 May with blockships also failed.
Mine-laying
In March, the energetic Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov (1849–1904) took command of the First Russian Pacific Squadron with the intention of making plans to break out of the Port Arthur blockade. By then, both sides began a policy of tactical offensive mine-laying by laying mines in each other's ports. This was the first time in warfare that mines were used for offensive purposes. In the past, mines were used as purely defensive purposes by keeping harbors safe from invading warships.
The Japanese mine-laying policy was effective at restricting the Russian movement of its ships outside Port Arthur when on 12 April 1904, two Russian battleships; the flagship, , and ran into a Japanese minefield off Port Arthur with both striking mines. ''Petropavlovsk'' sank within an hour, while ''Pobeda'' had to be towed back to Port Arthur for extensive repairs. Makarov died on ''Petropavlovsk''.
However, the Russians soon learned the Japanese tactic of offensive minelaying and decided to play the strategy too. On 15 May, two Japanese battleships — and , were both lured into a recently laid Russian minefield off Port Arthur, both striking at least two mines. ''Hatsuse'' sank within minutes taking 450 sailors with her, while ''Yashima'' sank under tow a few hours later.
The Russian fleet attempted to break out from Port Arthur and proceed to
Vladivostok
Vladivostok ( rus, Владивосто́к, a=Владивосток.ogg, p=vɫədʲɪvɐˈstok) is the largest city and the administrative center of Primorsky Krai, Russia. The city is located around the Zolotoy Rog, Golden Horn Bay on the Sea ...
, but they were intercepted and dispersed at the Battle of the Yellow Sea. The remnant of the Russian fleet remained in Port Arthur, where the ships were slowly sunk by the artillery of the besieging army. Attempts to relieve the city by land also failed, and after the Battle of Liaoyang in late August, the Russians retreated to Mukden (Shenyang). Port Arthur finally fell on 2 January 1905, after a series of brutal, high-casualty assaults.
Russian submarines
By 25 June, the Imperial Russian Navy had secretly purchased its first naval submarine, known as Madam, from Isaac Rice's Electric Boat Company. This submarine was originally built under the direction of Arthur Leopold Busch as the American torpedo boat ''Fulton''. It was a prototype of the Holland Type 7 Design known as the ''Adder''-class/ submarines. By 10 October, this first Russian submarine was officially commissioned into service and shipped to the eastern coast near
Vladivostok
Vladivostok ( rus, Владивосто́к, a=Владивосток.ogg, p=vɫədʲɪvɐˈstok) is the largest city and the administrative center of Primorsky Krai, Russia. The city is located around the Zolotoy Rog, Golden Horn Bay on the Sea ...
Russia and was renamed ''Som'' ("Catfish"). This first Russian submarine was not ready in time for the Russo-Japanese War. The reason behind this delay was partly due to a late shipment of torpedoes that was originally ordered from Germany in early 1905. Russia soon ordered more submarines of the same basic design, and they were built under contract with the Holland Company by the Neva Shipbuilding Company located in St. Petersburg, Russia.
In 1903, the German ship building firm Germaniawerft at Kiel completed Germany's first fully functioning engine powered submarine; ''Forelle''. The submarine was toured inspected by Kaiser Wilhelm II, and Prince Heinrich of Prussia was given a brief cruise in the vessel. In April 1904, the Imperial Russian Navy purchased ''Forelle'', and ordered two more submarines of the . These vessels, as well as ''Forelle'' were transported along the Trans-Siberian Railway en route to the war zone.
Germaniawerft, under the supervision of Spanish naval architect Raymondo Lorenzo d'Euevilley-Montjustin, continued his work on the ''Karp''-class submarines, improving and modifying one into Germany's first U-boat, , which was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy on 14 December 1906. ''U-1'' was retired in 1919, and is currently on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich.
Due to the ongoing blockade of Port Arthur naval base, Port Arthur in 1904, the Imperial Russian Navy dispatched their remaining submarines to
Vladivostok
Vladivostok ( rus, Владивосто́к, a=Владивосток.ogg, p=vɫədʲɪvɐˈstok) is the largest city and the administrative center of Primorsky Krai, Russia. The city is located around the Zolotoy Rog, Golden Horn Bay on the Sea ...
, and by the end of 1904 the last of seven subs had reached their new base there. Using the seven boats as a foundation, the Imperial Russian Navy created the world's first operational submarine fleet at Vladivostok on 1 January 1905. On 14 February 1905 the new ''submarine fleet'' sent out its first combat patrol consisting of the vessels ''Som'' and ''Delfin''. With patrols varying from 24 hours to a few days, the sub fleets first enemy contact occurred on 29 April 1905 when Imperial Japanese Navy torpedo boats fired upon ''Som'', withdrawing after failing to score a hit. On 1 July the Russian submarine ''Keta'' made contact with two Japanese torpedo boats in the Tartar Strait. ''Keta'' could not submerge quick enough to obtain a firing position and both adversaries broke contact.
Battle of Tsushima
The Russians had already been preparing to reinforce their fleet the previous year by sending elements of the
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the North and Central European Plain.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from ...
fleet (''The Second Pacific Squadron'') under Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky around the Cape of Good Hope to Asia, a voyage of over . On 21 October 1904, while passing by the United Kingdom (an ally of Japan but neutral in this war), they nearly provoked a war in the Dogger Bank incident by firing on British fishing boats that they mistook for Japanese torpedo boats.
The duration of the Baltic Fleet's journey meant that Admiral Togo was well aware of the
Baltic Fleet
, image = Great emblem of the Baltic fleet.svg
, image_size = 150
, caption = Baltic Fleet Great ensign
, dates = 18 May 1703 – present
, country =
, allegiance = (1703–1721) (1721–1917) (1917–1922) (1922–1991)(1991–present)
...
's progress, and he made plans to meet it before it could reach port at
Vladivostok
Vladivostok ( rus, Владивосто́к, a=Владивосток.ogg, p=vɫədʲɪvɐˈstok) is the largest city and the administrative center of Primorsky Krai, Russia. The city is located around the Zolotoy Rog, Golden Horn Bay on the Sea ...
. He intercepted them in the Tsushima Strait between Korea and Japan, in the early morning of 27 May 1905. Although both battleship fleets were on nearly equal footing in regards to the latest in battleship technology, with the British warship designs representing the Imperial Japanese Navy, and predominately the French designs being favored by the Russian fleets; it was the combat experience that Togo had accrued in the 1904 naval battles of Battle of Port Arthur, Port Arthur and the Yellow Sea, that gave him the edge over the un-tested Admiral Rozhestvensky during the Battle of Tsushima on 27 May. By the end of the day on 27 May, nearly all of Rozhestvensky's battleships were sunk, including his flagship, ; and on the following day, Admiral Nebogatov, who had relieved Rozhestvensky due to his wounds, surrendered the remainder of the fleet to Admiral Togo.
Reconstruction prior to World War I
At the end of the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, Russia fell from being the third greatest naval power to sixth place. The focus of Russian naval activities shifted back from the Far East to the Baltic. The task of the
Baltic Fleet
, image = Great emblem of the Baltic fleet.svg
, image_size = 150
, caption = Baltic Fleet Great ensign
, dates = 18 May 1703 – present
, country =
, allegiance = (1703–1721) (1721–1917) (1917–1922) (1922–1991)(1991–present)
...
was to defend the Baltic Sea and Saint Petersburg from the German Empire.
Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, Nicholas II created a Naval General Staff in 1906. At first, attention was directed to creation of mine-laying and a submarine fleet. An ambitious expansion program was put before the State Duma of the Russian Empire, Duma in 1907-1908 but was voted down. The Bosnian Crisis of 1909 forced a strategic reconsideration, and new
s, cruisers, and destroyers were ordered for the Baltic Fleet. A worsening of relations with Ottoman Empire, Turkey meant that new ships including the
s were also ordered for the Black Sea Fleet. The total Russian naval expenditure from 1906-1913 was $519 million, in fifth place behind Britain, Germany, the United States and France.
The re-armament program included a significant element of foreign participation with several ships (including the cruiser ''Rurik'') and machinery ordered from foreign firms. After the outbreak of World War I, ships and equipment being built in Germany were confiscated. Equipment from Britain was slow in reaching Russia or was diverted to the Western Allies' own war effort.
World War I
By 1917 the Imperial Navy had amassed a fleet of 55 submarines, used to varying degrees of success.
Baltic Sea
![The Poltava](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/The_Poltava.jpg)
In the
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the North and Central European Plain.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from ...
, Germany and Russia were the main combatants, with a number of British submarines sailing through the Kattegat to assist the Russians, including commanded by Max Horton. With the German fleet larger and more modern (many High Seas Fleet ships could easily be deployed to the Baltic via the Kiel Canal when the North Sea was quiet), the Russians played a mainly defensive role, at most attacking convoys between Germany and Sweden and laying offensive minefields. Russian and British submarines attacked German shipping sailing between Sweden and Germany.
With heavy defensive and offensive mining on both sides, fleets played a limited role on the Eastern Front. The Germans mounted major naval attacks on the Gulf of Riga, Battle of the Gulf of Riga, unsuccessfully in August 1915 and successfully in October 1917, when they occupied the islands in the Gulf (Operation Albion) and damaged Russian ships departing from Riga (Battle of Moon Sound), which had recently been captured by Germany.
By March 1918, the October Revolution, Russian Revolution and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk made the Germans masters of the Baltic sea and German fleets transferred troops to support newly independent Finland and to occupy much of Russia, halting only when defeated in the West. The Russians evacuated the Baltic fleet from Helsinki and Tallinn, Reval to Kronstadt during the Ice Cruise of the Baltic Fleet in March 1918.
Black Sea
![Black Sea Battleships](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Black_Sea_Battleships.jpg)
The
Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
was the domain of both the Russian and Ottoman Empires but the Russian fleet dominated the sea. It possessed a large fleet based in Sevastopol and it was led by two skilled commanders: Andrei Eberhardt, Admiral Eberhart and Alexander Kolchak, Admiral Kolchak (who took over in 1916).
The war in the Black Sea started when the Ottoman fleet bombarded several Russian cities in October 1914. The most advanced ships in the Ottoman fleet consisted of just two German ships: the battlecruiser and light cruiser , both under the command of Admiral Wilhelm Souchon. ''Goeben'' was damaged on at least four occasions and was usually chased back to port by the superior Russian Navy. By the end of 1915, the Russian fleet had nearly complete control of the sea.
The Black Sea fleet was used mainly to support Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich, General Yudenich in his Caucasus Campaign. For example, in August 1915, a Russian submarine and two Russian destroyers attacked a Turkish convoy of four transports escorted by a cruiser and two destroyers. The Russian ships sank all four transports without losing a ship. Later, during the summer of 1916, the Ottoman army, under, Vehip Pasha, was ordered to re-take Trabzon, Trebizond. The Ottoman forces tried to march along the coast in June but the Russian fleet was able to reduce the speed of their advance to a crawl using naval bombardment to harass marching troops and destroy their supply columns. Eventually the Ottoman army gave up and withdrew.
After Admiral Kolchak took command (August 1916), the Russian fleet mined the exit from the Bosporus, preventing nearly all Ottoman ships from entering the Black Sea. Later that year, the naval approaches to Varna, Bulgaria, Varna were also mined. The greatest loss suffered by the Russian Black Sea fleet was the destruction of the modern dreadnought , which blew up in port on 7 October 1916, just one year after it was commissioned. The sinking of ''Imperatritsa Mariya'' was never fully explained; it could have been sabotage or an accident.
Revolution and Civil War
The Revolution and subsequent civil war devastated the Russian Navy. Only the Baltic fleet based at Petrograd remained largely intact, although it was British Campaign in the Baltic 1918-19, attacked by the British Royal Navy in 1919. Foreign Interventionists occupied the Pacific, Black Sea and Arctic coasts. Most of the surviving Black Sea Fleet warships, with crews loyal to the White movement, White Russian movement, became part of Wrangel's fleet under the control of commander Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel and after evacuating White forces and civilians from the
Crimea
Crimea, crh, Къырым, Qırım, grc, Κιμμερία / Ταυρική, translit=Kimmería / Taurikḗ ( ) is a peninsula in Ukraine, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, that has been occupied by Russia since 2014. It has a pop ...
were eventually interned in Bizerta, Tunisia. Russian sailors fought on both sides in the conflict. The sailors of the Baltic fleet rebelled against harsh treatment by the Soviet authorities in the Kronstadt rebellion of 1921.
The surviving ships formed the core of the
Soviet Navy on its 1918 establishment, though the remnants of Wrangel's fleet never returned to Russia.
Ranks of the Imperial Navy (English translation)
Beginning in the second half of the 19th century, ranks of the IRN were divided according to speciality and branch.
Deck ranks and rates
Seamen and NCO's
* Seaman (rank), Seaman
* First Seaman
* Quartermaster Seaman
* Petty officer, third class, Petty Officer 3rd Class (Boatswain, Boatswain's mate, Third mate, Skipper's mate, Stuurman's mate)
* Petty officer, second class, Petty Officer 2nd Class (Boatswain, Second mate, Schooner skipper)
* Petty officer, first class, Petty Officer 1st Class (Unteroffizier) (Constable)
* Chief petty officer, Chief Petty Officer (Sea captain, Skipper)
* Senior Chief Petty Officer (Senior Unteroffizier) (Chief mate, Conductor (Imperial Russian Navy), Conductor)
* Fleet Chief Petty Officer (Senior Boatswain)
Officers
* Brevet Midshipman/Garde-Marine (1827-1884)
* Midshipman
* Ship Secretary (until 1834), Sub-lieutenant (1834–84)
* Lieutenant (navy), Lieutenant (formerly Second Lieutenant 1724-1884)
* First lieutenant, First Lieutenant (from 1907 onward)
* Captain lieutenant, Captain Lieutenant (formerly Lieutenant commander, Captain 3rd Rank until 1730, abolished 1909)
* Commander, Captain 2nd Rank
* Captain (naval), Captain 1st Rank
* Captain-Commodore (rank), Commodore (until 1764 and 1798 to 1826, from 1764 to 1798 "Captain-Brigadier")
* Counter admiral, Counter Admiral, Rear admiral, Rear Admiral
* Vice admiral, Vice Admiral
*
Admiral
Admiral is one of the highest ranks in some navies. In the Commonwealth nations and the United States, a "full" admiral is equivalent to a "full" general in the army or the air force, and is above vice admiral and below admiral of the fleet, ...
* General admiral, General Admiral
Naval Infantry (Russia), Naval Infantry and ground service troops ranks
Ranks of these troops mirrored those of the Imperial Russian Army from Private to General, and were distinguished from those in the army.
Marine enlisted and NCOs
* Marine Private (rank), Private, Marines, Marine
* Marine ''Gefreiter''
* Marine Junior ''Unteroffizier'' (formerly Marine Corporal)
* Marine Senior ''Unteroffizier''
* Marine ''Feldwebel'' (formerly Marine Sergeant)
* Marine Junior Ensign
* Marine Acting Ensign (from 1884 onward)
Marine officers
* Admiralty Ensign (rank), Ensign
* Admiralty Sub-lieutenant
* Admiralty Lieutenant
* Admiralty Captain Lieutenant (1907–13)
* Admiralty Stabskapitän, Staff Captain
* Admiralty Captain (armed forces), Captain
* Admiralty Second Major (1780-1829)
* Admiralty First Major (1780-1829)
* Admiralty Major (1830-1884)
* Admiralty Lieutenant colonel, Lieutenant Colonel
* Admiralty Colonel
* Admiralty Brigadier (until 1830)
* Fleet Major general, Major General
* Fleet Lieutenant general, Lieutenant General
* Fleet General
Ranks of the Naval Artillery
Marine enlisted and NCOs
* Marine Private (rank), Private, Marine (military), Marine
* Marine ''Gefreiter''
* Marine Junior Gunner (formerly Marine Corporal)
* Marine Senior Gunner
* Marine ''Feldwebel'' (formerly Marine Sergeant)
* Marine Junior Ensign
* Marine Acting Ensign (from 1884 onward)
Officers
* Ensign (rank), Ensign
* Sub-lieutenant
* Lieutenant
* Captain Lieutenant (1907–13)
* Stabskapitän, Staff Captain
* Captain (armed forces), Captain
* Second Major (1780-1829)
* First Major (1780-1829)
* Major (1830-1884)
* Lieutenant colonel, Lieutenant Colonel
* Colonel
* Brigadier (until 1830)
* Marine Artillery Major general, Major General
* Marine Artillery Lieutenant general, Lieutenant General
* General of Marine Artillery
Engineering ranks
![1905kimf-e04](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/1905kimf-e04.png)
Until 1905 the Naval Mechanical Engineers Corps and the Fleet Engineers Corps had unique ranks. Both changed to ground-based ranks that year and in 1912 the former changed its ranks again to naval based ranks.
Rank insignia 1911-1917
;See for a more detailed history, ranks and rank insignia:
Unlike other navies of its time, the Imperial Russian Navy sported only shoulder rank insignia for officers and ratings.
See also
* Heads of military of Imperial Russia#Ministry of Sea Forces, Heads of Imperial Russian Navy
* List of Russian admirals
* List of battleships of Russia and the Soviet Union, List of Russian battleships
* List of cruisers of the Russian Navy, List of Russian cruisers
* List of Imperial Russian Navy destroyers, List of Russian destroyers
* List of Russian sail frigates
* List of ironclads of Russia
* List of ships of the line of Russia, List of Russian ships of the line
* List of Russian steam frigates
* Russian Hydrographic Service
References
Sources
* Beskrovny, L. G. ''The Russian Army and Fleet in the Nineteenth Century''. (1996). Gulf Breeze.
* Boyevaya letopis' russkogo flota. Khronika vazhneishikh sobytii voyennoi istorii russkogo flota s IX veka po 1917 god. - Voyenizdat, Moskva, 1948.
Combat Annales of the Russian Navy. Chronicle of the Most Important Events of the Russian Navy History from the 9th century up to 1917
* Corbett, Julian, Sir. ''Maritime Operations in the Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905''. (1994).
*
* Forczyk, Robert. ''Russian Battleship vs Japanese Battleship, Yellow Sea 1904-05.'' (2009) Osprey. .
* Grant, R. Captain. ''Before Port Arthur in a Destroyer; The Personal Diary of a Japanese Naval Officer.'' London, John Murray; first and second editions published in 1907.
* Lebedev A.A. ''To march and battle ready? The combat capabilities of naval squadrons Russian sailing fleet XVIII - mid XIX centuries. from the point of view of the status of their personnel.'' SPb, 2015.
* Olender, Piotr. ''Russo-Japanese Naval War 1904-1905, Vol. 2, Battle of Tsushima.'' (2010); Published by Stratus s.c., Sandomierz, Poland. .
* Pleshakov, Constantine. ''The Tsar's Last Armada: The Epic Voyage to the Battle of Tsushima''. (2002).
* Semenov, Vladimir, Capt. ''The Battle of Tsushima''. Originally published in 1907. (1912) E. P. Dutton & CO.
* Showell, Jak M. ''The U-Boat Century; German Submarine Warfare 1906-2006.'' (2006); Chatham Publishing, Great Britain. .
* ''Russian Warships in the Age of Sail, 1696-1860: Design, Construction, Careers and Fates''. John Tredrea and Eduard Sozaev. Seaforth Publishing, 2010. .
Further reading
* Elagin Sergei Ivanovich. (1864
History of the Russian fleet. Period of Azov(История русского флота. Период Азовский) DjVu and PDF formats at Runivers.ru
* Viskovatov A
''A brief historical overview of sea voyages of Russian and shipping them at all until the outcome of the 17th century''(1864) DjVu format at Runivers.ru
* Veselago Theodosius F
''List of Russian warships from 1668 to 1869''(1872) DjVu and PDF formats at Runivers.ru
* Veselago Theodosius F
''Essays on Russian naval history''(1875) DjVu and PDF formats at Runivers.ru
* Veselago Theodosius F
''Brief information about the Russian naval battles in two centuries from 1656 to 1856''(1871) DjVu and PDF formats at Runivers.ru
* Belavenets Peter Ivanovich
''Do We Need a fleet and its significance in the history of Russia''(1910). DjVu format at Runivers.ru
* Arens, Evgeniy
''Russian Navy'' (1904) DjVu and PDF formats at Runivers.ru
External links
Russian Submarine forces history{{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610083056/http://www.neva.ru/EXPO96/book/book-cont.html , date=2016-06-10
Web site focusing on submarine history and the works of Irish-American inventor, John Philip Holland and his company which was known as The Holland Torpedo Boat Company. See Fulton and look under Russian submarines (Som Class) Type 7-P.
Imperial Russian Navy,
Military of the Russian Empire, Navy
Military units and formations established in 1696
1696 establishments in Russia