An image schema (both ''schemas'' and ''schemata'' are used as plural forms) is a recurring structure within our

cognitive Cognition refers to "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as: perception, attention, thought, ...

processes which establishes patterns of understanding and reasoning. As an understudy to

embodied cognition Embodied cognition is the theory that many features of cognition, whether human or otherwise, are shaped by aspects of an organism's entire body. Sensory and motor systems are seen as fundamentally integrated with cognitive processing. The cognit ...

, image schemas are formed from our bodily interactions, from linguistic experience, and from historical context. The term is introduced in Mark Johnson's book ''The Body in the Mind''; in case study 2 of

George Lakoff George Philip Lakoff (; born May 24, 1941) is an American cognitive linguistics, cognitive linguist and philosopher, best known for his thesis that people's lives are significantly influenced by the conceptual metaphors they use to explain comple ...

's ''Women, Fire and Dangerous Things:'' and further explained by Todd Oakley in ''The Oxford handbook of cognitive linguistics;'' by

Rudolf Arnheim Rudolf Arnheim (July 15, 1904 – June 9, 2007) was a German-born writer, art and film theorist, and perceptual psychologist. He learned Gestalt psychology from studying under Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Köhler at the University of Berlin and ap ...

in ''Visual Thinking''; by the collection ''From Perception to Meaning: Image Schemas in Cognitive Linguistics'' edited by Beate Hampe and Joseph E. Grady. In contemporary

cognitive linguistics Cognitive linguistics is an interdisciplinary branch of linguistics, combining knowledge and research from cognitive science, cognitive psychology, neuropsychology and linguistics. Models and theoretical accounts of cognitive linguistics are con ...

, an image schema is considered an embodied prelinguistic structure of experience that motivates

conceptual metaphor In cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphor, or cognitive metaphor, refers to the understanding of one idea, or conceptual domain, in terms of another. An example of this is the understanding of quantity in terms of directionality (e.g. "the pr ...

mappings. Learned in early infancy they are often described as spatiotemporal relationships that enable actions and describe characteristics of the environment. They exist both as static and dynamic version, describing both states and processes, compare Containment vs. Going_In/Out, and they are learned from all sensorimodalities. Evidence for image schemas is drawn from a number of related disciplines, including work on cross-modal cognition in

psychology Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries betwe ...

, from spatial cognition in both

linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Linguis ...

and psychology, cognitive linguistics, and from

neuroscience Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system (the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system), its functions and disorders. It is a multidisciplinary science that combines physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, development ...

. The influences of image schemas is not only seen in cognitive linguistics and developmental psychology, but also in interface design and more recently, the theory has become of increased interest in artificial intelligence and cognitive robotics to help ground meaning.

Johnson: From image schemas to abstract reasoning via metaphor

Image schemas are dynamic embodied patterns—they take place ''in'' and ''through'' time. Moreover, they are multi-modal patterns of experience, not simply visual. For instance, consider how the dynamic nature of the containment schema is reflected in the various spatial senses of the English word ''out''. ''Out'' may be used in cases where a clearly defined trajector (TR) leaves a spatially bounded landmark (LM), as in: :(1a) John went out of the room. :(1b) Mary got out of the car. :(1c) Spot jumped out of the pen. In the most prototypical of such cases the landmark is a clearly defined container. However, ''out'' may also be used to indicate those cases where the trajector is a mass that spreads out, effectively expanding the area of the containing landmark: :(2a) She poured out the beans. :(2b) Roll out the carpet. :(2c) Send out the troops. Finally, ''out'' is also often used to describe motion along a linear path where the containing landmark is implied and not defined at all: :(3) The train started out for Chicago. Experientially basic and primarily spatial image schemas such as the Containment schema and its derivatives the Out schemas lend their logic to non-spatial situations. For example, one may metaphorically use the term ''out'' to describe non-spatial experiences: :(4) Leave out that big log when you stack the firewood. (Schema used directly and non-metaphorically.) :(4a) I don't want to leave any relevant data out of my argument. (Schema metaphorically projected onto argumentation.) :(4b) Tell me your story again, and don't leave out any details. (Schema metaphorically projected onto story-telling.) :(4c) She finally came out of her depression. (Schema metaphorically projected onto emotional life.) Johnson argues that more abstract reasoning is shaped by such underlying spatial patterns. For example, he notes that the logic of containment is not just a matter of being in or out of the container. For example, if someone is in a ''deep'' depression, we know it is likely to be a long time before they are well. The deeper the trajector is in the container, the longer it will take for the trajector to get out of it. Similarly, Johnson argues that transitivity and the

law of the excluded middle In logic, the law of excluded middle (or the principle of excluded middle) states that for every proposition, Exclusive or, either this proposition or its negation is Truth value, true. It is one of the so-called Law of thought#The three tradit ...

in logic are underlaid by preconceptual embodied experiences of the Containment schema.

Lakoff: Image schemas in Brugman's ''The story of Over''

In case study two of his book ''Women, Fire and Dangerous Things'', Lakoff re-presented the analysis of the English word ''over'' done by

Claudia Brugman Claudia may refer to: People Ancient Romans *Any woman from the Roman Claudia gens *Claudia (vestal), a Vestal Virgin who protected her father Appius Claudius Pulcher in 143 BC *Claudia Augusta (63–63 AD), infant daughter of Nero by his second ...

in her (1981) master's thesis. Similar to the analysis of ''out'' given by Johnson, Lakoff argued that there were six basic spatial schemas for the English word ''over''. Moreover, Lakoff gave a detailed accounting of how these schemas were interrelated in terms of what he called a ''radial category structure''. For example, these six schemas could be both further specified by other spatial schemas such as whether the trajector was in contact with the

landmark A landmark is a recognizable natural or artificial feature used for navigation, a feature that stands out from its near environment and is often visible from long distances. In modern use, the term can also be applied to smaller structures or f ...

or not (as in ''the plane flew over the mountain'' vs. ''he climbed over the mountain''). Furthermore, Lakoff identified a group of "transformational" image schemata such as rotational schemas and path to object mass, as in ''Spider-Man climbed all over the wall''. This analysis raised profound questions about how image schemas could be grouped, transformed, and how sequences of image schemas could be chained together in language, mind, and brain.

Relationships to similar theories

Johnson indicates that his analysis of ''out'' drew upon a 1981 doctoral dissertation by Susan Lindner in linguistics at UCSD under

Ronald Langacker Ronald Wayne Langacker (born December 27, 1942) is an American linguist and professor emeritus at the University of California, San Diego. He is best known as one of the founders of the cognitive linguistics movement and the creator of cognitive ...

, and more generally by the theory of

cognitive grammar Cognitive grammar is a cognitive approach to language developed by Ronald Langacker, which hypothesizes that grammar, semantics, and lexicon exist on a continuum instead of as separate processes altogether. This approach to language was one of the ...

put forth by him. For the force group of image schemas Johnson also drew on an early version of the force dynamic schemas put forth by

Len Talmy Leonard Talmy is an emeritus professor of linguistics and philosophy at the University at Buffalo in New York. He is known for his pioneering work in cognitive linguistics, more specifically, in the relationship between semantic and formal lingui ...

, as used by linguists such as

Eve Sweetser Eve Eliot Sweetser is a professor of linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley. She received her Ph.D. in Linguistics from UC Berkeley in 1984, and has been a member of the Berkeley faculty since that time. She has served as Director of ...

. Other influences include

Max Wertheimer Max Wertheimer (April 15, 1880 – October 12, 1943) was an Austro-Hungarian psychologist who was one of the three founders of Gestalt psychology, along with Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler. He is known for his book, ''Productive Thinking'', and f ...

gestalt Gestalt may refer to: Psychology * Gestalt psychology, a school of psychology * Gestalt therapy, a form of psychotherapy * Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test, an assessment of development disorders * Gestalt Practice, a practice of self-exploration ...

structure theory and Kant's account of schemas in categorization, as well as studies in experimental psychology on the

mental rotation Mental rotation is the ability to rotate mental representations of two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects as it is related to the visual representation of such rotation within the human mind. There is a relationship between areas of the br ...

of images. In addition to the dissertation on ''over'' by Brugman, Lakoff's use of image schema theory also drew extensively on Talmy and Langacker's theories of spatial relations terms. Other theories making use of similar conceptual primitives to capture meaning include Jean M. Mandler's ''spatial primitives'',

Anna Wierzbicka Anna Wierzbicka (born 10 March 1938 in Warsaw) is a Poles, Polish linguistics, linguist who is Emeritus Professor at the Australian National University, Canberra. Brought up in Poland, she graduated from Warsaw University and emigrated to Austr ...

's ''semantic primes',

Leonard Talmy Leonard Talmy is an emeritus professor of linguistics and philosophy at the University at Buffalo in New York. He is known for his pioneering work in cognitive linguistics, more specifically, in the relationship between semantic and formal linguisti ...

's conceptual primitives,''

Roger Schank Roger Carl Schank (born 1946) is an American artificial intelligence theorist, cognitive psychologist, learning scientist, educational reformer, and entrepreneur. Beginning in the late 1960s, he pioneered conceptual dependency theory (within the ...

conceptual dependency theory Conceptual dependency theory is a model of natural language understanding used in artificial intelligence systems. Roger Schank at Stanford University introduced the model in 1969, in the early days of artificial intelligence. This model was extens ...

'' and Andrea A. diSessa's phenomenological primitives (p-prims). Image schemas have also been proposed to be descriptors of Gibsonian

affordance Affordance is what the environment offers the individual. American psychologist James J. Gibson coined the term in his 1966 book, ''The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems'', and it occurs in many of his earlier essays. However, his best-know ...

s. An object like a ''cup'' affords the image schema Containment to liquids and an abstract concept like ''transportation'' offer the affordance of moving something from one point to another as an image-schematic combination of Source-Path-Goal and Containment (alternatively Support).

Formal specification of image schemas and role in artificial intelligence

While originally a theory for cognitive linguistics, the theory of image schemas and the underlying ideas behind embodied cognition have become of increased interest in artificial intelligence and cognitive robotics to help solve issues with natural language comprehension and the application of affordances. The research on formal accounts (e.g.) of these abstract patterns date back several decades and has been proposed as a way to deal with

geographical information science Geographic information science or geographical information science (GIScience or GISc) is the scientific discipline that studies geographic information, including how it represents phenomena in the real world, how it represents the way humans unders ...

, natural language comprehension, automatic

ontology In metaphysics, ontology is the philosophical study of being, as well as related concepts such as existence, becoming, and reality. Ontology addresses questions like how entities are grouped into categories and which of these entities exis ...

generation and computational

conceptual blending In cognitive linguistics, conceptual blending, also called conceptual integration or view application, is a theory of cognition developed by Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner. According to this theory, elements and vital relations from diverse scen ...

. As a direct relation to embodied cognition, and more specifically embodied

construction grammar Construction grammar (often abbreviated CxG) is a family of theories within the field of cognitive linguistics which posit that constructions, or learned pairings of linguistic patterns with meanings, are the fundamental building blocks of human ...

, formal approaches to image schemas often limit the research area by looking at image schemas exclusively as ''spatiotemporal relationships''. This provides a feasible foundation for knowledge representation to represent each individual image schema as well as their interconnection as relationships in a 3D space. One formal language to describe them is the ISL (Image Schema Language), a logic language combined by different formal calculi and

first-order logic First-order logic—also known as predicate logic, quantificational logic, and first-order predicate calculus—is a collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science. First-order logic uses quantifie ...

that builds on creating hierarchical families of logical micro-theories that is able to represent different degrees of specification of the image schemas. In artificial intelligence, image schemas are also used as an inspiration to advance natural language comprehension of metaphors, conceptual blending and creative language use. This is extended to also include non-linguistic reasoning such as

commonsense reasoning In artificial intelligence (AI), commonsense reasoning is a human-like ability to make presumptions about the type and essence of ordinary situations humans encounter every day. These assumptions include judgments about the nature of physical objec ...

(e.g. see Davis
Egg cracking problem
and the approach made to describe it image-schematically) and the formal structure of events prototypical as some of the biggest challenges in AI.

Lists of image schemas

While Johnson provided an initial list of image schemas in ''The Body in the Mind'' (p. 126), his diagrams for them are scattered throughout his book and he only diagrammed a portion of those image schemas he listed. In his work, Lakoff also used several additional schemas.

Schemas discussed by Johnson

:Spatial motion group ::Containment ::Path ::Source-Path-Goal ::Blockage ::Center-Periphery ::Cycle ::Cyclic Climax :Force Group ::Compulsion ::Counterforce ::Diversion ::Removal of Restraint ::Enablement ::Attraction ::Link ::Scale :Balance Group ::Axis Balance ::Point Balance ::Twin-Pan Balance ::Equilibrium

Schemas listed, but not discussed, by Johnson

::Contact ::Surface ::Full-Empty ::Merging ::Matching ::Near-Far ::Mass-Count ::Iteration ::Object ::Splitting ::Part-Whole ::Superimposition ::Process ::Collection

Additional schemas discussed by Lakoff

:Transformational group ::Linear path from moving object (one-dimensional trajector) ::Path to endpoint (endpoint focus) ::Path to object mass (path covering) ::Multiplex to mass (possibly the same as Johnson's undefined Mass-Count) ::Reflexive (both part-whole and temporally different reflexives) ::Rotation :Spatial group ::Above ::Across ::Covering ::Contact ::Vertical Orientation ::Length (extended trajector)

Schemas proposed and discussed by others

::Rough-smooth/Bumpy-smooth (Rohrer; Johnson and Rohrer) ::Straight (Cienki)

Mandler and Canovas' image schema hierarchy

# Spatial primitives. The first building blocks that allow us to understand what we perceive: PATH, CONTAINER, THING, CONTACT, etc. # Image schemas. Representations of simple spatial events using the primitives: PATH TO THING, THING INTO CONTAINER, etc. # Schematic integrations. The first conceptual representations to include non-spatial elements, by projecting feelings or non-spatial perceptions to blends structured by image schema

Notes

References

* Johnson, Mark (1987). ''The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason'', University of Chicago. * Lakoff, George (1987) ''Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press. * Rohrer, Tim (2006) "Image Schemata in the Brain", in Beate Hampe (ed.) ''From Perception to Meaning: Image Schemas in Cognitive Linguistics'', Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Online version
(PDF) — A recent book chapter which explores the evidence from cognitive neuroscience and cognitive science for the neural underpinnings of image schemas. {{DEFAULTSORT:Image Schema Visual thinking Cognitive linguistics