Historical revision of the Inquisition
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The historical revision of the Inquisition is a
historiographical Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians hav ...
process that started to emerge in the 1970s, with the opening of formerly closed archives, the development of new historical methodologies, and, in Spain, the death of the ruling dictator
Francisco Franco Francisco Franco Bahamonde (; 4 December 1892 – 20 November 1975) was a Spanish general who led the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalist forces in overthrowing the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War ...
in 1975. New works of
historical revisionism In historiography, historical revisionism is the reinterpretation of a historical account. It usually involves challenging the orthodox (established, accepted or traditional) views held by professional scholars about a historical event or times ...
changed our knowledge of the history of the Roman and Spanish Inquisitions. Writers associated with this project share the view of Edward Peters, a prominent historian in the field, who states: "The Inquisition was an image assembled from a body of legends and myths which, between the sixteenth and the twentieth centuries, established the perceived character of inquisitorial tribunals and influenced all ensuing efforts to recover their historical reality."


Background

Inquisition The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy, conducting trials of suspected heretics. Studies of the records have found that the overwhelming majority of sentences consisted of penances, ...
s were ecclesiastical investigations conducted either directly by the
Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
or by secular authorities with the support of the Church. These investigations were undertaken at varying times in varying regions under the authority of the local bishop and his designates or under the sponsorship of papal-appointed legates. The purpose of each inquisition was specific to the outstanding circumstances of the region in which it was held. Investigations usually involved a legal process, the goal of which was to obtain a
confession A confession is a statement – made by a person or by a group of persons – acknowledging some personal fact that the person (or the group) would ostensibly prefer to keep hidden. The term presumes that the speaker is providing information th ...
and reconciliation with the Church from those who were accused of heresy or of participating in activities contrary to Church
Canon law Canon law (from grc, κανών, , a 'straight measuring rod, ruler') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members. It is th ...
. The objectives of the inquisitions were to secure the repentance of the accused and to maintain the authority of the Church. Inquisitions were conducted with the collaboration of secular authorities. If an investigation resulted in a person being convicted of heresy and unwillingness to repent punishment was administered by the secular authorities. "Until recently, Protestant-inspired literature on the Inquisition tended to be hostile to the Catholic Church per se, while Catholic literature tended to be narrowly apologetic and justificatory." For Protestant scholars of the nineteenth century such as
William H. Prescott William Hickling Prescott (May 4, 1796 – January 28, 1859) was an American historian and Hispanist, who is widely recognized by historiographers to have been the first American scientific historian. Despite having serious visual impairm ...
and
John Lothrop Motley John Lothrop Motley (April 15, 1814 – May 29, 1877) was an American author and diplomat. As a popular historian, he is best known for his works on the Netherlands, the three volume work ''The Rise of the Dutch Republic'' and four volume ''His ...
the
Spanish Inquisition The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition ( es, Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición), commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition ( es, Inquisición española), was established in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs, King Ferdinand ...
represented "the archsymbol of religious intolerance and ecclesiastical power".Kagan, Richard L., "A Kinder, Gentler Inquisition", ''The New York Times'' (book review), 19 April 1998
/ref> Henry Charles Lea wrote both ''A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages'' (1888) and ''A History of the Inquisition of Spain'' (1906). ''A History of the Inquisition of Spain'' was considered both groundbreaking and polemical. His studies were criticized for having both an
anti-Catholic Anti-Catholicism is hostility towards Catholics or opposition to the Catholic Church, its clergy, and/or its adherents. At various points after the Reformation, some majority Protestant states, including England, Prussia, Scotland, and the Uni ...
and an anti-Spanish bias. Lea saw the Inquisition as ''theocratic absolutism'' that weakened Spain to an extent that undermined its overseas empire and ultimately contributed to its defeat during the Spanish–American War of 1898. However both
Juan Antonio Llorente Juan Antonio Llorente, ORE (March 30, 1756 in Rincón de Soto (La Rioja), Spain – February 5, 1823 in Madrid) was a Spanish historian. Biography Llorente was raised by an uncle after his parents died. He studied at the University of Zaragoza, ...
's in his ''Histoire critique de l'Inquisition espagnole'' (1817) and Lea had access to original documents. For a long time, the Spanish Inquisition had been associated principally with persecution of Protestants. Nineteenth-century historian
José Amador de los Ríos José Amador de los Ríos y Serrano (30 April 1818 – 17 February 1878) was a Spanish intellectual, primarily a historian and archaeologist of art and literature. He was a graduate in history of the Complutense University of Madrid. In 1844 ...
brought a focus to bear on the situation of Spain's large ''converso'' population.


More recent studies

The two most significant and extensively-cited sources of this revised analysis of the
historiography Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians ha ...
of the inquisitorial proceedings are ''Inquisition'' (1988) by Edward Peters and ''The Spanish Inquisition: An Historical Revision'' (1997) by Henry Kamen. These works focus on identifying and correcting what they argue are popular modern misconceptions about the inquisitions and historical misinterpretations of their activities. Kamen's 1997 book is updated and revised from an edition first published in 1965. Kamen takes the position that the Inquisition in Spain was motivated more by political considerations than religious, that the monarchs routinely protected those close to the crown, and that in Aragon large areas either defied or hindered its operation.Rust, Eric C., "Review of The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision", ''Journal of Church and State''
Vol. 41, Issue 2, p. 381
Eric Rust of Baylor University describes Kamen's work as "historical revision at its best". Helen Rawlings credits Kamen with launching a movement to revisit the historical record.Hove, Brian S.J., "The Inquisitions of History: The Mythology and the Reality", Ignatian Insight, January 2012
/ref> Rawlings identifies four distinct phases, as over time the Inquisition in Spain adapted to changing conditions. From 1480 to 1525 there was an intense persecution of ''conversos'' suspected of continuing to practice Judaism. From 1525 to 1630 there was an increased concern of possible Protestant influence on "Old Christians". A less active period from 1630 to 1725 periodically looked to Portuguese "New Christians" operating in Spanish commercial sectors; and from 1725 to 1824 traditionalists and liberals argued the future of the institution.


The Inquisitions in France


The "Grand Program"

During the 11th century, a new wave of religiosity swept through Europe. It claimed that the prospect of
salvation Salvation (from Latin: ''salvatio'', from ''salva'', 'safe, saved') is the state of being saved or protected from harm or a dire situation. In religion and theology, ''salvation'' generally refers to the deliverance of the soul from sin and its c ...
in the world would greatly increase if the world were reformed. In addition, the
papacy The pope ( la, papa, from el, πάππας, translit=pappas, 'father'), also known as supreme pontiff ( or ), Roman pontiff () or sovereign pontiff, is the bishop of Rome (or historically the patriarch of Rome), head of the worldwide Cathol ...
itself underwent reform at the end of the 11th century and, according to Peters, the Church began devising its "grand program of sanctifying the world". The "grand program" was a combination of the Church's desire to reform its institutional life, free itself from secular control, and build a Christian society. There was also a growing opinion that those who rebelled from the church's beliefs (
heretics Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, in particular the accepted beliefs of a church or religious organization. The term is usually used in reference to violations of important religi ...
) or behaved in a manner that was "un-Christian" were not simply souls led astray in a "temptation-filled world, but eresubverters of the world's new course". Until the late 12th century, the investigation of
heresy Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, in particular the accepted beliefs of a church or religious organization. The term is usually used in reference to violations of important religi ...
was considered the responsibility of local churches, and it was held that local secular authorities would prosecute heretics. However, in 1179, the Church's "grand program of sanctifying the world" saw the creation of the
Third Lateran Council The Third Council of the Lateran met in Rome in March 1179. Pope Alexander III presided and 302 bishops attended. The Catholic Church regards it as the eleventh ecumenical council. By agreement reached at the Peace of Venice in 1177 the bitter ...
, which included a canon condemning heretics. In 1184,
Pope Lucius III Pope Lucius III (c. 1097 – 25 November 1185), born Ubaldo Allucingoli, reigned from 1 September 1181 to his death in 1185. Born of an aristocratic family of Lucca, prior to being elected pope, he had a long career as a papal diplomat. His pa ...
issued the ''
Ad abolendam (; full title in la, Ad abolendam diversam haeresium pravitatem, lit=To abolish diverse malignant heresies) was a decretal and bull of Pope Lucius III, written at Verona and issued 4 November 1184. It was issued after the Council of Verona settl ...
'', labeled "the founding charter of the inquisition". It called for those found as heretics by the local church to be turned over to secular courts. Finally, in 1199,
Pope Innocent III Pope Innocent III ( la, Innocentius III; 1160 or 1161 – 16 July 1216), born Lotario dei Conti di Segni (anglicized as Lothar of Segni), was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 January 1198 to his death in 16 J ...
equated heresy with treason and, in 1208, called for a "crusade" against the Albigensians


Albigensian Crusade

According to Peters, the violence of the following "Albigensian Crusade" was not in line with the reforms and plans of Innocent, who stressed confession, reform of the clergy and
laity In religious organizations, the laity () consists of all members who are not part of the clergy, usually including any non-ordained members of religious orders, e.g. a nun or a lay brother. In both religious and wider secular usage, a layperson ...
and pastoral teachings to oppose heresy. Peters asserts that the violence was caused by the "crusade" being under the control of mobs, petty rulers and local bishops who did not uphold Innocent's ideas. Armies from northern France swept through the south and essentially eradicated the Albigensians. The uncontainable, prejudicial passion of local mobs and heresy hunters, the violence of secular courts and the bloodshed of the Albigensian crusade sparked a desire within the papacy to implement greater control over the prosecution of heresy. The desire led to the development of organised legal procedures for dealing with heretics.
Protestant Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
reformers in the 16th century often pointed to the Cathar and Waldensian movements as part of an underground reformed Church that had been the victim of persecution for centuries even though the Cathars had an unquestionably non-Reformed, dualistic perception of God.


Codes and torture

Generally, inquisitorial courts functioned much like the secular courts of the time, but their sentences and penances were less cruel. A number of procedures and protections restricted the
torture Torture is the deliberate infliction of severe pain or suffering on a person for reasons such as punishment, extracting a confession, interrogation for information, or intimidating third parties. Some definitions are restricted to acts c ...
of the accused, but much torture could be inflicted, and capital punishment was executed by secular authorities because of the clerical prohibition on shedding blood. Torture was used to extract confession, rather than as a form of punishment, as used by secular courts. Any confession made following or during torture had to be freely repeated the next day without torture, or it was considered invalid. "Technically, therefore, torture was strictly a means of obtaining the only full proof available.... he inquisitors'tasks were not only – or even primarily – to convict the contumacious heretic, but... to preserve the unity of the Church". After the suppression of the Albigensian heresy in southern France in the 13th century, inquisitorial trials diminished in the face of more pressing local needs, and any lingering trials were left to secular authorities. Inquisitorial courts conducted under local episcopacies worked closely with local secular authorities and dealt with local circumstances. Regional control of the inquisitorial process and regional concerns became dominant. By the mid-to-late 14th century papal-commissioned inquisitions had been dissolved in many parts of Europe.


The Inquisitions in Spain


Antisemitism and the "conversos"

Peters writes,
"From the mid fifteenth century on, religious anti-Semitism changed into ethnic anti-Semitism, with little difference seen between Jews and conversos except for the fact that conversos were regarded as worse than Jews because, as ostensible Christians, they had acquired privileges and positions that were denied to Jews. The result of this new ethnic anti-Semitism was the invocation of an inquisition to ferret out the false conversos who had, by becoming formal Christians, placed themselves under its authority". It was a heated mixture of this racial and religious prejudice against the conversos that ignited what later became known as the "Spanish Inquisition."
The main heresy prosecuted during the period of inquisitions in Spain was the secret practice of
Judaism Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in the ...
among some ''conversos''. (The number of ''conversos'' secretly practicing what of Judaism they could is unknown, but recent scholarship has tended to document the existence of more of them, and at later dates, than previously assumed.) From the establishment of the inquisitions up to 1530, it is estimated that approximately 2,000 "heretics" were turned over to the secular authorities for execution in Spain. There were so few Protestants in Spain that widespread persecution of Protestantism was not physically possible. In the 1560s, a little over one hundred people in Spain were convicted of Protestantism and were turned over to the secular authorities for execution. From 1560 to 1599, two hundred more people were accused of being followers of
Martin Luther Martin Luther (; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, and professor, and Order of Saint Augustine, Augustinian friar. He is the seminal figure of the Reformation, Protestant Refo ...
. "Most of them were in no sense Protestants...Irreligious sentiments, drunken mockery, anticlerical expressions, were all captiously classified by the inquisitors (or by those who denounced the cases) as 'Lutheran.


Procedure and torture

Evidence Evidence for a proposition is what supports this proposition. It is usually understood as an indication that the supported proposition is true. What role evidence plays and how it is conceived varies from field to field. In epistemology, evidenc ...
and
witness In law, a witness is someone who has knowledge about a matter, whether they have sensed it or are testifying on another witnesses' behalf. In law a witness is someone who, either voluntarily or under compulsion, provides testimonial evidence, e ...
testimony In law and in religion, testimony is a solemn attestation as to the truth of a matter. Etymology The words "testimony" and "testify" both derive from the Latin word ''testis'', referring to the notion of a disinterested third-party witness. La ...
was gathered before an arrest was made. Once an arrest was made, the accused was given several opportunities to admit to any heretical behavior before the charges against him/her were identified. If the accused did not admit to any wrongdoing, the inquisitors dictated the charges and the accused was required to respond to them immediately. Torture was used, but only for extracting
confession A confession is a statement – made by a person or by a group of persons – acknowledging some personal fact that the person (or the group) would ostensibly prefer to keep hidden. The term presumes that the speaker is providing information th ...
s during a trial and was not used as
punishment Punishment, commonly, is the imposition of an undesirable or unpleasant outcome upon a group or individual, meted out by an authority—in contexts ranging from child discipline to criminal law—as a response and deterrent to a particular acti ...
after sentencing. If torture was used, the accused was required to repeat their repentance without torture. The Inquisition also had a rule that they were allowed to use torture only once, however, they were able to 'suspend' sessions and resume them the following day, but never led into a third day. As in the French inquisitions, the purpose of Spanish inquisitorial torture was to gain information or confession, not to punish. It was used in a relatively small percentage of trials since of course the threat of torture if no confession was given was often enough to induce one, and torture was usually a last resort. The "scenes of sadism conjured up by popular writers on the inquisition have little basis in reality, though the whole procedure was unpleasant enough
ven Ven may refer to: Places * Ven, Heeze-Leende, a hamlet in the Netherlands * Ven (Sweden), an island * Ven, Tajikistan, a town * VEN or Venezuela Other uses * von Economo neurons, also called ''spindle neurons'' * '' Vên'', an EP by Eluveiti ...
to arouse periodic protests from Spaniards". The modern historian
Thomas F. Madden Thomas F. Madden (born 10 June 1960) is an American historian, a former Chair of the History Department at Saint Louis University in St. Louis, Missouri, and Director of Saint Louis University's Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies. A sp ...
has suggested that the Inquisition "was an attempt to stop unjust executions" and "the Spanish Inquisition was widely hailed as the best run, most humane court in Europe".


The ''auto de fe''

The ''
auto de fe Auto may refer to: * An automaton * An automobile * An autonomous car * An automatic transmission * An auto rickshaw * Short for automatic * Auto (art), a form of Portuguese dramatic play * ''Auto'' (film), 2007 Tamil comedy film * Auto (play), ...
'' that followed trials is the most infamous part of the inquisitions in Spain. The ''auto de fe'' involved prayer, celebration of
Mass Mass is an intrinsic property of a body. It was traditionally believed to be related to the quantity of matter in a physical body, until the discovery of the atom and particle physics. It was found that different atoms and different elementar ...
, a public procession of those found guilty, and a reading of their sentences. Artistic representations of the ''auto de fe'' usually depict torture and the burning at the stake. These paintings became a major source for creating the violent image popularly associated with the Spanish inquisitions. However, this type of activity never took place during an ''auto de fe'', which was in essence a religious act. Torture was not administered after a trial concluded and executions were always held after and separate from the ''auto de fe''. Because the autos de fe officially separate torture and execution, all these events should be considered separate. Although some torture (routine throughout the continent at the time) may have been caused indirectly by the church, the church did not hold itself officially responsible for the murders committed during the inquisition. Between 1550 and 1800, the inquisitions in Spain focused on not only Protestants, but also the conversos, the supervision of their own clergy, the general problem of non-mainstream religious beliefs among Catholics, and "blasphemous" or "scandalous" behavior. Some believe that the Spanish inquisitions may not have been exceptionally different from other European courts of the time in their prosecution of these offences, as many of these charges were viewed as part of a broad class of moral crimes that raised legitimate concern to spiritual and secular courts in an age when many regarded religion as the fundamental foundation of society.


The Inquisitions in Italy


Context

Increasing trends in regionalism, the criticism of ecclesiastic abuses, the
Avignon Papacy The Avignon Papacy was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven successive popes resided in Avignon – at the time within the Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles, Kingdom of Arles, part of the Holy Roman Empire; now part of France – rather than i ...
, and
the Great Schism ''The'' () is a grammatical article in English, denoting persons or things already mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite article in English. ''The'' is the m ...
all contributed to the emergence of new religious dissent and unrest in 14th and 15th century Italy. Furthermore, widespread ecclesiastical and clerical reform advanced through the last decades of the 15th century, and by the second decade of the 16th century, reform movements prevailed in many parts of Europe. The protests raised by
Martin Luther Martin Luther (; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, and professor, and Order of Saint Augustine, Augustinian friar. He is the seminal figure of the Reformation, Protestant Refo ...
that began in 1517 did not initially receive much attention from the papacy. Luther and his supporters concreted the principles of the
Protestant Reformation The Reformation (alternatively named the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation) was a major movement within Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Catholic Church and in ...
during the 1520s, sparking the development of many reform movements in various regions of Italy. By the time of the
pontificate The pontificate is the form of government used in Vatican City. The word came to English from French and simply means ''papacy'', or "to perform the functions of the Pope or other high official in the Church". Since there is only one bishop of Ro ...
of
Paul III Pope Paul III ( la, Paulus III; it, Paolo III; 29 February 1468 – 10 November 1549), born Alessandro Farnese, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 13 October 1534 to his death in November 1549. He came to ...
, the Reform movement had swept much of Europe away from the Catholic Church. In response,
Paul III Pope Paul III ( la, Paulus III; it, Paolo III; 29 February 1468 – 10 November 1549), born Alessandro Farnese, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 13 October 1534 to his death in November 1549. He came to ...
issued the ''Licet ab initio'', establishing inquisitions in Rome in 1542. These inquisitions consisted of six cardinals given the authority to investigate heresy and to appoint deputies when they deemed necessary.


The creation of the Holy Office

Although the Roman inquisitions worked moderately and guardedly during the remainder of the pontificate of Paul III, they became an essential part of the structure of Rome when
Paul IV Pope Paul IV, born Gian Pietro Carafa, C.R. ( la, Paulus IV; it, Paolo IV; 28 June 1476 – 18 August 1559) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 23 May 1555 to his death in August 1559. While serving as pap ...
, who became pope in 1555, launched the
Counter-Reformation The Counter-Reformation (), also called the Catholic Reformation () or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) a ...
that Paul III began. Later, in 1588,
Pope Sixtus V Pope Sixtus V ( it, Sisto V; 13 December 1521 – 27 August 1590), born Felice Piergentile, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 24 April 1585 to his death in August 1590. As a youth, he joined the Franciscan order ...
officially organized the inquisitions into the Congregation of the Holy Roman and Universal Inquisition or Holy Office. It is important to note, however, that this was only one of fifteen administrative departments of the papal government and was not the sole operating body of the Church.


"Heresies" of the Italian Inquisitions

Even though the inquisitions in Spain prosecuted a small quantity of Reformers, the Roman inquisitions were the first to target intentionally and specifically the "heresy" of Protestantism. These inquisitions and their subordinate tribunals were generally successful in keeping any substantial Protestant influence from spreading throughout Italy. Protestants in the decades and centuries to come would use this relatively short-lived persecution as the basis for their accusations about the awful "Inquisition." Protestant movements were reduced by around 1600, so for the duration of the 17th century the Roman inquisitions turned their focus to offences other than Protestantism, notably " magical" heresy. In many trials involving "
witchcraft Witchcraft traditionally means the use of magic or supernatural powers to harm others. A practitioner is a witch. In medieval and early modern Europe, where the term originated, accused witches were usually women who were believed to have us ...
" or "sorcery," “the inquisitors understood very well that the lack of catechesis or consistent pastoral guidance could often result in misunderstandings of doctrine and liturgy, and they showed tolerance of all but the most unavoidably serious circumstances. Thus, although both the Spanish and Roman inquisitions prosecuted the offenses of witchcraft and sorcery very early and vigorously, they also were the first courts to be skeptical of the evidence and mechanism of witchcraft accusations, and they consistently offered the most lenient treatment to marginal cases". Italian historian Andrea Del Col estimates that out of 62,000 cases judged by Inquisition in Italy after 1542 only 2% (ca. 1250) ended with death sentence.


Evolution of the Holy Office

By the turn of the 18th century, the Congregation of the Holy Office had virtually no power or influence outside the
Papal States The Papal States ( ; it, Stato Pontificio, ), officially the State of the Church ( it, Stato della Chiesa, ; la, Status Ecclesiasticus;), were a series of territories in the Italian Peninsula under the direct sovereign rule of the pope fro ...
. Its main function shifted yet again to the investigation of clerical immorality and corruption and to the censoring of printed books, the latter of which was the key responsibility of the Congregation of the Index. By 1860, the restrictions placed upon ecclesiastical authority and the emerging national Italian state only further reduced the activities of the Holy Office. With its powers reduced to the weakened Papal State, the Office became an advisory committee to the late 19th century popes, where it played a far greater advisory than executive role. In 1965
Pope Paul VI Pope Paul VI ( la, Paulus VI; it, Paolo VI; born Giovanni Battista Enrico Antonio Maria Montini, ; 26 September 18976 August 1978) was head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City, Vatican City State from 21 June 1963 to his ...
changed the Office's name to The Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith and abolished the Congregation of the Index entirely in 1966. Since then, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith has functioned as a papal advisor on
theological Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
matters and on matters of ecclesiastical discipline. "Although its work is regular, the Congregation can now hardly be thought of as an Inquisition".


The Creation of "The Inquisition"

The modern day notion of a unified and horrible "Inquisition" is an assemblage of the "body of legends and myths which, between the sixteenth and the twentieth centuries, established the perceived character of inquisitorial tribunals and influenced all ensuing efforts to recover their historical reality". "The ssembledmyth was originally devised to serve variously the political purposes of a number of early modern political regimes, as well as Protestant Reformers, proponents of religious and civil toleration, philosophical enemies of the civil power of organized religions, and progressive modernists..." It was the relatively limited persecution of
Protestants Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century against what its followers perceived to b ...
, mostly by the inquisitions in Spain and Italy, that provoked the first image of "The Inquisition" as the most
violent Violence is the use of physical force so as to injure, abuse, damage, or destroy. Other definitions are also used, such as the World Health Organization's definition of violence as "the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened o ...
and suppressive vehicle of the
Church Church may refer to: Religion * Church (building), a building for Christian religious activities * Church (congregation), a local congregation of a Christian denomination * Church service, a formalized period of Christian communal worship * Chris ...
against
Protestantism Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century against what its followers perceived to b ...
. Later, philosophical critics of religious persecution and the
Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
only furthered this image during the Enlightenment.


Catholic opposition to the Spanish Inquisition

"...an early major source of anti-Inquisition propaganda happened to be Catholic in origin. With the outstanding exception of the Holy Roman Empire, every significant Catholic state in Europe, including France, was at some time hostile to Spain." Contemporary political scientist
Niccolò Machiavelli Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli ( , , ; 3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527), occasionally rendered in English as Nicholas Machiavel ( , ; see below), was an Italian diplomat, author, philosopher and historian who lived during the Renaissance. ...
(in
The Prince ''The Prince'' ( it, Il Principe ; la, De Principatibus) is a 16th-century political treatise written by Italian diplomat and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli as an instruction guide for new princes and royals. The general theme of ''The ...
) suggested that King Ferdinand of Spain (who originated the Spanish Inquisition) used religion to his political and financial advantage. Italians under Spanish rule repeatedly revolted against the imposition of a Spanish Inquisition (such as revolts in Naples in 1547). Unpaid Spanish and Germanic mercenaries of the King of Spain (
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, french: Charles Quint, it, Carlo V, nl, Karel V, ca, Carles V, la, Carolus V (24 February 1500 – 21 September 1558) was Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria from 1519 to 1556, King of Spain (Crown of Castile, Castil ...
) sacked Rome ten years after
Luther Luther may refer to: People * Martin Luther (1483–1546), German monk credited with initiating the Protestant Reformation * Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968), American minister and leader in the American civil rights movement * Luther (give ...
posted his
theses A thesis ( : theses), or dissertation (abbreviated diss.), is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings.International Standard ISO 7144: ...
, besieging the Pope and ending Rome's pre-eminence in the Renaissance. Italian diplomats expressed a low opinion of the Spanish and their Inquisition. Internal criticism of Spanish policies in the Americas was cited by foes of the Inquisition.


"A Protestant Vision..."

"When the printing press first began to form public opinion ... the most diligent victims of the Inquisition happened to be supporters of the Reformation, and they set about convincing Europe that Spain's intentions ... were now directed against Christian truth and liberty." ''The Inquisition'' was characterized by
cleric Clergy are formal leaders within established religions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion's doctrines and practices. Some of the ter ...
al organization and support of the inquisitions in Spain and Italy, their "united" success in suppressing Protestant doctrines, and the fear of ''The Inquisition'' being initiated elsewhere. "Propaganda along these lines proved to be strikingly effective in the context of the political conflicts of the time, and there were always refugees from persecution to lend substance to the story." "As a
Protestant Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
vision of Christian history took shape in the 16th century, the contemporary inquisitions were identified with the inquisitorial tribunals of the medieval past, and the Protestant Reformers with earlier victims of ''The Inquisition''".
Catholic The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
defenders of the inquisitorial process used the same argument – that the Reformers were no different from
medieval In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the Post-classical, post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with t ...
heretics Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, in particular the accepted beliefs of a church or religious organization. The term is usually used in reference to violations of important religi ...
and should be prosecuted in the same manner – thus perpetuating the idea of a continuous, masterminded ''Inquisition''. Both sides made emotional appeals; "Thus alongside various kinds of theological and personal polemic, a war of martyrologies commenced."


The Revolt of the Netherlands

The Netherlands and Spain came to share rulers by marriage and inheritance among royal families. The Dutch chaffed under the shared monarchy; their many states wanted to retain traditional autonomy while the crown sought centralized authority. The animosity between the King and the Netherlands had complex origins – political, economic, cultural, religious and personal. By around 1550, the Dutch "
printing press A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a printing, print medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring the ink. It marked a dramatic improvement on earlier printing methods in wh ...
and propaganda turned to the service of political reform, with The Inquisition as a major focus, on…a wide scale and with…devastating effects". Even though the Dutch organized their own state-run
inquisitions The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy, conducting trials of suspected heretics. Studies of the records have found that the overwhelming majority of sentences consisted of penances, ...
, it was feared that King
Philip II Philip II may refer to: * Philip II of Macedon (382–336 BC) * Philip II (emperor) (238–249), Roman emperor * Philip II, Prince of Taranto (1329–1374) * Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (1342–1404) * Philip II, Duke of Savoy (1438-1497) * Philip ...
would implement a new "Spanish Inquisition" in the
Netherlands ) , anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau") , image_map = , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands , established_title = Before independence , established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
to eliminate
Protestantism Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century against what its followers perceived to b ...
. Popular literature, circulating pamphlets, and other images painted the picture of a widespread, awful "Spanish Inquisition." A decree of the Spanish Inquisition signed by the King of Spain in 1568 declared most Dutch lives and property forfeit. The decree was not determined to be a forgery until the 20th century. Such anti-inquisition propaganda motivated ''all'' citizens. Eventually, "The Inquisition" became viewed as the primary instrument of
Catholic The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
tyranny, not only of
Protestants Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century against what its followers perceived to b ...
, but also of freedom of thought and religion in general. However, exporting the Inquisition to the Netherlands was never in the plans of the Spanish Habsburg rulers, at least after the time of
Charles V Charles V may refer to: * Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558) * Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain * Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise * Charles V, Duke of Lorraine (1643–1690) * Infan ...
.


Montanus

In 1567 ''A Discovery and Plaine Declaration of Sundry Subtill Practices of the Holy Inquisition of Spain'' was published under the pseudonym Reginaldus Gonzalvus Montanus. While authorship is disputed, it was probably written by
Antonio del Corro Antonio del Corro (Corrano, de Corran, Corranus) (Seville, 1527-London, 1591) was a Spanish monk who became a Protestant convert. A noted Calvinist preacher and theologian, he taught at the University of Oxford and wrote the first Spanish grammar in ...
and/or
Casiodoro de Reina Casiodoro de Reina or de Reyna ( 1520 – 15 March 1594) was a Spanish theologian who (perhaps with several others) translated the Bible into Spanish. Early life Reina was born about 1520 in Montemolín in the Province of Badajoz. Hermann D ...
, both previously Spanish Catholic monks who became Protestants and fled the Inquisition. The former was a theologian, close relative of an inquisitor and ferocious enemy of the Spanish Inquisition in its campaign to destroy Protestantism. The latter was a student of the Bible from childhood, later translating the Bible into Spanish. Montanus' text was "brief, intelligently designed, and written in a lively and engaging style." It was simultaneously accurate about Inquisitional practices (perhaps published for the first time) and misleading. "Taking some of the most extreme of Inquisitional practices as the norm, Montanus portray devery victim of the Inquisition as innocent, every Inquisition official as venal and deceitful, ndevery step in its procedure as a violation of natural and rational law". The text included 12 case histories of Lutheran martyrs of the Inquisition which were widely read into the early 19th century. The document, along with a number of successive publications, was reprinted and translated throughout Europe and became the definitive source on ''The Inquisition'' for many years; "histories" about ''The Inquisition'' written after 1567 relied on Montanus as their main source. The Spanish Inquisition, regarding its procedures as secret, never disputed Montanus. In a public relations war of the press the Spanish Inquisition forfeited. For reasons of history England and France were particularly receptive to Montanus. English monarchs alternated between persecuting Catholics and persecuting Protestants. The French could not agree on a jurisdiction; parlementary and royal inquisitions had both failed. A more balanced history awaited the publication of
Philipp van Limborch Philipp van Limborch (19 June 1633 – 30 April 1712) was a Dutch Remonstrant theologian. Biography Limborch was born on 19 June 1633 in Amsterdam, where his father was a lawyer. He received his education at Utrecht, at Leiden, in his native city ...
in 1692.
Juan Antonio Llorente Juan Antonio Llorente, ORE (March 30, 1756 in Rincón de Soto (La Rioja), Spain – February 5, 1823 in Madrid) was a Spanish historian. Biography Llorente was raised by an uncle after his parents died. He studied at the University of Zaragoza, ...
later published a more detailed, if exaggerated, history through his access to the archives of the Spanish Inquisition.


William of Orange

Also cited as one of the most famous documents supporting the myth of "The Inquisition" is the ''Apologie'' of William of Orange, published in 1581. Written by the French
Huguenot The Huguenots ( , also , ) were a religious group of French Protestants who held to the Reformed, or Calvinist, tradition of Protestantism. The term, which may be derived from the name of a Swiss political leader, the Genevan burgomaster Be ...
Pierre Loyseleur de Villiers, the ''Apologie'' presented a horrifying narrative of the Spanish Inquisition. This document preserved and reinforced all of the anti-"Inquisition" propaganda generated at the beginning and throughout the
Dutch revolt The Eighty Years' War or Dutch Revolt ( nl, Nederlandse Opstand) (Historiography of the Eighty Years' War#Name and periodisation, c.1566/1568–1648) was an armed conflict in the Habsburg Netherlands between disparate groups of rebels and t ...
. William of Orange had been a personal friend of his King from childhood. Nonetheless he became the leader of the Dutch revolt. The King put a price on his head, leading to his assassination. de Villiers had been William's chaplain. The ''Apologie'' was William of Orange's rebuttal of the charges made against him (and thus against the revolt). The assassination and rebuttal made William of Orange a martyr, unifying the opposition in a very long war which ultimately led to the formation of Belgium and the Dutch Republic as separate countries. Available from Google Books.


The Black Legend

During this time, England, under the rule of the
Protestant Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
Queen Elizabeth I Elizabeth I (7 September 153324 March 1603) was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death in 1603. Elizabeth was the last of the five House of Tudor monarchs and is sometimes referred to as the "Virgin Queen". El ...
and threatened with military attacks from Spain, found a new surge of nationalism being fueled by anti-Catholic propaganda centered on a series of books and pamphlets that detailed the horror of the "Spanish Inquisition". Peters writes, "An image of Spain circulated through late 16th-century Europe, borne by means of political and religious propaganda that blackened the characters of Spaniards and their ruler to such an extent that Spain became the symbol of all forces of repression, brutality, religious and political intolerance, and intellectual and artistic backwardness for the next four centuries. Spaniards ... have termed this process and the image that resulted from it as 'The Black Legend', "la leyenda negra". Henry Kamen has criticized the concept, "Persistent employment of the lack Legendlabel for ideological ends in order to rebut any criticism of Spain's imperial record has made it both unsuitable to use and inaccurate. In any case many of Spain's actions ... were all too real and no "legend"." "At all times, imperial nations tend to suffer ... in the arena of public opinion, and Spain was no exception, becoming the first victim of a long tradition of polemic that picked on the Inquisition as the most salient point of attack."


The Enlightenment and Art

By the 17th century, "The Inquisition" provided political and philosophical thinkers with an ideal symbol of religious intolerance. These
philosophers A philosopher is a person who practices or investigates philosophy. The term ''philosopher'' comes from the grc, φιλόσοφος, , translit=philosophos, meaning 'lover of wisdom'. The coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek th ...
and politicians passionately denounced "The Inquisition," citing it as the cause for all the political and economic failures in countries where "Inquisitions" were held. From these
debates Debate is a process that involves formal discourse on a particular topic, often including a moderator and audience. In a debate, arguments are put forward for often opposing viewpoints. Debates have historically occurred in public meetings, a ...
on toleration, "The Inquisition" was presented by French ''
philosophes The ''philosophes'' () were the intellectuals of the 18th-century Enlightenment.Kishlansky, Mark, ''et al.'' ''A Brief History of Western Civilization: The Unfinished Legacy, volume II: Since 1555.'' (5th ed. 2007). Few were primarily philosophe ...
'' as the worst of any religious evil to ever come out of Europe.Additionally, writers, artists, and sculptors of the 17th and 18th centuries used "The Inquisition" as one of their main inspirations, retaliating against "The Inquisition's" suppression of creativity, literature, and art. These artistic images have arguably become some of the most long-lasting and effective perpetuators of "The Inquisition" myth.


See also

*
Inquisition The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy, conducting trials of suspected heretics. Studies of the records have found that the overwhelming majority of sentences consisted of penances, ...
*
Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith The Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith (DDF) is the oldest among the departments of the Roman Curia. Its seat is the Palace of the Holy Office in Rome. It was founded to defend the Catholic Church from Heresy in Christianity, heresy and is ...
*
Execution by burning Death by burning (also known as immolation) is an execution and murder method involving combustion or exposure to extreme heat. It has a long history as a form of public capital punishment, and many societies have employed it as a punishment ...
* List of Grand Inquisitors of Spain *
Historical revisionism In historiography, historical revisionism is the reinterpretation of a historical account. It usually involves challenging the orthodox (established, accepted or traditional) views held by professional scholars about a historical event or times ...
*
History of the Jews in Spain While the history of the Jews in the current-day Spanish territory stretches back to Biblical times according to legendary Jewish tradition, the settlement of organised Jewish communities in the Iberian Peninsula possibly traces back to the times ...
* Medieval Inquisition *
Mexican Inquisition The Mexican Inquisition was an extension of the Spanish Inquisition into New Spain. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was not only a political event for the Spanish, but a religious event as well. In the early 16th century, the Reformati ...
*
Peruvian Inquisition The Peruvian Inquisition was established on January 9, 1570 and ended in 1820. The Holy Office and tribunal of the Inquisition were located in Lima, the administrative center of the Viceroyalty of Peru. History Unlike the Spanish Inquisition and th ...
*
Portuguese Inquisition The Portuguese Inquisition ( Portuguese: ''Inquisição Portuguesa''), officially known as the General Council of the Holy Office of the Inquisition in Portugal, was formally established in Portugal in 1536 at the request of its king, John III. ...
*
Roman Inquisition The Roman Inquisition, formally the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition, was a system of partisan tribunals developed by the Holy See of the Roman Catholic Church, during the second half of the 16th century, respons ...
*
Spanish Inquisition The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition ( es, Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición), commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition ( es, Inquisición española), was established in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs, King Ferdinand ...
*
Histoire de l'Inquisition en France ''Histoire de l'Inquisition en France'' is a book about witch trials in the early modern period published in 1829 by Étienne-Léon de Lamothe-Langon (1786–1864), supposedly on the basis of his unprecedented access to Roman Catholic Church, Chur ...
*
Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, OFM (1436 – 8 November 1517), spelled Ximenes in his own lifetime, and commonly referred to today as simply Cisneros, was a Spanish cardinal, religious figure, and statesman. Starting from humble beginnings ...


Notes


References


Sources and Further reading

* ''Catholic Dossier'', special issue on "The Inquisition", vol. 2, no. 6 (Nov–Dec 1996). * Carroll, Anne W. "The Inquisition", in ''Christ the King: Lord of History'', pp. 207–211. Rockford Illinois: Tan Books and Publishers, 1994. * * . * . * * Kelly, Henry A. “Inquisition and the Prosecution of Heresy: Misconceptions and Abuses.” ''Church History'', vol. 58, no. 4 (Dec 1989): 439–451. * Thomas F. Madden, Madden, Thomas F.
“The Real Inquisition: Investigating the Popular Myth”
National Review, National Review Online, 18 June 2004. * Parker, Geoffrey. "Some Recent Work on the Inquisition in Spain and Italy." ''The Journal of Modern History'', vol. 54, no. 3 (Sept 1982): 519–532. * * * * Sanchez, M. G
Sentiment in English Literary and Political Writing''
PhD Diss, University of Leeds, 2004. * Van Hove, Brian. "Beyond the Myth of The Inquisition: Ours is ‘The Golden Age’.” ''Faith and Reason'', (Winter, 1992).


External links



by James Hannam
Peters, Edward. ''Inquisition''. University of California Press, 1989.
in
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{{Authority control Inquisition Historical revisionism es:Leyenda Negra de la Inquisición Española