Hypnotherapy is a type of
mind–body intervention
Mind–body may refer to:
* Mind–body dualism, a medical model
* Mind–body exercise, a form of exercise that combines body movement with mental focus
* Mind–body intervention, an alternative medicine
* Mind–body problem, a philosophy of mi ...
in which
hypnosis
Hypnosis is a human condition involving focused attention (the selective attention/selective inattention hypothesis, SASI), reduced peripheral awareness, and an enhanced capacity to respond to suggestion.In 2015, the American Psychologica ...
is used to create a state of focused attention and increased suggestibility in the treatment of a medical or psychological disorder or concern. Popularized by 17th and 18th century psychologists such as
James Braid and
Milton H. Erickson
Milton Hyland Erickson (5 December 1901 – 25 March 1980) was an American psychiatrist and psychologist specializing in medical hypnosis and family therapy. He was founding president of the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis and a fellow o ...
, today the use of hypnosis as a form of therapy to retrieve and integrate early trauma is controversial within the scientific mainstream. Use of hypnosis for treatment of other problems has produced mixed results, such as with
smoking cessation
Smoking cessation, usually called quitting smoking or stopping smoking, is the process of discontinuing tobacco smoking. Tobacco smoke contains nicotine, which is addictive and can cause dependence. As a result, nicotine withdrawal often m ...
. Research indicates that hypnotising an individual may aid the formation of false memories, and that hypnosis "does not help people recall events more accurately".
Definition
The United States Department of Labor's ''
Dictionary of Occupational Titles
The ''Dictionary of Occupational Titles'' or D-O-T (DOT) refers to a publication produced by the United States Department of Labor which helped employers, government officials, and workforce development professionals to define over 13,000 differen ...
'' (DOT) describes the job of the hypnotherapist:
"Induces hypnotic state in client to increase motivation or alter behavior patterns: Consults with client to determine nature of problem. Prepares client to enter hypnotic state by explaining how hypnosis works and what client will experience. Tests subject to determine degree of physical and emotional suggestibility. Induces hypnotic state in client, using individualized methods and techniques of hypnosis based on interpretation of test results and analysis of client's problem. May train client in self-hypnosis conditioning."
Traditional
The form of hypnotherapy practiced by most Victorian hypnotists, including
James Braid and
Hippolyte Bernheim
Hippolyte Bernheim (17 April 1840, in Mulhouse – 2 February 1919, in Paris) was a French physician and neurologist. He is chiefly known for his theory of suggestibility in relation to hypnotism.
Life
Born into a Jewish family, Bernheim receiv ...
, mainly employed
direct suggestion of symptom removal, with some use of therapeutic
relaxation and occasionally
aversion to alcohol, drugs, etc.
Ericksonian
In the 1950s,
Milton H. Erickson
Milton Hyland Erickson (5 December 1901 – 25 March 1980) was an American psychiatrist and psychologist specializing in medical hypnosis and family therapy. He was founding president of the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis and a fellow o ...
developed a radically different approach to hypnotism, which has subsequently become known as "Ericksonian hypnotherapy" or "Neo-Ericksonian hypnotherapy." Based on his belief that dysfunctional behaviors were defined by social tension, Erickson coopted the subject's behavior to establish rapport, a strategy he termed "utilization." Once rapport was established, he made use of an informal conversational approach to direct awareness. His methods included complex language patterns and client-specific therapeutic strategies (reflecting the nature of utilization). He claimed to have developed ways to suggest behavior changes during apparently ordinary conversation.
This divergence from tradition led some, including
Andre Weitzenhoffer, to dispute whether Erickson was right to label his approach "hypnosis" at all.
Erickson's foundational paper, however, considers hypnosis as a mental state in which specific types of "work" may be done, rather than a technique of induction.
The founders of
neuro-linguistic programming
Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a pseudoscientific approach to communication, personal development and psychotherapy, that first appeared in Richard Bandler and John Grinder's 1975 book ''The Structure of Magic I''. NLP claims that th ...
(NLP), a method somewhat similar in some regards to some versions of hypnotherapy, claimed that they had modelled the work of Erickson extensively and assimilated it into their approach. Weitzenhoffer disputed whether NLP bears any genuine resemblance to Erickson's work.
Solution-focused
In the 2000s, hypnotherapists began to combine aspects of
solution-focused brief therapy
Solution-focused (brief) therapy (SFBT) is a goal-directed collaborative approach to psychotherapeutic change that is conducted through direct observation of clients' responses to a series of precisely constructed questions. Based upon social co ...
(SFBT) with Ericksonian hypnotherapy to produce therapy that was goal-focused (what the client wanted to achieve) rather than the more traditional problem-focused approach (spending time discussing the issues that brought the client to seek help). A solution-focused hypnotherapy session may include techniques from NLP.
Cognitive/behavioral
Cognitive behavioral hypnotherapy (CBH) is an integrated psychological therapy employing clinical hypnosis and
cognitive behavioral therapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a psycho-social intervention that aims to reduce symptoms of various mental health conditions, primarily depression and anxiety disorders. CBT focuses on challenging and changing cognitive distortions (suc ...
(CBT).
The use of CBT in conjunction with hypnotherapy may result in greater treatment effectiveness. A meta-analysis of eight different researches revealed "a 70% greater improvement" for patients undergoing an integrated treatment to those using CBT only.
In 1974,
Theodore X. Barber and his colleagues published a review of the research which argued, following the earlier social psychology of
Theodore R. Sarbin, that hypnotism was better understood not as a "special state" but as the result of normal psychological variables, such as active imagination, expectation, appropriate attitudes, and motivation.
Barber introduced the term "cognitive-behavioral" to describe the nonstate theory of hypnotism, and discussed its application to behavior therapy.
The growing application of cognitive and behavioral psychological theories and concepts to the explanation of hypnosis paved the way for a closer integration of hypnotherapy with various cognitive and behavioral therapies.
Many cognitive and behavioral therapies were themselves originally influenced by older hypnotherapy techniques,
e.g., the
systematic desensitisation
Systematic desensitization, or graduated exposure therapy, is a behavior therapy developed by the psychiatrist Joseph Wolpe. It is used when a phobia or anxiety disorder is maintained by classical conditioning. It shares the same elements of both c ...
of
Joseph Wolpe
Joseph Wolpe (20 April 1915 in Johannesburg, South Africa – 4 December 1997 in Los Angeles) was a South African psychiatrist and one of the most influential figures in behavior therapy.
Wolpe grew up in South Africa, attending Parktown Boys' ...
, the cardinal technique of early behavior therapy, was originally called "hypnotic desensitisation"
and derived from the ''Medical Hypnosis'' (1948) of
Lewis Wolberg
Lewis Robert Wolberg (July 4, 1905 – February 3, 1988) was an American psychoanalyst. He advocated the use of hypnoanalysis in psychiatric treatment. He wrote or edited 20 books, and in 1945 founded the Postgraduate Center for Mental Heal ...
.
Curative
Dr. Peter Marshall, author of ''A Handbook of Hypnotherapy'', devised the Trance Theory of Mental Illness, which asserts that people suffering from depression, or certain other kinds of neuroses, are already living in a trance. He asserts that this means the hypnotherapist does not need to induce trance, but instead to make them understand this and lead them out of it.
Mindful
Mindful hypnotherapy is therapy that incorporates
mindfulness and hypnotherapy. A pilot study was made at
Baylor University
Baylor University is a private Baptist Christian research university in Waco, Texas. Baylor was chartered in 1845 by the last Congress of the Republic of Texas. Baylor is the oldest continuously operating university in Texas and one of the fir ...
, Texas, and published in the ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis''. Dr. Gary Elkins, director of the Mind-Body Medicine Research Laboratory at Baylor University called it "a valuable option for treating anxiety and stress reduction” and "an innovative mind-body therapy". The study showed a decrease in stress and an increase in mindfulness.
Relationship to scientific medicine
Hypnotherapy practitioners occasionally attract the attention of mainstream medicine. Attempts to instill academic rigor have been frustrated by the complexity of client suggestibility, which has social and cultural aspects, including the reputation of the practitioner. Results achieved in one time and center of study have not been reliably transmitted to future generations.
In the 1700s
Anton Mesmer offered pseudoscientific justification for his practices, but his rationalizations were debunked by a commission that included
Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin ( April 17, 1790) was an American polymath who was active as a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher, and political philosopher. Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021 Among the leading inte ...
.
Uses
Clinicians choose hypnotherapy to address a wide range of circumstances; however, according to Yeates (2016), people choose to have hypnotherapy for many other reasons:
::"Ignoring specific issues such as performance anxiety, road rage, weight, smoking, drinking, unsafe sex, etc., those seeking hypnotherapy today do so because of ill-defined, vague feelings that: (a) their health is far from optimal; (b) their worry about past/present/future events is excessive and debilitating; (c) they are not comfortable with who they are; (d) they're not performing up to the level of their true potential; and/or (e) their lives are lacking some significant (but unidentified) thing."
Menopause
There is evidence supporting the use of hypnotherapy in the treatment of
menopause
Menopause, also known as the climacteric, is the time in women's lives when menstrual periods stop permanently, and they are no longer able to bear children. Menopause usually occurs between the age of 47 and 54. Medical professionals often d ...
related symptoms, including
hot flash
Hot flashes (also known as hot flushes) are a form of flushing, often caused by the changing hormone levels that are characteristic of menopause. They are typically experienced as a feeling of intense heat with sweating and rapid heartbeat, and ...
es. The
North American Menopause Society
The North American Menopause Society (NAMS), founded in 1989, is a nonprofit, multidisciplinary organization with the mission of promoting the health and quality of life of women during midlife and beyond through an understanding of menopause an ...
recommends hypnotherapy for the nonhormonal management of menopause-associated
vasomotor
Vasomotor refers to actions upon a blood vessel which alter its diameter. More specifically, it can refer to vasodilator action and vasoconstrictor action.
Control Sympathetic innervation
Sympathetic nerve fibers travel around the tunica media of ...
symptoms, giving it the highest level of evidence.
Irritable bowel syndrome
The use of hypnotherapy in treating the symptoms of
irritable bowel syndrome
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a "disorder of gut-brain interaction" characterized by a group of symptoms that commonly include abdominal pain and or abdominal bloating and changes in the consistency of bowel movements. These symptoms may ...
is supported by research, including randomized controlled trials. A 2015 audit of 1000 patients undertaking gut-focused hypnotherapy in normal clinical practice found that hypnotherapy was an effective intervention for refractory IBS. Gut-directed hypnotherapy is recommended in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome by the
American College of Gastroenterology
The American College of Gastroenterology (ACG) is a Bethesda, Maryland–based medical association of gastroenterologists.
The association was founded in 1932 and holds annual meetings and regional postgraduate continuing education courses, es ...
clinical guideline for the management of IBS.
Childbirth
Hypnotherapy is often applied in
the birthing process and the post-natal period,
but there is insufficient evidence to determine if it alleviates pain during childbirth
[ and no evidence that it is effective against post-natal depression.] Until 2012, there was no thorough research on this topic. However, in 2013 the study was conducted during which it was found that: "The use of hypnosis in childbirth leads to a decrease in the amount of pharmacological analgesia and oxytocin used, which reduces the duration of the first stage of labor". In 2013, studies were conducted in Denmark, during which it was concluded that "The self-hypnosis course improves the experience of childbirth in women and also reduces the level of fear". In 2015, a similar study was conducted in the UK by a group of researchers: "The positive experience of self-hypnosis gives a sense of calm, confidence and empowerment in childbirth". Hypnobirthing has been used by individual such as Catherine, Princess of Wales.
Bulimia
Literature shows that a wide variety of hypnotic interventions have been investigated for the treatment of bulimia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa, also known as simply bulimia, is an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging or fasting, and excessive concern with body shape and weight. The aim of this activity is to expel the body of calories eaten ...
, with inconclusive effect. Similar studies have shown that groups suffering from bulimia nervosa, undergoing hypnotherapy, were more exceptional to no treatment, placebos, or other alternative treatments.
Anxiety
Hypnotherapy is shown to be comparable in effectiveness to other forms of therapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, that utilize relaxation techniques and imagery. It has also shown to be successful when used to reduce anxiety in those with dental anxiety and phobias.
PTSD
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and its symptoms have been show to improve due to implementation of hypnotherapy, in both long and short term. As research continues, hypnotherapy is being more openly considered as an effective intervention for those with PTSD.
Depression
Hypnotherapy has been show to be effective when used to treat long term depressive symptoms. It has show to be comparable to the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy, and when used in tandem, efficacy seems to increase.
Other uses
Among its many other applications in other medical domains, hypnotism was used therapeutically, by some alienists in the Victorian era, to treat the condition then known as hysteria.
Modern hypnotherapy is widely accepted for the treatment of certain habit disorders, to control irrational fears, as well as in the treatment of conditions such as insomnia
Insomnia, also known as sleeplessness, is a sleep disorder in which people have trouble sleeping. They may have difficulty falling asleep, or staying asleep as long as desired. Insomnia is typically followed by daytime sleepiness, low energy, ...
and addiction
Addiction is a neuropsychological disorder characterized by a persistent and intense urge to engage in certain behaviors, one of which is the usage of a drug, despite substantial harm and other negative consequences. Repetitive drug use o ...
. Hypnosis has also been used to enhance recovery from non-psychological conditions such as after surgical procedures, in breast cancer
Breast cancer is cancer that develops from breast tissue. Signs of breast cancer may include a lump in the breast, a change in breast shape, dimpling of the skin, milk rejection, fluid coming from the nipple, a newly inverted nipple, or a re ...
care and even with gastro-intestinal problems.
Efficacy
* A 2003 meta-analysis on the efficacy of hypnotherapy concluded that "the efficacy of hypnosis is not verified for a considerable part of the spectrum of psychotherapeutic practice."
* In 2007, a meta-analysis from the Cochrane Collaboration found that the therapeutic effect of hypnotherapy was "superior to that of a waiting list control or usual medical management, for abdominal pain and composite primary IBS symptoms, in the short term in patients who fail standard medical therapy", with no harmful side-effects. However the authors noted that the quality of data available was inadequate to draw any firm conclusions.
* Two Cochrane reviews in 2012 concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support its efficacy in managing the pain of childbirth or post-natal depression.[
* A 2014 meta-analysis that focused on hypnotherapy's efficacy on irritable bowel syndrome found that it was beneficial for short term abdominal pain and other gastrointestinal issues.
* In 2016, a literature review published in '' La Presse Médicale'' found that there is not sufficient evidence to "support the efficacy of hypnosis in chronic anxiety disorders".]
* In 2019, a Cochrane review was unable to find evidence of benefit of hypnosis in smoking cessation, and suggested if there is, it is small at best.
* A 2019 meta-analysis of hypnosis as a treatment for anxiety found that "the average participant receiving hypnosis reduced anxiety more than about 79% of control participants," also noting that "hypnosis was more effective in reducing anxiety when combined with other psychological interventions than when used as a stand-alone treatment."
* In a 2022 meta-analysis on hypnotherapy's efficacy on dental anxiety, it was found that "hypnosis can also be regarded as powerful and successful method for anxiety reduction," but also stated that further research is required.
Occupational accreditation
United States
The laws regarding hypnosis and hypnotherapy vary by state and municipality. Some states, like Colorado, Connecticut and Washington, have mandatory licensing and registration requirements, while many other states have no specific regulations governing the practice of hypnotherapy.
United Kingdom
UK National Occupational Standards
In 2002, the Department for Education and Skills developed National Occupational Standards
National Occupational Standards (NOS), also known as professional standards, specify UK standards of performance that people are expected to achieve in their work, and the knowledge and skills they need to perform effectively.
NOS, which are appr ...
for hypnotherapy linked to National Vocational Qualifications based on the then National Qualifications Framework under the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority
The Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency (QCDA) was a charity, and an executive non-departmental public body (NDPB) of the Department for Education. In England and Northern Ireland, the QCDA maintained and developed the National Cu ...
NCFE
a national awarding body, issues level four national vocational qualification diploma in hypnotherapy. Currently AIM Awards offers a Level 3 Certificate in Hypnotherapy and Counselling Skills at level 3 of the Regulated Qualifications Framework.
UK Confederation of Hypnotherapy Organisations (UKCHO)
The regulation of the hypnotherapy profession in the UK is at present the main focus o
UKCHO
a non-profit umbrella body for hypnotherapy organisations. Founded in 1998 to provide a non-political arena to discuss and implement changes to the profession of hypnotherapy, UKCHO currently represents 9 of the UK's professional hypnotherapy organisations and has developed standards of training for hypnotherapists, along with codes of conduct and practice that all UKCHO registered hypnotherapists are governed by. As a step towards the regulation of the profession, UKCHO's website now includes a National Public Register of Hypnotherapists who have been registered by UKCHO's Member Organisations and are therefore subject to UKCHO's professional standards. Further steps to full regulation of the hypnotherapy profession will be taken in consultation with the Prince's Foundation for Integrated Health.
The National Council for Hypnotherapy (NCH)
The National Council for Hypnotherapy is a Professional Association, established in 1973 to create a National Membership Organisation for independent Hypnotherapy Practitioners.
Australia
Professional hypnotherapy and use of the occupational titles ''hypnotherapist'' or ''clinical hypnotherapist'' are not government-regulated in Australia.
In 1996, as a result of a three-year research project led by Lindsay B. Yeates, th
Australian Hypnotherapists Association
(founded in 1949), the oldest hypnotism-oriented professional organization in Australia, instituted a peer-group accreditation system for full-time Australian professional hypnotherapists, the first of its kind in the world, which "accredit dspecific individuals on the basis of their actual demonstrated knowledge and clinical performance; instead of approving particular 'courses' or approving particular 'teaching institutions'" (Yeates, 1996, p.iv; 1999, p.xiv). The system was further revised in 1999.
Australian hypnotism/hypnotherapy organizations (including the Australian Hypnotherapists Association) are seeking government regulation similar to other mental health professions. However, currently hypnotherapy is not subject to government regulation through the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency
The Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA), infrequently spelt as the Australian Health Practitioners Regulation Agency is a statutory authority founded in 2010 which is responsible, in collaboration with the ''Medical Board of ...
(AHPRA).
See also
* Atavistic regression Atavistic regression is a hypnosis-related concept introduced by the Australian scholar and psychiatrist Ainslie Meares. Meares coined his term from the English atavism
In biology, an atavism is a modification of a biological structure whereby ...
* Astral projection
* Autogenic training
Autogenic training is a desensitization-relaxation technique developed by the German psychiatrist Johannes Heinrich Schultz by which a psychophysiologically determined relaxation response is obtained. The technique was first published in 1932. S ...
* Autosuggestion
Autosuggestion is a psychological technique related to the placebo effect, developed by apothecary Émile Coué at the beginning of the 20th century. It is a form of self-induced suggestion in which individuals guide their own thoughts, feelings ...
* Doctor of Clinical Hypnotherapy
* Hypnotherapy in the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom there are several hypnotherapy organisations. Each one has a Code of Ethics and Practice seeking to protect the public and maintain professional standards. Over the years, the number of hypnotherapy organisations has pro ...
* Hypnosis
Hypnosis is a human condition involving focused attention (the selective attention/selective inattention hypothesis, SASI), reduced peripheral awareness, and an enhanced capacity to respond to suggestion.In 2015, the American Psychologica ...
* Hypnosurgery
Hypnosurgery is surgery where the patient is sedated using hypnotherapy rather than traditional anaesthetics. It is claimed that hypnosis for anaesthesia has been used since the 1840s where it was pioneered by the surgeon James Braid. There are o ...
* '' The Pregnant Man and Other Cases from a Hypnotherapist's Couch''
* Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy (also psychological therapy, talk therapy, or talking therapy) is the use of psychological methods, particularly when based on regular personal interaction, to help a person change behavior, increase happiness, and overcome pro ...
* Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism
The Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism involved two entirely separate and independent French Royal Commissions, each appointed by Louis XVI in 1784, that were conducted simultaneously by a committee composed of four physicians from the Paris ...
* Scientific skepticism
Scientific skepticism or rational skepticism (also spelled scepticism), sometimes referred to as skeptical inquiry, is a position in which one questions the veracity of claims lacking empirical evidence. In practice, the term most commonly refe ...
* Subconscious mind
In psychology, the subconscious is the part of the mind that is not currently of focal awareness.
Scholarly use of the term
The word ''subconscious'' represents an anglicized version of the French ''subconscient'' as coined in 1889 by the psycho ...
* Suggestibility
Suggestibility is the quality of being inclined to accept and act on the suggestions of others. One may fill in gaps in certain memories with false information given by another when recalling a scenario or moment. Suggestibility uses cues to dist ...
* '' The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism, and Their Applications to Human Welfare''
References
{{Authority control
Mind–body interventions
Medical treatments
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