Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan al-Mahdī ( ar, محمد بن الحسن المهدي) is believed by the
Twelver Shia
Twelver Shīʿīsm ( ar, ٱثْنَا عَشَرِيَّة; '), also known as Imāmīyyah ( ar, إِمَامِيَّة), is the largest branch of Shīʿa Islam, comprising about 85 percent of all Shīʿa Muslims. The term ''Twelver'' refers t ...
to be the last of the
Twelve Imams
The Twelve Imams ( ar, ٱلْأَئِمَّة ٱلْٱثْنَا عَشَر, '; fa, دوازده امام, ') are the spiritual and political successors to the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the Twelver branch of Islam, including that of the Alawi ...
and the
eschatological
Eschatology (; ) concerns expectations of the end of the present age, human history, or of the world itself. The end of the world or end times is predicted by several world religions (both Abrahamic and non-Abrahamic), which teach that negati ...
Mahdi
The Mahdi ( ar, ٱلْمَهْدِيّ, al-Mahdī, lit=the Guided) is a Messianism, messianic figure in Islamic eschatology who is believed to appear at the Eschatology, end of times to rid the world of evil and injustice. He is said to be a de ...
, who will emerge in the end of time to establish peace and justice and redeem
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
.
Hasan al-Askari, the eleventh Imam, died in 260
AH (873-874 CE), possibly poisoned by the
Abbasids
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
. Immediately after his death, his main representative,
Uthman ibn Sa'id, claimed that the eleventh Imam had an infant son named Muhammad, who was kept hidden from the public out of fear of Abbasid persecution. Uthman also claimed to represent Muhammad, who had entered a state of occultation. Other local representatives of al-Askari largely supported these assertions, while the Shia community fragmented into several sects over al-Askari's succession. All these sects, however, are said to have disappeared after a few decades except the Twelvers, who accept the son of al-Askari as the twelfth and final Imam in occultation.
Uthman was followed by three more agents, collectively known as the
Four Deputies
The Four Deputies ( ar, ٱلنُّوَّاب ٱلْأَرْبَعَة, ') were the four individuals who are believed by the Twelvers to have successively represented their twelfth Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, during his Minor Occultation (874–941 CE ...
, who were regarded by the Twelver community as representatives of Muhammad al-Mahdi. This period, later termed the
Minor Occultation
The Minor Occultation ( ar, ٱلْغَيْبَة ٱلصُّغْرَىٰ, '), also known as the First Occultation ( ar, ٱلْغَيْبَة ٱلْأُولَىٰ, '), refers in Twelver Shia Islam to a period of nearly seventy years (874–941 CE, ...
, ended after about seventy years with the death of the fourth agent,
Abu al-Hasan al-Samarri (). He is said to have received a
letter from Muhammad al-Mahdi shortly before his death. The letter predicted the death of Abu al-Hasan in six days and announced the beginning of the complete occultation, later called the
Major Occultation
In Twelver Shia Islam, the Major Occultation ( ar, ٱلْغَيْبَة ٱلْكُبْرَىٰ, ', 329 AH-present, 941 CE-present) is the second occultation of the Hidden Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, which is expected to continue until his rise in ...
, which continues to this day. The letter, ascribed to Muhammad al-Mahdi, added that the complete occultation would continue until God granted him permission to manifest himself again in a time when the earth would be filled with tyranny.
The Twelver theory of occultation crystallized in the first half of the fourth (tenth) century based on rational and textual arguments. This theory, for instance, sets forth that the life of Muhammad al-Mahdi has been miraculously prolonged, arguing that the earth cannot be void of the Imam as the highest proof of God. In the absence of the Hidden Imam, the leadership vacuum in the Twelver community was gradually filled by jurists. It is popularly held that the Hidden Imam occasionally appears to the pious. The accounts of these encounters are numerous and widespread among the Twelvers.
Titles
Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Hasan al-Askari, the eschatological savior in Twelver Islam, is known by many titles, including al-Mahdi (), al-Qa'im (), al-Montazar (), Saheb al-Zaman (), al-Gha'ib (), al-Hojja/Hojjat Allah (), Sahib al-Amr (), Sahib al-Haqq (), Baqiyat Allah ().
The title al-Qa'im signifies the rise against tyranny, though a () hadith from the sixth Shia Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, connects this title to the rise of al-Qa'im after his death. As a hadith, this report is not viewed as reliable by experts, writes
Majlesi, especially because it contradicts the Twelver belief that the earth cannot be void of Imam at any time, as the (). Majlesi also suggests that death might be meant figuratively in this hadith, referring to the forgotten memory of al-Qa'im after his long occultation.
Sachedina notes that the titles al-Qa'im and Sahib al-Amr have more of a political emphasis than the eschatological title al-Mahdi. The title al-Hujja, on the other hand, highlights the religious function of the savior. Indeed, every Shia Imam is viewed as , the (highest) proof of God, through whom the inner meanings of the Quran become accessible after the death of the prophet. This title is more pronounced for the twelfth Imam, however, possibly because of a related hadith from the tenth Imam, Ali al-Hadi.
Historical background
Until their deaths, the tenth and eleventh Shia Imams (
Ali al-Hadi
ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad al-Hādī ( ar, عَلِيّ ٱبْن مُحَمَّد ٱلْهَادِي; 828 – 868 CE) was a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the tenth of the Twelve Imams, succeeding his father, Muhammad al-Jawad. He ...
and
Hasan al-Askari
Hasan ibn Ali ibn Muhammad ( ar, الحَسَن بْن عَلِيّ بْن مُحَمَّدُ, translit=al-Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad; ), better known as Hasan al-Askari ( ar, الحَسَن ٱلْعَسْكَرِيّ , translit=al-Ḥa ...
, respectively) were held under close surveillance in the garrison town of
Samarra
Samarra ( ar, سَامَرَّاء, ') is a city in Iraq. It stands on the east bank of the Tigris in the Saladin Governorate, north of Baghdad. The city of Samarra was founded by Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutasim for his Turkish professional army ...
by the Abbasids, who are often responsible in Shia sources for poisoning the two Imams. The two Imams witnessed the deterioration of the Abbasid caliphate, as the imperial authority rapidly transitioned into the hands of the Turks, particularly after
al-Mutawakkil
Abū al-Faḍl Jaʿfar ibn Muḥammad al-Muʿtaṣim bi-ʾllāh ( ar, جعفر بن محمد المعتصم بالله; March 822 – 11 December 861), better known by his regnal name Al-Mutawakkil ʿalā Allāh (, "He who relies on God") was t ...
.
Contemporary to the tenth Imam, the Abbasid
al-Mutawakkil
Abū al-Faḍl Jaʿfar ibn Muḥammad al-Muʿtaṣim bi-ʾllāh ( ar, جعفر بن محمد المعتصم بالله; March 822 – 11 December 861), better known by his regnal name Al-Mutawakkil ʿalā Allāh (, "He who relies on God") was t ...
violently prosecuted the Shia, partly due to the renewed
Zaydi
Zaydism (''h'') is a unique branch of Shia Islam that emerged in the eighth century following Zayd ibn Ali‘s unsuccessful rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. In contrast to other Shia Muslims of Twelver Shi'ism and Isma'ilism, Zaydis, ...
opposition. The restrictive policies of al-Mutawakkil towards the tenth Imam were later adopted by his son,
al-Mu'tamid
Abu’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad ibn Jaʿfar ( ar, أبو العباس أحمد بن جعفر; – 14 October 892), better known by his regnal name Al-Muʿtamid ʿalā ’llāh (, "Dependent on God"), was the Caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate from 870 t ...
, who is reported to have kept the eleventh Imam under house arrest without any visitors. Instead, al-Askari is known to have mainly communicated with his followers through a network of representatives. Among them was
Uthman ibn Sa'id, who is said to have disguised himself as a seller of cooking fat to avoid the Abbasid agents, hence his nickname al-Samman.
Tabatabai suggests that these restrictions were placed on al-Askari because the caliphate had come to know about traditions among the Shia elite, predicting that the eleventh Imam would father the eschatological
Mahdi
The Mahdi ( ar, ٱلْمَهْدِيّ, al-Mahdī, lit=the Guided) is a Messianism, messianic figure in Islamic eschatology who is believed to appear at the Eschatology, end of times to rid the world of evil and injustice. He is said to be a de ...
.
Succession to al-Askari
Al-Askari died in 260 (873-874) without an obvious heir. The death of the eleventh Imam divided his followers into several sects and created widespread confusion (), particularly in Iraq. Immediately after the death of al-Askari, his main agent,
Uthman ibn Sa'id, claimed that the Imam had an infant son, named Muhammad, who was kept hidden from the public out of fear of Abbasid persecution. As the closest associate of al-Askari, this assertion by Uthman was largely supported by other representatives of al-Askari. Those who accepted the imamate of this Muhammad later formed the Twelvers.
Some others held that the imamate ceased with al-Askari and the Waqifites maintained that the eleventh Imam would later reemerge as the eschatological
Mahdi
The Mahdi ( ar, ٱلْمَهْدِيّ, al-Mahdī, lit=the Guided) is a Messianism, messianic figure in Islamic eschatology who is believed to appear at the Eschatology, end of times to rid the world of evil and injustice. He is said to be a de ...
. Others concluded that
Muhammad ibn al-Hadi, a deceased brother of al-Askari, must have been the true Imam. Yet others accepted the imamate of
Ja'far ibn al-Hadi, another brother of al-Askari. Some believed that the twelfth Imam would be born in the end of time to a descendant of al-Askari, and some left the Shia community.
All these sects, however, are said to have disappeared within a hundred years except the group that went on to become the Twelver Shia.
Birth and early life of al-Mahdi
![Al-Asakari_Mosque_2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Al-Asakari_Mosque_2.jpg)
When al-Askari died without leaving an obvious heir, the traditions and predictions attributed to earlier Imams were largely the basis for the existence of the son of al-Askari as the twelfth Imam; see
Twelver doctrine of occultation.
As for the details of his birth, Twelver sources report that the son of al-Askari was born around 255 (868). He was named Abu al-Qasim Muhammad, the same name and
as the Islamic prophet, though he is more commonly known as Muhammad al-Mahdi (). His birthdate is given differently, but most sources seem to agree on 15
Sha'ban
Shaʽban ( ar, شَعْبَان, ') is the eighth month of the Islamic calendar. It is called as the month of "separation", as the word means "to disperse" or "to separate" because the pagan Arabs used to disperse in search of water.
The fiftee ...
, which is celebrated by the Shia for this occasion. The Twelver accounts describe that, except for a few trusted associates, the existence of al-Mahdi was kept secret since the Abbasids sought to eliminate the son of al-Askari, whom persistent rumors described as a savior. Hussain writes that the infant must have been sent to
Medina
Medina,, ', "the radiant city"; or , ', (), "the city" officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, , Turkish: Medine-i Münevvere) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the Holiest sites in Islam, second-holiest city in Islam, ...
, where al-Askari's mother lived.
The birth of al-Mahdi is often compared in Twelver sources to the birth of
Moses
Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu (Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pro ...
in the Quran, who was miraculously saved from the pharaoh. As a child Imam, al-Mahdi is also often compared to
Jesus
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
, since both are viewed as the proof of God () and both spoke with the authority of an adult while still a child.
Al-Mahdi is said to have been born to
Narjis
Narjis ( ar, نَرْجِس) is believed by the Twelvers to have been the mother of their Hidden Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi. His birth is said to have been providentially concealed by his father, Hasan al-Askari, out of fear of Abbasid persecutio ...
, a slave-girl whose name is given by various sources as Sawsan, Rayhana, Sayqal, and Maryam. The first three are names of flowers and were likely given to her by her owner in keeping with the practice of the day. Her origin is recorded as the
Byzantine empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
or
Nubia
Nubia () (Nobiin: Nobīn, ) is a region along the Nile river encompassing the area between the first cataract of the Nile (just south of Aswan in southern Egypt) and the confluence of the Blue and White Niles (in Khartoum in central Sudan), or ...
, and some accounts state that she was bought providentially by an agent of al-Hadi, who recognized by clairvoyance in her the future mother of al-Mahdi. In the same vein, the detailed accounts of
Majlesi and
Tusi
''Tusi'', often translated as "headmen" or "chieftains", were hereditary tribal leaders recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties of China, and the Later Lê and Nguyễn dynasties of Vietnam. They ruled certain et ...
describe Narjis as a captured grand-daughter of the Byzantine emperor and a pious woman who learned about her future union with al-Askari in a dream, though these accounts have been described as hagiographic. Possibly the correct account is given by
al-Mufid
Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Nu'man al-'Ukbari al-Baghdadi, known as al-Shaykh al-Mufid () and Ibn al-Mu'allim (c.9481022 CE), was a prominent Twelver Shia theologian. His father was a teacher (''mu'allim''), hence the name Ibn ...
, who writes that Narjis was a slave-girl, born and raised in the house of
Hakima, daughter of
al-Jawad
Muhammad ibn Ali al-Jawad ( ar, محمد بن علي الجواد, Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Jawād, – 29 November 835) was a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the ninth of the Twelve Imams, succeeding his father, Ali al-Rida. ...
(the ninth Imam) and paternal aunt of al-Askari.
Abbasid reaction
The death of al-Askari in 260 (873-874) followed a brief illness, during which the Abbasid
al-Mu'tamid
Abu’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad ibn Jaʿfar ( ar, أبو العباس أحمد بن جعفر; – 14 October 892), better known by his regnal name Al-Muʿtamid ʿalā ’llāh (, "Dependent on God"), was the Caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate from 870 t ...
sent his doctors and servants to attend the Imam. Considering that al-Askari did not have an obvious heir, it has been suggested that the caliph intended to closely monitor al-Askari from within his residence. After the death of al-Askari, there are reports that his residence was searched and the women were examined for pregnancy, possibly in the hope of finding his heir. A female servant of al-Askari was held for a while, perhaps due to false rumors of her pregnancy designed to distract the Abbasids in their search.
Al-Askari left his estate to his mother, Hadith, to the exclusion of his brother, Ja'far, who had earlier unsuccessfully laid a claim to the imamate after the death of their father, al-Hadi. Ja'far repeated his claims to the imamate after the death of al-Askari, which this time found a following in the form of the now-extinct Ja'fariyya and
Fathiyya sects. He also contested al-Askari's will and raised the case with the authorities. Al-Askari was apparently childless, and Hadith was thus regarded as the sole inheritor in Shia law. The caliph, however, ruled the inheritance to be divided between Hadith and Ja'far.
Minor Occultation (874–941)
Immediately after the death of al-Askari in 260 (873-874),
Uthman al-Amri () claimed that al-Askari had a young son, named Muhammad, who had entered a state of
occultation
An occultation is an event that occurs when one object is hidden from the observer by another object that passes between them. The term is often used in astronomy, but can also refer to any situation in which an object in the foreground blocks ...
() due to the Abbasid threat to his life. As the special representative of al-Askari, Uthman also claimed that he had been appointed to represent the son of the eleventh Imam. A Shia tradition attributed to the sixth Imam,
Ja'far al-Sadiq
Jaʿfar ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Ṣādiq ( ar, جعفر بن محمد الصادق; 702 – 765 CE), commonly known as Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (), was an 8th-century Shia Muslim scholar, jurist, and theologian.. He was the founder of th ...
, states that this threat was specific to Muhammad al-Mahdi, who was expected to rise, unlike his predecessors who practiced religious dissimulation (
) and were politically quiescent.
Twelver sources detail that al-Mahdi made his only public appearance to lead the funeral prayer for his father instead of his uncle,
Ja'far. It is also said that the occultation took place in the family home in Samarra, where currently a mosque stands, under which there is a cellar () that hides a well (Bi'r al-Ghayba, ). Into this well, al-Mahdi is said to have disappeared.
In his new capacity as the caretaker of the office of imamate, Uthman received petitions and made available their responses, sometimes in writing. As the closest associate of al-Askari, most of al-Askari's local representatives continued to support Uthman. However, there might have been doubts among the Shia about his authority to collect and manage the religious funds.
Uthman later introduced his son,
Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Uthman (), as the next representative of al-Mahdi. Abu Ja'far, who served for some forty years, has been credited with the unification of the mainstream Shia behind the son of al-Askari as the twelfth Imam in concealment. In turn, as his replacement, Abu Ja'far nominated
Abu al-Qasim al-Husayn ibn Ruh al-Nawbakhti
Abu al-Qasim al-Husayn ibn Ruh Nawbakhti ( ar, أَبُو ٱلْقَاسِم ٱلْحُسَيْن ٱبْن رُوح ٱلنَّوْبَخْتِيّ, ') was the third of the Four Deputies, who are believed by the Twelvers to have successively repre ...
(), who is said to have been a well-respected figure in the Abbasid court. Under Abu al-Qasim, it is reported that the communications with the Hidden Imam resumed after a lapse of about twenty-five years.
This period, later termed the
Minor Occultation
The Minor Occultation ( ar, ٱلْغَيْبَة ٱلصُّغْرَىٰ, '), also known as the First Occultation ( ar, ٱلْغَيْبَة ٱلْأُولَىٰ, '), refers in Twelver Shia Islam to a period of nearly seventy years (874–941 CE, ...
(), ended after about seventy years with the death of the fourth agent,
Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad al-Samarri
Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad al-Samarri ( ar, أَبُو ٱلْحَسَن عَلِيّ ٱبْن مُحَمَّد ٱلسَّمَّرِيّ, ') was the last of the Four Deputies, who are believed by the Twelvers to have successively represented the ...
(), who is said to have received a
letter from al-Mahdi shortly before his death. The letter predicted the death of Abu al-Hasan in six days and announced the beginning of the complete () occultation, later called the
Major Occultation
In Twelver Shia Islam, the Major Occultation ( ar, ٱلْغَيْبَة ٱلْكُبْرَىٰ, ', 329 AH-present, 941 CE-present) is the second occultation of the Hidden Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, which is expected to continue until his rise in ...
(). The letter, ascribed to al-Mahdi, added that the complete occultation would continue until God granted him permission to manifest himself again in a time when the earth would be filled with tyranny. The letter emphasized that anyone claiming to be the deputy of the Imam henceforth had to be considered an imposter. This and similar letters to the four agents and other Shia figures are said to have had the same handwriting, suggesting that they were written by the Hidden Imam.
Shia authority
The number of these agents was not limited to four in early Shia sources. Sachedina suggests that the later stress of the Twelver literature on the
four deputies
The Four Deputies ( ar, ٱلنُّوَّاب ٱلْأَرْبَعَة, ') were the four individuals who are believed by the Twelvers to have successively represented their twelfth Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, during his Minor Occultation (874–941 CE ...
() was likely due to their prominence in
Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon ...
, the Shia center of the time. Similarly,
Momen reckons that al-Askari's network of the representatives () likely continued to operate during the Minor Occultation of al-Mahdi. Indeed,
Ibn Babawayh
Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn Babawayh al-Qummi (Persian: ar, أَبُو جَعْفَر مُحَمَّد ٱبْن عَلِيّ ٱبْن بَابَوَيْه ٱلْقُمِيّ; –991), commonly referred to as Ibn Babawayh (Persian: ar, ...
() speaks of other trusted men of the Hidden Imam in different cities in addition to the four agents. Sachedina writes that the Shia community lacked a notable figure to replace the fourth agent after his death.
The authority of the four agents on behalf of the Hidden Imam was challenged by some Shia figures, more so during the term of the third agent, al-Nawbakhti. For instance, Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Ali al-Shalmaghani turned against al-Nawbakhti and claimed to be the rightful agent of al-Mahdi, before denouncing the concept of occultation as a lie. Another instance was a disciple of al-Askari, named al-Karkhi, who was later condemned in a rescript, said to be written by al-Mahdi. Some miracles are also ascribed to the four agents, perceived by the faithful to be the result of their initiation by the Hidden Imam.
Shia community
At the time, the occultation of al-Mahdi was likely not a radical change for his followers. Indeed, the tenth and eleventh Imams were already effectively in occultation for the majority of the Shia, as both Imams were held nearly isolated in Samarra by the Abbasid caliphs. It also appears that the idea of occultation was a well-established concept for the Shia and the related traditions were already in circulation among them. These traditions forecasted the occultation and rise of a future Imam, referred to as al-Qa'im () and less frequently as al-Mahdi. These traditions were appropriated by various Shia sects in different periods. For instance, they were used by the
Waqifites to argue that
Musa al-Kazim
Musa ibn Ja'far al-Kazim ( ar, مُوسَىٰ ٱبْن جَعْفَر ٱلْكَاظِم, Mūsā ibn Jaʿfar al-Kāẓim), also known as Abū al-Ḥasan, Abū ʿAbd Allāh or Abū Ibrāhīm, was the seventh Imam in Twelver Shia Islam, after hi ...
, the seventh Imam, had not died but was in occultation. Even earlier, the now-extinct
Kaysanites
The Kaysanites () were a Shi'i sect of Islam that formed from the followers of Al-Mukhtar. They traced Imamate from Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah and his descendants. The name Kaysaniyya was most likely derived from the name of Mukhtar's chief guard ...
denied the death of
Muḥammad ibn al-Hanafiyya and awaited his return.
The political situation of the Shia in Iraq improved after the rise of the
Buyid dynasty
The Buyid dynasty ( fa, آل بویه, Āl-e Būya), also spelled Buwayhid ( ar, البويهية, Al-Buwayhiyyah), was a Shia Iranian dynasty of Daylamite origin, which mainly ruled over Iraq and central and southern Iran from 934 to 1062. Coupl ...
in the fourth (tenth) century. Perhaps it was the relative safety of the Shia that prompted the second agent to issue a rescript to the effect that al-Mahdi remained in occultation to avoid the burden of commitment () to unjust rulers of the time who were the usurpers of the Imam's right in the Shia view.
Ibn Babawayh
Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn Babawayh al-Qummi (Persian: ar, أَبُو جَعْفَر مُحَمَّد ٱبْن عَلِيّ ٱبْن بَابَوَيْه ٱلْقُمِيّ; –991), commonly referred to as Ibn Babawayh (Persian: ar, ...
() suggested that the situation remains unknown until the
reappearance of al-Mahdi but also added that the large population of the Shia did not necessarily guarantee his safety.
Nevertheless, many did not expect the occultation to continue beyond six years or beyond the fortieth birthday of al-Mahdi, and this might have contributed to an atmosphere of doubt and uncertainty among the Shia. According to
Modarressi, these doubts gradually disappeared from the Shia community, possibly due to the efforts of the Shia traditionists during the period of transition to the Major Occultation. These traditionists heavily relied on prophetic traditions and specific interpretations of the
Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Classical Arabic, Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation in Islam, revelation from God in Islam, ...
to vindicate the imamate of al-Mahdi. In this period, possibly after 295 (908), Shia traditionists also settled the number of Imams with the help of a Sunni
hadith
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval ...
, in circulation long before the occultation, which stated that the prophet would be followed by twelve successors. The Hidden Imam was thus also the last Imam.
Major Occultation (941-present)
The Major Occultation, a term coined later, began with the death of the fourth agent in 329 (940-941), who did not designate a successor. In this period, which continues today, there is no agent of the Hidden Imam on earth. There is some evidence that the death of the fourth agent also dissolved the underground network of representatives responsible primarily for the collection and distribution of the religious dues. The office of deputyship was thus formally closed. Despite some uncertainty, there were likely early traditions among the Shia that had already predicted the two periods of occultation. These hadiths were previously cited, for instance, by the
Waqifites in reference to the two arrests of
Musa al-Kazim
Musa ibn Ja'far al-Kazim ( ar, مُوسَىٰ ٱبْن جَعْفَر ٱلْكَاظِم, Mūsā ibn Jaʿfar al-Kāẓim), also known as Abū al-Ḥasan, Abū ʿAbd Allāh or Abū Ibrāhīm, was the seventh Imam in Twelver Shia Islam, after hi ...
, the seventh Imam. Nevertheless, the prolonged absence of the Hidden Imam seems to have created widespread doubts among his followers.
Leadership vacuum
As both the spiritual and political head of the Shia community, the occultation of the Hidden Imam left a considerable gap in the Shia community. This leadership vacuum was eventually filled by Twelver jurists (), who remain the sole leaders of the Shia community during the Major Occultation. Often cited to support this transition is a letter received by Ishaq ibn Ya'qub in response to his religious inquiries of the second agent. The letter, said to be written by al-Mahdi, stipulated that
A few similar hadiths are attributed to the tenth and eleventh Imams. The traditions also specify that these jurists must be just and knowledgeable in Islamic law. As the absence of the Hidden Imam continued, however, the Twelver jurists evolved from mere transmitters () of hadith to in order to resolve new religious questions that arose over time. Their authority also increased with time to address the need to explicate religious teachings for the community. For instance, as early as the seventh (thirteenth) century,
Muhaqqiq al-Hilli Najm ul-Din Abul-Qasim Ja'far bin al-Hasan bin Yahya bin al-Hasan bin Sa'id, famous as ''al-Muhaqqiq al-Hilli'' and ''al-Muhaqqiq al-Awwal'' ( 1205 – 1277) was an influential Shi'i Mujtahid born in the city of al-Hilla, Iraq. He played an importan ...
() spent the Imam's share of
Khums
In Islam, khums ( ar, خُمْس , literally 'one fifth') refers to the required religious obligation of any Muslims to pay 20% of their acquired wealth from certain sources toward specified causes. It is treated differently in Shia and Sun ...
(a type of Islamic alms) on activities that furthered the cause of Shia, as opposed to his predecessors, such as
al-Mufid
Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Nu'man al-'Ukbari al-Baghdadi, known as al-Shaykh al-Mufid () and Ibn al-Mu'allim (c.9481022 CE), was a prominent Twelver Shia theologian. His father was a teacher (''mu'allim''), hence the name Ibn ...
(), who often asked the faithful to save these donations for the rise of al-Mahdi.
Considering that jurists were not directly appointed by the Hidden Imam, it was debated whether their authority should extend to functions with political implications, such as declaring holy war (). It was likely
Shahid al-Thani () who first suggested that a (qualified) jurist was the general deputy () of the Hidden Imam whose authority encompassed all prerogatives of the Imam. The transition of Twelver jurists into their new role was facilitated by the formation of Shia states, particularly the
Safavid
Safavid Iran or Safavid Persia (), also referred to as the Safavid Empire, '. was one of the greatest Iranian empires after the 7th-century Muslim conquest of Persia, which was ruled from 1501 to 1736 by the Safavid dynasty. It is often conside ...
and
Qajar
Qajar Iran (), also referred to as Qajar Persia, the Qajar Empire, '. Sublime State of Persia, officially the Sublime State of Iran ( fa, دولت علیّه ایران ') and also known then as the Guarded Domains of Iran ( fa, ممالک م ...
dynasties in Iran. For instance, during the
Russo-Iranian war of 1804-13, the eminent clerics of
Najaf
Najaf ( ar, ٱلنَّجَف) or An-Najaf al-Ashraf ( ar, ٱلنَّجَف ٱلْأَشْرَف), also known as Baniqia ( ar, بَانِيقِيَا), is a city in central Iraq about 160 km (100 mi) south of Baghdad. Its estimated popula ...
and
Isfahan
Isfahan ( fa, اصفهان, Esfahân ), from its Achaemenid empire, ancient designation ''Aspadana'' and, later, ''Spahan'' in Sassanian Empire, middle Persian, rendered in English as ''Ispahan'', is a major city in the Greater Isfahan Regio ...
issued a declaration of against the Russians to support the Qajarite
Abbas Mirza
Abbas Mirza ( fa, عباس میرزا; August 26, 1789October 25, 1833) was a Qajar crown prince of Iran. He developed a reputation as a military commander during the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813 and the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828, as ...
, who was conducting the campaign. Later on, however, jurists often had to compete with the Shia monarchs for religious authority.
In sum, the politically quiescent approach of the Twelver jurists over time gave way to eventually questioning the legitimacy of Shia monarchs and even attempts to restrict their power through a constitution. This evolution culminated with the concept of () by
Khomeini
Ruhollah Khomeini, Ayatollah Khomeini, Imam Khomeini ( , ; ; 17 May 1900 – 3 June 1989) was an Iranian political and religious leader who served as the first supreme leader of Iran from 1979 until his death in 1989. He was the founder of ...
, the religious leader of the
Iranian revolution
The Iranian Revolution ( fa, انقلاب ایران, Enqelâb-e Irân, ), also known as the Islamic Revolution ( fa, انقلاب اسلامی, Enqelâb-e Eslâmī), was a series of events that culminated in the overthrow of the Pahlavi dynas ...
in 1979, who called upon religious scholars to assume an active role after the toppling of
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
, title = Shahanshah Aryamehr Bozorg Arteshtaran
, image = File:Shah_fullsize.jpg
, caption = Shah in 1973
, succession = Shah of Iran
, reign = 16 September 1941 – 11 February 1979
, coronation = 26 October ...
, the last monarch of Iran.
Doctrinal developments
While some traditions, dating back to before 260 (874), might have predicted a second occultation, the sources from the beginning of Major Occultation indicate that the prolonged absence of the Hidden Imam may have led many of the Twelvers to abandon their belief in him. His absence also provided a basis for renewed criticisms at the time, voiced by the
Mu'tazilites
Muʿtazila ( ar, المعتزلة ', English: "Those Who Withdraw, or Stand Apart", and who called themselves ''Ahl al-ʿAdl wa al-Tawḥīd'', English: "Party of ivineJustice and Oneness f God); was an Islamic group that appeared in early Islamic ...
and
Ash'arites. These pressures likely expedited a transition in Twelver arguments from a traditionist to a rationalist approach in order to vindicate the occultation of al-Mahdi.
Abu Sahl al-Nawbakhti
Abu or ABU may refer to:
Places
* Abu (volcano), a volcano on the island of Honshū in Japan
* Abu, Yamaguchi, a town in Japan
* Ahmadu Bello University, a university located in Zaria, Nigeria
* Atlantic Baptist University, a Christian university ...
(), for instance, argued that the absence of an Imam does not invalidate his religion or law, as with the absence of a prophet. Concerns about inauthentic hadiths, voiced by
Tusi
''Tusi'', often translated as "headmen" or "chieftains", were hereditary tribal leaders recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties of China, and the Later Lê and Nguyễn dynasties of Vietnam. They ruled certain et ...
() and others, might have given another impetus to this transition.
Starting with Ibn Babawayh () and his student
al-Mufid
Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Nu'man al-'Ukbari al-Baghdadi, known as al-Shaykh al-Mufid () and Ibn al-Mu'allim (c.9481022 CE), was a prominent Twelver Shia theologian. His father was a teacher (''mu'allim''), hence the name Ibn ...
(), Shia scholars began to employ theological arguments modeled on the Mu'tazilite
. Of these, the principle of () is an example which, at a high level, necessitates that a prophet or an Imam should exist at any time to guide towards God, as the manifestation of His utmost kindness towards His subjects. Other Twelver arguments aim to establish that the Hidden Imam benefits the humankind even in occultation, "just as the people benefit from the sun while it is covered by clouds." While the ordinary Twelvers were likely content with the traditions about occultation, the theologist approach to vindicating the Hidden Imam was intended to address the criticisms of the non-Twelver theologians. The two approaches were blended together by
Tusi
''Tusi'', often translated as "headmen" or "chieftains", were hereditary tribal leaders recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties of China, and the Later Lê and Nguyễn dynasties of Vietnam. They ruled certain et ...
in his substantial monograph ''Kitab al-Ghayba'' ().
Visitations
The Twelvers believe that the primordial
light
Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived by the human eye. Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres (nm), corresponding to frequencies of 750–420 tera ...
of the prophethood has continued to shine through the ages in the character of the Imams. Thus the Hidden Imam is not viewed as inaccessible in the state of occultation. Indeed, it is popularly held that al-Mahdi occasionally appears to the pious in person or, more commonly, in dreams and visions. The accounts of these encounters are numerous and widespread in the Twelver community. Among these accounts are also the encounters of the prominent religious scholars (
) with the Hidden Imam.
The descriptions of these contacts often show the concern of the Hidden Imam for the well-being of his followers and how such encounters may prompt the believer's "spiritual resurrection," an interpretation put forward by late mystic sources. As the Hidden Imam can only be seen in the end of time, those who see him, it is argued, have attained their end of time. For instance, publishers close to the Lebanese Shia militant organization
Hezbollah
Hezbollah (; ar, حزب الله ', , also transliterated Hizbullah or Hizballah, among others) is a Lebanese Shia Islamist political party and militant group, led by its Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah since 1992. Hezbollah's parami ...
have published the accounts of some Hezbollah fighters who believed they were directly assisted by al-Mahdi in critical moments on the battlefields of the
2006 Israel-Hezbollah conflict.
Twelver doctrine of occultation
The Twelver doctrine of occultation crystallized in the first half of the fourth (tenth) century. In its simplest form, this doctrine states that Muhammad al-Mahdi, the twelfth Imam, did not die but has been concealed by God from humanity. His life has been miraculously prolonged until the day he manifests himself again by God's permission to fill the earth with justice. This occultation continues until the safety of the Imam can be guaranteed, and until humankind is ready to receive his guidance. During the Minor Occultation, he remained in contact with his followers through the four Babs (gates). During the Major Occultation, which began in 329 (941) and continues to this day, there is no direct communication, though the Hidden Imam still remains responsible in Twelver belief for the inward spiritual guidance of humankind (whereas his outward role begins with his reappearance).
Hadith literature
The Twelver literature about the doctrine of occultation is extensive, based on rational and textual arguments. One such instance is a prophetic hadith, reported by Shia and Sunni authorities, including the canonical ''
Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal
''Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal'' ( ar, مسند أحمد بن حنبل) is a collection of musnad hadith compiled by the Islamic scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 241 AH/855 AD) to whom the Hanbali fiqh (legislation) is attributed.
Description
It is one ...
''. One version of this hadith reads, "If the earth had only one day of existence left to it, God would prolong that day until a man of my posterity, whose name will be my name, and his surname my surname, manifests himself; he will fill the earth, filled till then with violence and oppression, with harmony and justice." Another prophetic hadith, in circulation long before the occultation, predicted that Muhammad was to be followed by twelve successors (s), during whose reign the Islamic community would be united, as reported in ''
Sahih Muslim
Sahih Muslim ( ar, صحيح مسلم, translit=Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim), group=note is a 9th-century ''hadith'' collection and a book of '' sunnah'' compiled by the Persian scholar Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj (815–875). It is one of the most valued bo ...
'' and other canonical Sunni sources. It is argued that these twelve successors cannot include the (often immoral) Umayyad or Abbasid caliphs and, in any case, their number exceeded twelve. These twelve, he thus concludes, are the
Twelve Imams
The Twelve Imams ( ar, ٱلْأَئِمَّة ٱلْٱثْنَا عَشَر, '; fa, دوازده امام, ') are the spiritual and political successors to the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the Twelver branch of Islam, including that of the Alawi ...
. More generally, in Twelver collections of hadith, the reappearance of al-Mahdi is the most frequently cited subject in predictions made by the prophet, his daughter,
Fatima
Fāṭima bint Muḥammad ( ar, فَاطِمَة ٱبْنَت مُحَمَّد}, 605/15–632 CE), commonly known as Fāṭima al-Zahrāʾ (), was the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his wife Khadija. Fatima's husband was Ali, th ...
, and the Twelve Imams.
Quran
Al-Mahdi is viewed by the Twelvers as a hidden saint in view of verses 18:65-6 of the Quran and the two types of saints in those verses, namely, outwardly manifest, such as
Moses
Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu (Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pro ...
, and hidden, like
Khidr
Al-Khidr () ( ar, ٱلْخَضِر, al-Khaḍir), also transcribed as al-Khadir, Khader, Khidr, Khizr, Khazer, Khadr, Khedher, Khizir, Khizar, is a figure described but not mentioned by name in the Quran as a righteous servant of God possessing g ...
. As with the account of Khidr in the Quran, it is held that the Hidden Imam benefits the Islamic community () during the occultation, as the sun behind clouds still gives light and warmth.
Muhammad al-Baqir
Muḥammad al-Bāqir ( ar, مُحَمَّد ٱلْبَاقِر), with the full name Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, also known as Abū Jaʿfar or simply al-Bāqir () was the fifth Imam in Shia Islam, succee ...
, the fifth Imam, is said to have related verse 21:105 of the Quran to the rise of al-Mahdi: "And verily We have written in the scripture (
Zabur
The Zabūr (also ''Zabur'', ar, الزَّبُورُ) is, according to Islam, the holy book of David, one of the holy books revealed by God before the Quran, alongside others such as the '' Tawrāh (Torah)'' and the Injīl (Gospel). Muslim t ...
), after the reminder,
hat
A hat is a head covering which is worn for various reasons, including protection against weather conditions, ceremonial reasons such as university graduation, religious reasons, safety, or as a fashion accessory. Hats which incorporate mecha ...
My righteous slaves will inherit the earth." As another instance,
Tusi
''Tusi'', often translated as "headmen" or "chieftains", were hereditary tribal leaders recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties of China, and the Later Lê and Nguyễn dynasties of Vietnam. They ruled certain et ...
() connects verses 28:5-6 to the rule of al-Mahdi in the end of time. In particular, verse 28:5 reads, "And We desired to show favor unto those who were oppressed in the earth, and to make them Imams and to make them the inheritors."
Reasons for occultation
While the Abbasid threat might have initially forced al-Mahdi into occultation, his absence continues in Twelver belief until initial conditions are met for his reappearance to establish justice and peace on earth. One such condition, Sobhani writes, is humankind's readiness for the intellectual and spiritual message of the Hidden Imam. Without these conditions, he argues that al-Mahdi might be killed similar to his predecessors. Similarly, when asked about the reason for the occultation,
al-Baqir is reported to have answered, "To prevent his being killed." Shia traditions add two more reasons for the occultation, namely, test for the followers of the Imam and their faith, and avoiding the burden of commitment () to unjust rulers of the time.
It is also held that the true reason for the occultation will be only known when the Imam reappears as in the story of Musa and Khidr, where the motivation of Khidr for his actions was not immediately revealed to Musa.
Longevity
In response to Sunni criticism and even ridicule, Shia scholars have argued that the longevity of the Hidden Imam, born around 868 CE, is not unreasonable given the long lives of
Khidr
Al-Khidr () ( ar, ٱلْخَضِر, al-Khaḍir), also transcribed as al-Khadir, Khader, Khidr, Khizr, Khazer, Khadr, Khedher, Khizir, Khizar, is a figure described but not mentioned by name in the Quran as a righteous servant of God possessing g ...
,
Jesus
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
, and
al-Dajjal (another eschatological figure), as well as secular reports about long-lived men. Along these lines,
Tabatabai emphasizes the miraculous qualities of al-Mahdi, adding that his long life, while unlikely, is not impossible.
Reappearance
Shortly before the
Day of Judgment
The Last Judgment, Final Judgment, Day of Reckoning, Day of Judgment, Judgment Day, Doomsday, Day of Resurrection or The Day of the Lord (; ar, یوم القيامة, translit=Yawm al-Qiyāmah or ar, یوم الدین, translit=Yawm ad-Dīn, ...
, when commanded by God, al-Mahdi will return to lead the forces of righteousness against the forces of evil in an apocalyptic war that would ultimately establish peace and justice on earth, according to the Twelvers. He is also viewed by the Twelvers as the restorer of true Islam. In his mission, al-Mahdi will be assisted by
Jesus
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
, who will kill
al-Dajjal (antichrist) in some Islamic accounts. Al-Mahdi would also be accompanied by 313 loyal followers, their number identical to the number of Muslim warriors in the
Battle of Badr
The Battle of Badr ( ar, غَزْوَةُ بَدِرْ ), also referred to as The Day of the Criterion (, ) in the Quran, Qur'an and by Muslims, was fought on 13 March 624 CE (17 Ramadan (calendar month), Ramadan, 2 Anno Hegirae, AH), near the ...
. He is expected to reemerge as a young man in possession of the relics of the past prophets, e.g., the staff and arc of Moses. The time of his reappearance is unknown, however, and Shia hadiths expressly forbid haste () and setting time () for his return.
Numerous Shia hadiths predict that the reappearance of al-Mahdi would be heralded by some signs, of which some are inevitable, and others are conditional, i.e., might change by divine decision. Alternatively, some of these signs are general, and some are specific. The foremost general sign of the second coming of al-Mahdi is the prevalence of evil on earth in the form of tyranny, injustice, and religious and moral degradation. In particular, at the time, Islam would be devoid of its soul and practiced only outwardly. Only a fraction of the Shia, those who truly practice their Imams' teachings, will remain on the righteous path in the end of time.
Among the special signs are the rise of
Sufyani
Sufyani ( ar, سفیاني) is an evil figure in Islamic eschatology, usually portrayed in hadith as a tyrant who will spread corruption and mischief. According to Shia Hadith, Sufyani will rise in the month of Rajab. The predicted location of hi ...
, who would later command the enemies of al-Mahdi, the rise of Yamani, who would later support al-Mahdi, the divine cry (, ) which calls upon men to join al-Mahdi, often followed shortly by another supernatural cry from the earth that invites men to join the enemies of al-Mahdi, the swallowing up () of an army dispatched by Sufyani in a desert, and the assassination by
Meccans
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red ...
of the messenger of al-Mahdi, referred to as the pure soul ().
Connections with the Islamic figure of Mahdi
A widely-held Muslim belief is that a restorer of religion and justice, with the name of
Mahdi
The Mahdi ( ar, ٱلْمَهْدِيّ, al-Mahdī, lit=the Guided) is a Messianism, messianic figure in Islamic eschatology who is believed to appear at the Eschatology, end of times to rid the world of evil and injustice. He is said to be a de ...
(), will rule the world in the end of time. In particular, it appears to be an accepted notion in Sunni Islam that this savior would be a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad through his daughter
Fatima
Fāṭima bint Muḥammad ( ar, فَاطِمَة ٱبْنَت مُحَمَّد}, 605/15–632 CE), commonly known as Fāṭima al-Zahrāʾ (), was the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his wife Khadija. Fatima's husband was Ali, th ...
and his son-in-law
Ali
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam. ...
. While absent from the ''Sahih''s of
al-Bukhari and
Muslim
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
, traditions about Mahdi can be found in other canonical Sunni hadith collections, including the works of
Abu Dawud,
al-Tirmidhi
Abū ʿĪsā Muḥammad ibn ʿĪsā as-Sulamī aḍ-Ḍarīr al-Būghī at-Tirmidhī ( ar, أبو عيسى محمد بن عيسى السلمي الضرير البوغي الترمذي; fa, , ''Termezī''; 824 – 9 October 892 CE / 209 - 2 ...
,
Ibn Majah
Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Yazīd Ibn Mājah al-Rabʿī al-Qazwīnī ( ar, ابو عبد الله محمد بن يزيد بن ماجه الربعي القزويني; (b. 209/824, d. 273/887) commonly known as Ibn Mājah, was a medieval sch ...
, and
al-Nasa'i
Al-Nasāʾī (214 – 303 AH; 829 – 915 CE), full name Abū ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Aḥmad ibn Shuʿayb ibn ʿAlī ibn Sīnān al-Nasāʾī, (variant: Abu Abdel-rahman Ahmed ibn Shua'ib ibn Ali ibn Sinan ibn Bahr ibn Dinar Al-Khurasani ...
, and
Ibn Ḥanbal. These hadiths have likely strengthened the popular belief in Mahdi among Muslims. Historically, various Muslim figures were identified with Mahdi or used the name as an honorific epithet with messianic significance. These include the Umayyad
Umar II
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz ( ar, عمر بن عبد العزيز, ʿUmar ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz; 2 November 680 – ), commonly known as Umar II (), was the eighth Umayyad caliph. He made various significant contributions and reforms to the society, and ...
and the Abbasid
al-Mahdi
Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh al-Manṣūr ( ar, أبو عبد الله محمد بن عبد الله المنصور; 744 or 745 – 785), better known by his regnal name Al-Mahdī (, "He who is guided by God"), was the third Abba ...
, among many others.
Unlike Sunni Islam, however, the belief in Mahdi of the lineage of the prophet is central to Shia Islam, in general, and to Twelver Shia, in particular, where Mahdi is identified with the twelfth Imam. Distinctive to Shia is also the doctrine of occultation or the temporary absence of Mahdi. Sunni and Shia traditions, however, have much in common about the career of Mahdi. In particular,
Momen lists several signs before the advent of Mahdi which are common to both Sunni and Shia beliefs.
Support from Sunni circles
As early as the fourth (ninth) century, or possibly much earlier, Shia sources identify the twelfth Imam with the messianic figure of Mahdi in Islam. The Twelver authors also aim to establish that the description of Mahdi in Sunni sources applies to the twelfth Imam. Their efforts gained considerable momentum in the seventh (thirteenth) century when several notable Sunni scholars endorsed the Shia view of Mahdi. For instance, in his ''Kitab al-Bayan fi akhbar sahib al-zaman'', the
Shafi'i
The Shafii ( ar, شَافِعِي, translit=Shāfiʿī, also spelled Shafei) school, also known as Madhhab al-Shāfiʿī, is one of the four major traditional schools of religious law (madhhab) in the Sunnī branch of Islam. It was founded by ...
traditionist Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Gandji proved that the twelfth Shia Imam was Mahdi, relying solely on Sunni traditions. Since then, Amir-Moezzi writes, there is Sunni support from time to time for the Twelvers' view of Mahdi.
Madelung writes that a major Sunni objection to the Mahdiship of the twelfth Imam, whose name and
matches those of the prophet, is that the name of his father, Hasan al-Askari, differs from the prophet's father,
Abdullah
Abdullah may refer to:
* Abdullah (name), a list of people with the given name or surname
* Abdullah, Kargı, Turkey, a village
* ''Abdullah'' (film), a 1980 Bollywood film directed by Sanjay Khan
* '' Abdullah: The Final Witness'', a 2015 Pakis ...
. On the other hand, according to Madelung, al-Aburi testified that this stipulation was later added to the tradition by the
Kufan
Kufa ( ar, الْكُوفَة ), also spelled Kufah, is a city in Iraq, about south of Baghdad, and northeast of Najaf. It is located on the banks of the Euphrates River. The estimated population in 2003 was 110,000. Currently, Kufa and Najaf a ...
transmitter Za'ida ().
Support from Sufi circles
There has also been some Sufi support for the Mahdiship of the twelfth Imam.
Al-Bayhaqi
Abū Bakr Aḥmad ibn Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī ibn Mūsā al-Khusrawjirdī al-Bayhaqī ( ar, أبو بكر أحمد بن حسين بن علي بن موسى الخسروجردي البيهقي, 994–1066), also known as Imām al-Bayhaqī, was born c. ...
() writes that some Sufi gnostics agreed with the Twelvers about the identity and occultation of Mahdi. As another instance, the Egyptian Sufi al-Sha'rani, not known to be sympathetic to the Shia cause, echoed the Twelver views about Mahdi in his ''al-Yawaqit wa al-Jawahir.'' Possibly to avoid the Shia implications of this statement, al-Idwi later falsely quoted parts of it and suppressed the rest.
Birthday celebration
The
birthday of Muhammad al-Mahdi is celebrated annually in
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
on 15
Sha'ban
Shaʽban ( ar, شَعْبَان, ') is the eighth month of the Islamic calendar. It is called as the month of "separation", as the word means "to disperse" or "to separate" because the pagan Arabs used to disperse in search of water.
The fiftee ...
. On the evening of the birthday, millions of people in the country celebrate the occasion annually.
The city of
Qom
Qom (also spelled as "Ghom", "Ghum", or "Qum") ( fa, قم ) is the seventh largest metropolis and also the seventh largest city in Iran. Qom is the capital of Qom Province. It is located to the south of Tehran. At the 2016 census, its popul ...
is decorated by bright lights and flags.
The date of the celebration is based on the Islamic calendar and changes from year to year:
See also
*
Twelver theology
The theology of Twelver Shi'ism contains the five principles of Shia Islam known as ''Uṣūl ad-Dīn'' ( ar, أصول الدين عند الشيعة). Usul al-dín is an Arabic Islamic term which literally translates as 'principles of the faith ...
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List of Mahdi claimants
In Islamic eschatology, the Mahdi is a Messianic figure who, it is believed, will appear on Earth before the Day of Judgment, and will rid the world of wrongdoing, injustice and tyranny. People claiming to be the Mahdi have appeared across the ...
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Princess of Rome
''Princess of Rome'' ( fa, شاهزاده روم) is an Iranian computer-animated movie about the life of a Christian princess, Malika, mother-to-be of Muhammad al-Mahdi, the 12th Shia Imam, and granddaughter of Caesar of Rome. The animation is ...
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Occultation (Islam)
Occultation ( ar, غَيْبَة, ') in Shia Islam refers to the eschatological belief that Mahdi, a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, has already been born and subsequently concealed, but will reemerge to establish justice and peace ...
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Final letter of Muhammad al-Mahdi to al-Samarri
The final letter of Muhammad al-Mahdi, known as the Hidden Imam in Twelver Shi'ism, to his agent Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad al-Samarri predicted his imminent death and announced the beginning of the Major Occultation (941–present). In Twelve ...
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Du'a Al-Ahd
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Du'a Nudba
Du'a Nudba ( ar, دُعَاء ٱلنُّدْبَة) is one of the major Shia supplications about Imam Al-Mahdi and his occultation. Nudba means to cry and Shias read the supplication to ask for help during the occultation. The supplication is r ...
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Du'a al-Faraj
Du'a al-Faraj ( ar, دُعَاء ٱلْفَرَج) is a dua which is attributed to Imam Mahdi. It begins with the phrase of "ʾIlāhī ʿaẓuma l-balāʾ", meaning "O God, the calamity has become immense". The initial part of the dua was quoted f ...
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External links
Twelfth Imam
Al-Islam.org
Special specifications of Imam al-Mahdi (as) by
Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr
Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr ( ar, آية الله العظمى السيد محمد باقر الصدر; 1 March 1935 – 9 April 1980), also known as al-Shahīd al-Khāmis (the fifth martyr), was an Iraqi philosopher, and the ideological founde ...
The Days of the NewbornWhat evidence is there regarding the birth of Imam Mehdi (AS)?
Encyclopedia Britannica
Muḥammad al-Mahdī al-ḤujjahGhaybahMahdi
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mahdi, Muhammad
869 births
Twelve Imams
Year of death unknown
Shia eschatology
9th-century imams
People of Byzantine descent
Husaynids
9th-century Arabs
Mahdism