Pamplona
Pamplona (; eu, Iruña or ), historically also known as Pampeluna in English, is the capital city of the Chartered Community of Navarre, in Spain. It is also the third-largest city in the greater Basque cultural region.
Lying at near above ...
Vascones
The Vascones were a pre-Roman tribe who, on the arrival of the Romans in the 1st century, inhabited a territory that spanned between the upper course of the Ebro river and the southern basin of the western Pyrenees, a region that coincides wi ...
named ''Iruña'' existed. However, the traces of human occupation of the area date back 75,000 years. In the
Roman era
In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC ...
, the Vascones settlement was converted into a Roman city by General
Pompey
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a leading Roman general and statesman. He played a significant role in the transformation of ...
, who began by setting up a military camp there in 74 B.C. which he named Pompelo.The finds found in the castle square in the early 2000s were destroyed, despite public protests by citizens, which even led to two police officers being injured in June 2002. Against the opinion of several archaeologists, including the eight involved in the excavations, most of the archaeological remains found were dismantled, with only a wall and the remains of the castle ordered built by
Ferdinand
Ferdinand is a Germanic name composed of the elements "protection", "peace" (PIE "to love, to make peace") or alternatively "journey, travel", Proto-Germanic , abstract noun from root "to fare, travel" (PIE , "to lead, pass over"), and "co ...
remaining.
The Romans were followed by the Visigoths, the Muslims of
Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus DIN 31635, translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label=Berber languages, Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, ...
, and briefly, between 778 and 816 intermittently, the
Carolingians
The Carolingian dynasty (; known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolingus, Carolings, Karolinger or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family named after Charlemagne, grandson of mayor Charles Martel and a descendant of the Arnulfing and Pippin ...
. In the early 9th century the
Kingdom of Navarre
The Kingdom of Navarre (; , , , ), originally the Kingdom of Pamplona (), was a Basque kingdom that occupied lands on both sides of the western Pyrenees, alongside the Atlantic Ocean between present-day Spain and France.
The medieval state took ...
was founded, an autonomous Christian principality vassal of the
Caliphate of Cordoba
A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
. The Kingdom of Navarre became a fully independent kingdom in 905 and, under the reign of
Sancho III of Pamplona
Sancho Garcés III ( 992-996 – 18 October 1035), also known as Sancho the Great ( es, Sancho el Mayor, eu, Antso Gartzez Nagusia), was the King of Pamplona from 1004 until his death in 1035. He also ruled the County of Aragon and by marriage ...
, became the most powerful Christian state on the
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (),
**
* Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica''
**
**
* french: Péninsule Ibérique
* mwl, Península Eibérica
* eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, defi ...
in the 11th century. In 1164 the name "Kingdom of Navarre" was definitively abandoned and renamed the
Kingdom of Navarre
The Kingdom of Navarre (; , , , ), originally the Kingdom of Pamplona (), was a Basque kingdom that occupied lands on both sides of the western Pyrenees, alongside the Atlantic Ocean between present-day Spain and France.
The medieval state took ...
, a name that had been used before.
The wars with neighboring states, frequent especially in the 10th and 11th centuries, were added to the internal conflicts in Pamplona, more serious in the 13th century, but which would only end in 1423 ( Privilege of the Union). Until this year, Pamplona was not exactly a single city, but a set of autonomous
borough
A borough is an administrative division in various English-speaking countries. In principle, the term ''borough'' designates a self-governing walled town, although in practice, official use of the term varies widely.
History
In the Middle Ag ...
s that were separated by walls to protect themselves from the wars that broke out between them. In 1276 one of the boroughs was destroyed and its population massacred.
In the second half of the 15th century, Pamplona found itself involved in the Navarrese Civil War, a long-running dispute between successive claimants to the throne of Navarre. The civil war would eventually herald the annexation of Navarre by the newly united kingdoms of Castile and
Aragon
Aragon ( , ; Spanish and an, Aragón ; ca, Aragó ) is an autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces (from north to sou ...
, which formally occurred on July 7, 1515, three years after Pamplona's surrender to the invading Castilian troops.
After the
French Revolution
The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. Many of its ideas are considere ...
, during the
War of the Pyrenees
The War of the Pyrenees, also known as War of Roussillon or War of the Convention, was the Pyrenean front of the First Coalition's war against the First French Republic. It pitted Revolutionary France against the kingdoms of Spain and Portuga ...
, Pamplona was besieged by French forces in 1794, who were unable to enter the city. Between 1808 and 1813 the city was occupied by
Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
's troops. The city was involved in the
Carlist Wars
The Carlist Wars () were a series of civil wars that took place in Spain during the 19th century. The contenders fought over claims to the throne, although some political differences also existed. Several times during the period from 1833 to 187 ...
that marked the 19th century and was the stage for a popular movement in defense of the ''fueros'' (
foral
200px, Foral of Castro Verde - Portugal
The word ''foral'' ({{IPA-pt, fuˈɾaɫ, eu, plural: ''forais'') is a noun derived from the Portuguese word ''foro'', ultimately from Latin ''forum'', equivalent to Spanish ''fuero'', Galician ''foro'', Ca ...
s) that became known as the "''
Gamazada
The ''Gamazada'' is the popular reaction in Navarre in 1893 and 1894 to when the Spanish finance minister of the Liberal Party under Prime Minister Sagasta, Germán Gamazo, tried to suppress the ''fueros'' that had been established in the Compr ...
''".
Despite the victory of the Republicans and leftists in the municipal elections that led to the
Second Spanish Republic
The Spanish Republic (), commonly known as the Second Spanish Republic (), was the form of government in Spain from 1931 to 1939. The Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931, after the deposition of Alfonso XIII, King Alfonso XIII, and was di ...
, Pamplona was controlled by the
Francoist
Francoist Spain ( es, España franquista), or the Francoist dictatorship (), was the period of Spanish history between 1939 and 1975, when Francisco Franco ruled Spain after the Spanish Civil War with the title . After his death in 1975, Spani ...
forces from the first day of the
civil war
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies ...
, which did not save it from facing hundreds of shootings of Republicans, which continued beyond the end of the war. During Francoism, the city was transformed from a rural town with only craft industries to an industrial city, and its population more than tripled. Due to the region's loyalty to the Francoist cause during the war, Navarre was the only historic Spanish region to retain its autonomy during Francoism, but at the same time, it was one of the areas with the most trade union conflict in all of Spain, having been the site of several strikes, the first of which was in 1951.
The transition from Francoism to democracy was felt intensely in Pamplona. In this period riots in the streets of Pamplona were frequent, some of them quite violent. Although during the first phase of the transition there were no attacks by the Basque terrorist and separatist movement
ETA
Eta (uppercase , lowercase ; grc, ἦτα ''ē̂ta'' or ell, ήτα ''ita'' ) is the seventh letter of the Greek alphabet, representing the close front unrounded vowel . Originally denoting the voiceless glottal fricative in most dialects, ...
, the same did not happen in the following phases, and Pamplona witnessed several
terrorist
Terrorism, in its broadest sense, is the use of criminal violence to provoke a state of terror or fear, mostly with the intention to achieve political or religious aims. The term is used in this regard primarily to refer to intentional violen ...
attacks.
From Prehistory to the Roman Era
The conditions of the
Pamplona
Pamplona (; eu, Iruña or ), historically also known as Pampeluna in English, is the capital city of the Chartered Community of Navarre, in Spain. It is also the third-largest city in the greater Basque cultural region.
Lying at near above ...
basin (''cuenca'') have favored human settlement since ancient times. The finds of lithic industry (
stone tool
A stone tool is, in the most general sense, any tool made either partially or entirely out of stone. Although stone tool-dependent societies and cultures still exist today, most stone tools are associated with prehistoric (particularly Stone Ag ...
s) in the lands bordering the
Arga River
The Arga is a river of Navarre, in Spain, and is a tributary of the Aragón River, itself a tributary of the river Ebro. The Arga was known as the river Runa in antiquity. Situated in the north-east of Spain, the river stretches some and has a ba ...
show that human occupation in what is now the city dates back 75,000 years. During
excavations
In archaeology, excavation is the exposure, processing and recording of archaeological remains. An excavation site or "dig" is the area being studied. These locations range from one to several areas at a time during a project and can be condu ...
in Castle Square, a
menhir
A menhir (from Brittonic languages: ''maen'' or ''men'', "stone" and ''hir'' or ''hîr'', "long"), standing stone, orthostat, or lith is a large human-made upright stone, typically dating from the European middle Bronze Age. They can be foun ...
was found that could not be dated.
In the first millennium B.C., there was a settlement of
Vascones
The Vascones were a pre-Roman tribe who, on the arrival of the Romans in the 1st century, inhabited a territory that spanned between the upper course of the Ebro river and the southern basin of the western Pyrenees, a region that coincides wi ...
where the city is today, which was called ''Iruña''. Pamplona is also identified as the capital of the Vascones, which is referred to in historical documents as Bengoda. The Basque territory minted its
coin
A coin is a small, flat (usually depending on the country or value), round piece of metal or plastic used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order t ...
s, on the back side of which appeared the legend ''Bascunes'' or ''Barscunes,'' and on the front side, although not always, the legend Bengoda, which according to historian and
numismatist
A numismatist is a specialist in numismatics ("of coins"; from Late Latin ''numismatis'', genitive of ''numisma''). Numismatists include collectors, specialist dealers, and scholars who use coins and other currency in object-based research. Altho ...
Antonio Beltrán Martínez corresponded to the
mint
MiNT is Now TOS (MiNT) is a free software alternative operating system kernel for the Atari ST system and its successors. It is a multi-tasking alternative to TOS and MagiC. Together with the free system components fVDI device drivers, XaAES g ...
and capital of the Basques. Chronologically the coins could be from the second half of the 2nd or 1st century BC.
The
Basque
Basque may refer to:
* Basques, an ethnic group of Spain and France
* Basque language, their language
Places
* Basque Country (greater region), the homeland of the Basque people with parts in both Spain and France
* Basque Country (autonomous co ...
name ''Iruña'' may originate from the term ''hiri'' (town or village). The villages with ''hiri'' in their name were founded for strategic or commercial reasons and ended up being regional reference centers, so they were "the city" for the local people. According to others, the name ''Iruña'' may be related to the river ''Runa'', now called Arga.
In the
Roman era
In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC ...
, the village of ''Iruñea'' became a city with the foundation of "Pompelo" by the Roman general
Pompey
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a leading Roman general and statesman. He played a significant role in the transformation of ...
in the year 74 B.C., who established there a military camp that in time would become the city of Pamplona. Pompelo, named after its founder, was nothing more than a small ''civitas'' built by
legionaries
The Roman legionary (in Latin ''legionarius'', plural ''legionarii'') was a professional heavy infantryman of the Roman army after the Marian reforms. These soldiers would conquer and defend the territories of ancient Rome during the late Republi ...
, where the Vascones of the ancient village settled. The defense of the city was relatively simple, being located at some altitude and protected by the Arga River,
walling
Walling is a method of torture used by the CIA in which a person's neck is encircled by a collar, and is then used to slam the person against a wall. According to information gathered by the International Committee of the Red Cross from six deta ...
one of the flanks sufficed. In almost all areas near the river, some woods or bushes ensured the livelihood of livestock, wood supply, and fruit. The part closest to the walls contained the buildings, with the
forum
Forum or The Forum (plural forums or fora) may refer to:
Common uses
* Forum (legal), designated space for public expression in the United States
*Forum (Roman), open public space within a Roman city
**Roman Forum, most famous example
*Internet ...
in the center and a street leading to the wall, where a door opened towards the area of the
Ebro
, name_etymology =
, image = Zaragoza shel.JPG
, image_size =
, image_caption = The Ebro River in Zaragoza
, map = SpainEbroBasin.png
, map_size =
, map_caption = The Ebro ...
Valley. The agricultural fields were located outside the city and next to the river. There may have been a
vassal
A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain. W ...
-like relationship between Pompey and some Vascone chief, possibly before the foundation of the Roman city, namely because it is known that Roman citizenship was granted to nine people from the Vascone city of Ejea by
Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo
Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (c. 135 – 87 BC) was a Roman general and politician, who served as Roman Consul, consul in 89 BC. He is often referred to in English as Pompey Strabo, to distinguish him from his son, the famous Pompey the Great, or from ...
, Pompey's father, in the year 90 BC, in reward for the support in the
Battle of Asculum
The Battle of Asculum took place in 279 BC between the Roman Republic under the command of the consuls Publius Decius Mus and Publius Sulpicius Saverrio, and the forces of King Pyrrhus of Epirus. The battle took place during the Pyrrhic War, aft ...
, in
Picenum
Picenum was a region of ancient Italy. The name is an exonym assigned by the Romans, who conquered and incorporated it into the Roman Republic. Picenum was ''Regio V'' in the Augustan territorial organization of Roman Italy. Picenum was also ...
, during the Social War. Later the city acquires greater importance, as
Strabo
Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-sighted that he could see ...
mentions:
According to the latest
archaeological
Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...
discoveries in Castle Square, in the middle of the current city center, Roman ''Pompelon'' had baths, the largest in northern Spain according to some scholars, which gives the city a higher category than it had traditionally been considered.The findings in the Castle Square in the early 2000s were destroyed, despite public protests by citizens, which even led to two police officers being injured in June 2002. Against the opinion of several archaeologists, including the eight involved in the excavations, most of the archaeological remains found were dismantled, with only a wall and the remains of the castle ordered built by Ferdinand the Catholic remaining..
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
Visigoths, Carolingians and Muslims
In the 4th century, the Romans are replaced by the
Visigoths
The Visigoths (; la, Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, Wisi) were an early Germanic people who, along with the Ostrogoths, constituted the two major political entities of the Goths within the Roman Empire in late antiquity, or what is ...
in dominating the region. Unlike the Romans, the Visigoths did not have good relations with the Vascones. Pamplona was the
diocese
In Ecclesiastical polity, church governance, a diocese or bishopric is the ecclesiastical district under the jurisdiction of a bishop.
History
In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided Roman province, pro ...
of the Visigothic Church and, judging by the
Necropolis
A necropolis (plural necropolises, necropoles, necropoleis, necropoli) is a large, designed cemetery with elaborate tomb monuments. The name stems from the Ancient Greek ''nekropolis'', literally meaning "city of the dead".
The term usually im ...
found, Visigoths lived there, although the bad relationship with the Vascones generated some controversy about their presence in the city.
Muslims
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abraha ...
were present in the 8th and 9th centuries.
Muslim rule was briefly threatened by
Charlemagne
Charlemagne ( , ) or Charles the Great ( la, Carolus Magnus; german: Karl der Große; 2 April 747 – 28 January 814), a member of the Carolingian dynasty, was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and the first Holy ...
, who sent expeditions to the region in the late 8th century to extend the
Hispanic March
The Hispanic March or Spanish March ( es, Marca Hispánica, ca, Marca Hispànica, Aragonese and oc, Marca Hispanica, eu, Hispaniako Marka, french: Marche d'Espagne), was a military buffer zone beyond the former province of Septimania, estab ...
.The strip of Christian territory between the Carolingian (Frankish) borders and the Al-Andalus, the Muslim-dominated territories, is called the Marca Hispanica. See articles "''
Marca Hispánica
The Hispanic March or Spanish March ( es, Marca Hispánica, ca, Marca Hispànica, Aragonese and oc, Marca Hispanica, eu, Hispaniako Marka, french: Marche d'Espagne), was a military buffer zone beyond the former province of Septimania, est ...
''" in the Spanish Wikipedia or "'' Marche d'Espagne''" in the French Wikipedia or "
Marca Hispanica
The Hispanic March or Spanish March ( es, Marca Hispánica, ca, Marca Hispànica, Aragonese and oc, Marca Hispanica, eu, Hispaniako Marka, french: Marche d'Espagne), was a military buffer zone beyond the former province of Septimania, esta ...
" in the English Wikipedia. to the north. The
Carolingians
The Carolingian dynasty (; known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolingus, Carolings, Karolinger or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family named after Charlemagne, grandson of mayor Charles Martel and a descendant of the Arnulfing and Pippin ...
achieved nothing more than the creation of a
county
A county is a geographic region of a country used for administrative or other purposesChambers Dictionary, L. Brookes (ed.), 2005, Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, Edinburgh in certain modern nations. The term is derived from the Old French ...
in the western part of the
Pyrenees
The Pyrenees (; es, Pirineos ; french: Pyrénées ; ca, Pirineu ; eu, Pirinioak ; oc, Pirenèus ; an, Pirineus) is a mountain range straddling the border of France and Spain. It extends nearly from its union with the Cantabrian Mountains to C ...
, which lasted only ten years. The legendary Carolingian count
Roland
Roland (; frk, *Hrōþiland; lat-med, Hruodlandus or ''Rotholandus''; it, Orlando or ''Rolando''; died 15 August 778) was a Frankish military leader under Charlemagne who became one of the principal figures in the literary cycle known as the ...
is said to have destroyed the walls of Pamplona in 778 to keep the city from rebelling during the failed expedition to conquer
Zaragoza
Zaragoza, also known in English as Saragossa,''Encyclopædia Britannica'"Zaragoza (conventional Saragossa)" is the capital city of the Zaragoza Province and of the autonomous community of Aragon, Spain. It lies by the Ebro river and its tributari ...
from the Muslims, before the
Battle of Roncevaux Pass
The Battle of Roncevaux Pass ( French and English spelling, ''Roncesvalles'' in Spanish, ''Orreaga'' in Basque) in 778 saw a large force of Basques ambush a part of Charlemagne's army in Roncevaux Pass, a high mountain pass in the Pyrenees on th ...
, which took place not far from Pamplona.
Jimeno of Pamplona
Jimeno (Ximeno) I was the 9th century father of García Jiménez of Pamplona. In spite of various biographical details having been created, there are no unambiguous records of his existence except in the patronymics of his sons, García and Íñigo ...
(Motmine Alacra in the Arab chronicles) took the city for the
Emirate of Cordoba
An emirate is a territory ruled by an emir, a title used by monarchs or high officeholders in the Muslim world. From a historical point of view, an emirate is a political-religious unit smaller than a caliphate. It can be considered equivalen ...
a few years later (781?). In 806 the Pamplona aristocracy organized against emirate rule and integrated the region into the
Carolingian Empire
The Carolingian Empire (800–888) was a large Frankish-dominated empire in western and central Europe during the Early Middle Ages. It was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty, which had ruled as kings of the Franks since 751 and as kings of the Lom ...
of
Louis the Pious
Louis the Pious (german: Ludwig der Fromme; french: Louis le Pieux; 16 April 778 – 20 June 840), also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was King of the Franks and co-emperor with his father, Charlemagne, from 813. He was also King of Aqui ...
. This Navarrese ''Marca Hispanica'' was a county of four or five thousand
square kilometers
Square kilometre ( International spelling as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures) or square kilometer (American spelling), symbol km2, is a multiple of the square metre, the SI unit of area or surface area.
1 km2 is equa ...
that must have had no more than one count, Velasco al-Yalasqí. it was short-lived since in 816 all the Marches in the western part of the northern Pyrenees were extinguished.
Kingdom of Navarre vassal of the emirate
The
Kingdom of Navarre
The Kingdom of Navarre (; , , , ), originally the Kingdom of Pamplona (), was a Basque kingdom that occupied lands on both sides of the western Pyrenees, alongside the Atlantic Ocean between present-day Spain and France.
The medieval state took ...
, the predecessor of the future
Kingdom of Navarre
The Kingdom of Navarre (; , , , ), originally the Kingdom of Pamplona (), was a Basque kingdom that occupied lands on both sides of the western Pyrenees, alongside the Atlantic Ocean between present-day Spain and France.
The medieval state took ...
, which would only be formally established centuries later, appeared in the 810s, and the first king of Pamplona is considered to have been
Íñigo Arista
Íñigo Arista ( eu, Eneko, ar, ونّقه, ''Wannaqo'', c. 790 – 851 or 852) was a Basque leader, considered the first king of Pamplona. He is thought to have risen to prominence after the defeat of local Frankish partisans at the Battle of ...
, grandson of Jimeno. Although enjoying relative independence and being officially Christian, the Kingdom of Navarre was a vassal state of the Emirate of Cordoba and was founded with the support of the powerful
muladi Muladi may refer to:
*Muladí
''Muladí'' ( es, muladí, , pl. ; pt, muladi, , pl. ; ca, muladita, or , , pl. or ; ar, مولد, trans. , pl. , or , ) were Muslims of local Iberian descent or of mixed Arab, Berber, and Iberian origin wh ...
family of the
Banu Qasi
The Banu Qasi, Banu Kasi, Beni Casi ( ar, بني قسي or بنو قسي, meaning "sons" or "heirs of Cassius"), Banu Musa, or al-Qasawi were a Muladí (local convert) dynasty that in the 9th century ruled the Upper March, a frontier ter ...
, lords of Ribera Navarre, the southernmost part of Navarre. The Arab chronicles refer to the first "kings" of Pamplona as "lord, count, or prince of the Vascones," (''bashkunish)'' which means they were not recognized as kings, given the smallness of the territory and the fact that it had only one ecclesiastical district. Submission to the emirate was ensured by sporadic punitive expeditions that did not aim at permanent occupation. The initial territory of the Kingdom of Navarro was approximately 5,000 km² and had as its borders the peaks of the western Pyrenees and the outer Pamplona mountains.Excerpts based on the article " ''Reino de Pamplona''" in the Spanish Wikipedia in accessed here .
In 824, after quelling the revolts of the
Gascony
Gascony (; french: Gascogne ; oc, Gasconha ; eu, Gaskoinia) was a province of the southwestern Kingdom of France that succeeded the Duchy of Gascony (602–1453). From the 17th century until the French Revolution (1789–1799), it was part o ...
nobility, the Carolingians sent troops and two counts to Pamplona to restore Carolingian sovereignty. On their return from the mission, they were surprised and captured in the Pyrenees by "perfidious Montagnards" Vascones, in what is considered the "second battle of Roncevaux Pass". Count Eblo was sent to Córdoba as a trophy and Count Aznar was set free because he was Gascon and therefore considered consanguineous. Íñigo Arista's son, Garcia Íñiguez (851-882), and grandson, Fortunio Garcés (882-905) maintained the territory of the Pamplonian kingdom and made no conquests.
Kingdom of Independent Pamplona
In 905, Sancho Garcés III, son of Dadilda de Pallars, brother of Raymond I, and García Jimenes, Jimeno's great-great-grandson, overthrew Fortunio Garcés and broke his commitments to Córdoba, founding the
Jiménez Dynasty
The Jiménez dynasty, alternatively called the Jimena, the Sancha, the Banu Sancho, the Abarca or the Banu Abarca,Alberto Cañada Juste, "¿Quién fue Sancho Abarca?, ''Príncipe de Viana'', 73: 79-132. was a medieval ruling family from the 9th c ...
. Sancho I of Navarre (or Pamplona), as he became known, extended the kingdom to
San Esteban de Deyo San Esteban de Deyo, also called the Castillo de Monjardín, is a ruined castle on a hill overlooking Villamayor de Monjardín in Navarre. The castle lies at an elevation of 890 metres. The castle has a Roman foundation, but was repeatedly rebuilt o ...
, on the course of the
Ega River
The Ega is a river in the north of Spain. It is a tributary of the Ebro. The Ega flows through Navarre, but it originates in Álava, near Lagrán, and flows through the town of Estella-Lizarra
Estella (Spanish) or Lizarra (Basque) is a town loc ...
to the Ebro, and the counties of
Nájera
Nájera () is a small town, former bishopric and now Latin Catholic titular see, former capital of the Kingdom of Navarre, located in the "Rioja Alta" region of La Rioja, northern Spain, on the river Najerilla. Nájera is a stopping point on the F ...
and
Calahorra
Calahorra [] ( an, Calagorra, la, Calagurris) is a municipality in the comarca of Rioja Baja, near the border with Navarre on the right bank of the Ebro. During Ancient Rome, Ancient Roman times, Calahorra was a municipium known as ''Calagurris ...
, the latter with the support of the
King of León
In the reign of Ordoño I of Asturias (850–866), the kingdom began to be known as that of León. In 910, an independent Kingdom of León was founded when the king of Asturias divided his territory amongst his three sons.
Below follows a ...
Ordoño II of León
Ordoño II (c. 873 – June 924, León) was a king of Galicia from 910, and king of Galicia and León from 914 until his death. He was an energetic ruler who submitted the kingdom of Leon to his control and fought successfully against the Mus ...
. These conquests precipitated the decay of the Banu Cassi. The response of the Cordoban emir was fast, and he sent two expeditions to regain control of Navarre. The first of these expeditions won the
Battle of Valdejunquera
The Battle of Valdejunquera took place in a valley called Iuncaria () on 26 July 920 between the Islamic emirate of Córdoba and the Christian armies of the kingdoms of León and Navarre. The battle, a victory for the Córdobans, was part of th ...
(920) and reoccupied almost all of
La Rioja
La Rioja () is an autonomous community and province in Spain, in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Its capital is Logroño. Other cities and towns in the province include Calahorra, Arnedo, Alfaro, Haro, Santo Domingo de la Calzada, and N ...
, but did not reach the Cuenca of Pamplona. The second expedition destroyed the city in 924. Despite the setbacks, Sancho's kingdom had about 15,000 km² after the war with the Muslims, three times as much as when he took power.Sancho Garcés III (nicknamed, "the Great"), was king of Pamplona and the
County of Aragon
The County of Aragon ( an, Condato d'Aragón) or County of Jaca ( an, Condato de Chaca, link=no) was a small Frankish marcher county in the central Pyrenean valley of the Aragon river, comprising Ansó, Echo, and Canfranc and centered on the smal ...
between 1004 (or 1000) and 1035 (as Sancho III). In addition to these titles, he was lord of several other Iberian counties, such as that of
Sobrarbe
Sobrarbe is one of the comarcas of Aragon, Spain. It is located in the northern part of the province of Huesca, part of the autonomous community of Aragon in Spain. Many of its people speak the Aragonese language locally known as ''fabla''.
The ...
Álava
Álava ( in Spanish) or Araba (), officially Araba/Álava, is a province of Spain and a historical territory of the Basque Country, heir of the ancient Lordship of Álava, former medieval Catholic bishopric and now Latin titular see.
Its ca ...
and of Monzón from 1028, and of Cea from 1030. After the supposed conquest of León (contested by many historians), Sancho III is said to have been named ''Imperator totius Hispaniae'' (emperor of all Spain), another widely contested event. However, it is known that he is designated ''Rex Ibericus'' by Abbot Oliva and ''Sancio rege Navarriae Hispaniarum'' by Rodulfus Glaber, which supports the thesis of many historians who present him as the first great Christian king of the Iberian Peninsula. Although his empire was divided after his death, fulfilling his will,Excerpts based on the article "'' Sancho Garcês III de Pamplona''" in the Spanish Wikipedia (accessed here). the Kingdom of Navarre inherited by his son García Sánchez III of Pamplona, Garcia Sanches III was much more extensive than in his grandfather's time and than it would ever be in the future.
The history of the 130 years following the death of Sancho III is filled with conflicts, with neighboring states both Christian and Muslim having constant border changes. In Eleanor64, Sancho VI of Navarre (1133-1194) definitively abandons the title of King of Pamplona and officially calls himself Kingdom of Navarre, King of Navarre.
Kingdom of Navarre
Sancho VI's renaming of the kingdom was part of the strategy to assert sovereignty over the entire territory of Navarre, disputed with the neighboring kingdoms of
Aragon
Aragon ( , ; Spanish and an, Aragón ; ca, Aragó ) is an autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces (from north to sou ...
and, especially, with Castile. Conflicts with these kingdoms were constant during Sancho VI's reign.
War of the boroughs
From the beginning of the 10th century until 1423, Pamplona was not a homogeneous city, but a set of three
borough
A borough is an administrative division in various English-speaking countries. In principle, the term ''borough'' designates a self-governing walled town, although in practice, official use of the term varies widely.
History
In the Middle Ag ...
s whose inhabitants mixed little or not at all often clashed, and had to have walls to defend themselves from each other. The first of these burghs, Navarrería, was created by Sancho III at the beginning of the 10th century to counteract the depopulation that the city was suffering. At the beginning of the following century, the bishop promoted the creation of a second village, San Cernin, which was officially recognized in 1129 by King
Alfonso the Battler
Alfonso I (''c''. 1073/10747 September 1134), called the Battler or the Warrior ( es, el Batallador), was King of Aragon and Navarre from 1104 until his death in 1134. He was the second son of King Sancho Ramírez and successor of his brother Pet ...
, who granted it a
foral
200px, Foral of Castro Verde - Portugal
The word ''foral'' ({{IPA-pt, fuˈɾaɫ, eu, plural: ''forais'') is a noun derived from the Portuguese word ''foro'', ultimately from Latin ''forum'', equivalent to Spanish ''fuero'', Galician ''foro'', Ca ...
very similar to that of
Jaca
Jaca (; in Aragonese: ''Chaca'' or ''Xaca'') is a city of northeastern Spain in the province of Huesca, located near the Pyrenees and the border with France. Jaca is an ancient fort on the Aragón River, situated at the crossing of two great ea ...
, placing it under royal protection. The third borough, the ''población de San Nicolás'' is contemporary and neighboring to the burgo of San Cernin, with which conflicts were frequent.
Only the borough of Navarrería was inhabited exclusively by natives (Vascones), the inhabitants of the two other boroughs being originally
Frankish
Frankish may refer to:
* Franks, a Germanic tribe and their culture
** Frankish language or its modern descendants, Franconian languages
* Francia, a post-Roman state in France and Germany
* East Francia, the successor state to Francia in Germany ...
, although in Navarrería there was some ethnic heterogeneity. All the boroughs were under the authority of the bishop, but had distinct administration and privileges. This structure caused frequent disagreements and confrontations from 1213 onwards, which would culminate in the destruction of Navarrería (Navarrería War) and the massacre of its population in September 1276 with the support of
French
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents
** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
troops, to the point that the land of the borough was left virtually abandoned for 50 years.
Later, when repopulation took place, confrontations began again, which would only end with the "Privilege of the Union", the treaty promoted and granted by
Charles III
Charles III (Charles Philip Arthur George; born 14 November 1948) is King of the United Kingdom and the 14 other Commonwealth realms. He was the longest-serving heir apparent and Prince of Wales and, at age 73, became the oldest person to ...
on September 8, 1423, which finally united the city and determined the destruction of the walls that separated the boroughs from each other.
Succession Civil War
In 1441 queen Blanche I dies, leaving as successor her son
Charles, Prince of Viana
Charles, Prince of Viana ( eu, Karlos IV.a) (29 May 1421 – 23 September 1461), sometimes called Charles IV of Navarre, was the son of King John II of Aragon and Queen Blanche I of Navarre.
Background
His mother was the daughter and heiress of C ...
. However, who occupies the throne is widowed consort king
John II John II may refer to:
People
* John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (1455–1499)
* John II Casimir Vasa of Poland (1609–1672)
* John II Comyn, Lord of Badenoch (died 1302)
* John II Doukas of Thessaly (1303–1318)
* John II Komnenos (1087–1 ...
, who prevents his son from being king. In 1451, Carlos takes advantage of the entry of Castilian troops in Navarre to rebel against his father, starting a war for the succession that will last beyond his death in 1461 and will eventually lead to the
conquest of Navarre
The Spanish conquest of the Iberian part of Navarre was initiated by Ferdinand II of Aragon and completed by his grandson and successor Charles V in a series of military campaigns lasting from 1512 to 1524. Ferdinand was both the king of Aragon ...
by the united kingdoms of Castile and Aragon.Excerpts based on the article "'' Guerra Civil de Navarra''" in the Spanish-language Wikipedia (accesse here .
The war, though long, was not intense but had serious consequences for the economy of the kingdom. There was almost no fighting, the military actions consisting of expeditions, more or less passive
siege
A siege is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition warfare, attrition, or a well-prepared assault. This derives from la, sedere, lit=to sit. Siege warfare is a form of constant, low-intensity con ...
s, destruction of crops and other acts of sabotage. The war had countless adventures and changes of allies on both sides, foreign and domestic. The plans of the great regional powers had a great influence on events, and a series of intertwined plots ensued, involving revolts in
Catalonia
Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a ''nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy.
Most of the territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the north ...
, where John II also reigned, disputes between
Henry IV of Castile
Henry IV of Castile ( Castilian: ''Enrique IV''; 5 January 1425 – 11 December 1474), King of Castile and León, nicknamed the Impotent, was the last of the weak late-medieval kings of Castile and León. During Henry's reign, the nobles became ...
and the ''Liga Nobiliaria'' (Nobiliary League) of Castile which John II joined in 1460, the desire of John II's second wife
Juana Enríquez
Juana Enriquez, 5th Lady of Casarrubios del Monte (1425 – 13 February 1468) was Queen of Aragon and de facto Queen of Navarre as the wife of King John II. Juana Enríquez was the Regent of Navarre during the absence of her husband in the Na ...
to make her son Ferdinand II king of a unified Spain, and also the kings of
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
Louis XI
Louis XI (3 July 1423 – 30 August 1483), called "Louis the Prudent" (french: le Prudent), was King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father, Charles VII.
Louis entered into open rebellion against his father in a short-lived revol ...
and
Louis XII
Louis XII (27 June 14621 January 1515), was King of France from 1498 to 1515 and King of Naples from 1501 to 1504. The son of Charles, Duke of Orléans, and Maria of Cleves, he succeeded his 2nd cousin once removed and brother in law at the tim ...
, either directly or through the influential
Foix
Foix (; oc, Fois ; ca, Foix ) is a commune, the former capital of the County of Foix. It is the capital of the department of Ariège as it is the seat of the Préfecture of that department. Foix is located in the Occitanie region of southwe ...
family. The main Navarre factions were the two rival groups of Agramontes and Beaumontes nobles. At the beginning of the war, the latter, led by Luís de Beaumont, second Count of Lerín sided with Charles and was the predominant party in Pamplona.
Charles died in 1461, but the dispute for the succession continued between his sisters
Eleanor of Navarre
Eleanor of Navarre ( eu, Leonor and es, Leonor) (2 February 1426 – 12 February 1479), was a Navarrese princess and monarch. She served as the regent of Navarre from 1455 to 1479, during the absence of her father, and then briefly as the qu ...
, married to the Frenchman
Gaston IV, Count of Foix
Gaston IV (27 November 1422 – 25 or 28 July 1472) was the sovereign Viscount of Béarn and the Count of Foix and Bigorre in France from 1436 to 1472. He also held the viscounties of Marsan, Castelbon, Nébouzan, Villemeur and Lautrec and was, b ...
, and Blanche II, former wife of Henry IV of Castile. Branca was imprisoned by her father in 1461 and would eventually be poisoned to death by a lady of Eleanor in 1464. Eleanor took over the government of the kingdom under her father's tutelage, but in 1468 father and daughter fell out, causing another revolt in Pamplona at the beginning of which the bishop is murdered. This time the Agramontese sided with Eleanor and the Beaumontese sided with John.
Although there were several agreements, in practice never fulfilled, between Eleanor and her stepmother Juana Enríquez, Eleanor was never recognized as a queen or heir. Even before his father's death, Ferdinand II began to meddle more and more in Navarrese politics, declaring himself "by the grace of God, king of Navarre, Castile, León, Portugal, Sicily and firstborn of Aragon" in the peace agreement he promoted in 1476 between the Agramontese and the Beaumontese.
After the death of John II on February 20, 1479,
Eleanor
Eleanor () is a feminine given name, originally from an Old French adaptation of the Old Provençal name ''Aliénor''. It is the name of a number of women of royalty and nobility in western Europe during the High Middle Ages.
The name was introd ...
was proclaimed queen as Eleanor I on March 1, but died 15 days later, having designated as her heir her grandson,
Francis Phoebus
Francis Phoebus ( eu, Frantzisko Febus, french: François Fébus, oc, Francés Fèbus, es, Francisco Febo; 4 December 1467 – 7 January 1483) was King of Navarre (1479–1483), Viscount of Bearn, and Count of Foix (1472). He was the son of Gas ...
, a minor, whom she advised allying with the French king.
Magdalena of Valois
Madeleine of France, also called Magdalena of Valois (1 December 1443 – 21 January 1495), was a French princess who became Princess of Viana by marriage to Gaston of Foix. She was the regent of Navarre between 1479 and 1494 during the minorit ...
, Francis' mother, assumed the regency.
Catholic Monarchs of Spain
The Catholic Monarchs were Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, whose marriage and joint rule marked the ''de facto'' unification of Spain. They were both from the House of Trastámara and were second cousins, being both ...
pressed for the marriage of their son and heir John to Francis' sister, Catherine of Foix, which never took place. With Francis' untimely death, Catherine assumed the throne of Navarre in 1483 and married the following year to the Frenchman
John III of Navarre
John III (french: Jean d'Albret; 1469 – 14 June 1516) was ''jure uxoris'' King of Navarre from 1484 until his death, as husband and co-ruler with Queen Catherine.
He was a son of Alain I, Lord of Albret and his wife Frances, Countess of Péri ...
.
The maneuvers of Ferdinand II prevented Catherine's official coronation until 1494. Furthermore, under the pretext of deterring French influence in Navarre, Ferdinand takes military control of the kingdom, both by the presence of Castilian troops and by placing the alcaldeans and Garrisons of the Navarrese fortresses under his orders. Despite promises to withdraw the Castilian troops, they would only leave when another revolt took place in 1507, during which the Count of Lerín, leader of the Beaumontese, who had meanwhile become supporters of the Castilians, was also expelled. Although the expulsion of the Count of Lerín marked the end of the civil war, the conflicts did not end and would eventually lead to the conquest of Navarre by Ferdinand II with the support of the Beaumontese.
Invoking the dynastic rights of his new wife, Germana de Foix, Ferdinand II carried out his old aspiration to annex the kingdom of Navarre. On July 19, 1512, an army of over 18,000 men commanded by Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, 2nd
Duke of Alba
Duke of Alba de Tormes ( es, Duque de Alba de Tormes), commonly known as Duke of Alba, is a title of Spanish nobility that is accompanied by the dignity of Grandee of Spain. In 1472, the title of ''Count of Alba de Tormes'', inherited by G ...
, entered the kingdom from
Álava
Álava ( in Spanish) or Araba (), officially Araba/Álava, is a province of Spain and a historical territory of the Basque Country, heir of the ancient Lordship of Álava, former medieval Catholic bishopric and now Latin titular see.
Its ca ...
. Accompanying this army comes Luis de Beaumont III, Count of Lerín, exiled for some years in Castile, and his brother-in-law, Duke of Nájera, at the head of 700 royal
cuirassier
Cuirassiers (; ) were cavalry equipped with a cuirass, sword, and pistols. Cuirassiers first appeared in mid-to-late 16th century Europe as a result of armoured cavalry, such as men-at-arms and demi-lancers, discarding their lances and adoptin ...
s.
On the 24th the Castilian troops reached Taconera, at the gates of Pamplona. The city was not yet heavily fortified as it would later become, the walls being formed by the buildings themselves, and it had between 6,000 and 10,000 inhabitants. The next day Pamplona surrendered after negotiations had taken place, but other squares maintained some resistance.
After the occupation, there were three attempts to reconquer the Navarrese kingdom. In October 1512 Navarre forces supported by the French
besieged
Besieged may refer to:
* the state of being under siege
* ''Besieged'' (film), a 1998 film by Bernardo Bertolucci
{{disambiguation ...
Pamplona. On the 24th of the same month, the Duke of Alba returned to the city after having taken refuge in
Lower Navarre
Lower Navarre ( eu, Nafarroa Beherea/Baxenabarre; Gascon/Bearnese: ''Navarra Baisha''; french: Basse-Navarre ; es, Baja Navarra) is a traditional region of the present-day French ''département'' of Pyrénées-Atlantiques. It corresponds to the ...
. The Duke of Alba directed the defensive preparation of Pamplona, ordering the destruction of all buildings, fences, vineyards, and orchards around Pamplona so that they would not be used as shelter or supply the attackers. The southern flank, which was not protected by the Arga River, was strengthened by knocking down about thirty houses. The Castilian forces outnumbered the city's inhabitants, but only had two falconets (light cannon) and one lombard (heavy cannon) at their disposal. The expulsion of 200 Agramontese suspected of being supporters of the Navarrese king was ordered, and supplies were secured from several locations. In the defense of the city, alongside the Castilians, were many Beaumontese leaders. A
scaffold
Scaffolding, also called scaffold or staging, is a temporary structure used to support a work crew and materials to aid in the construction, maintenance and repair of buildings, bridges and all other man-made structures. Scaffolds are widely use ...
was installed inside to intimidate the inhabitants.
On November 1, the first Navarro- Gazcony troops arrived in the vicinity of Pamplona. The bulk of the army arrived two days later, settling on the slopes of Mount Ezcaba, in Villava and
Huarte
Huarte or Uharte is a town and municipality located in the province and autonomous community of Navarre, northern Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_ ...
. The army that surrounded the city reached more than 20,000 men, about half of them Navarrese and the rest Gascon from the territories of Albret and
Foix
Foix (; oc, Fois ; ca, Foix ) is a commune, the former capital of the County of Foix. It is the capital of the department of Ariège as it is the seat of the Préfecture of that department. Foix is located in the Occitanie region of southwe ...
,
Albanians
The Albanians (; sq, Shqiptarët ) are an ethnic group and nation native to the Balkan Peninsula who share a common Albanian ancestry, culture, history and language. They primarily live in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Se ...
mortars
Mortar may refer to:
* Mortar (weapon), an indirect-fire infantry weapon
* Mortar (masonry), a material used to fill the gaps between blocks and bind them together
* Mortar and pestle, a tool pair used to crush or grind
* Mortar, Bihar, a village i ...
and other
artillery
Artillery is a class of heavy military ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during siege ...
pieces. The southern flank defenses were buffeted to cut off supplies to the city, but were unable to conclude an effective siege. There were several attacks and skirmishes. The first major combat occurred on November 7. The lack of food supplies and the arrival of the cold weather affected the besieging troops most severely, needing to feed on dried fruits and boiled vegetables. A herd of 600 cows sent from Roncal to supply the besiegers was intercepted by the troops of the
Archbishop of Zaragoza
The Archdiocese of Saragossa ( la, Archidioecesis Caesaraugustana) is a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical territory located in north-eastern Spain, in the province of Zaragoza (Saragossa in English), part of the autonomous community of Aragón. The a ...
and quartered in
Sangüesa
Sangüesa (Basque: ''Zangoza'') is a city in Navarre, Spain, 44.5 kilometers from Pamplona. It lies close to the River Aragon and in 2007 had a population of 5,128.
It is located on the Way of Saint James. It has been an important stopping poin ...
. Inside Pamplona, Colonel Cristóbal Villalba ordered, under penalty of death, that the streets be kept lit and that armed assistance be given when the alarm was given. Hunger is also felt in the countryside and 818 men, among neighbors and servants, enlist to be able to eat the two daily meals given to the troops. The Navarre troops take the castle of Tiebas, south of Pamplona, on November 24. On the 27th the city is attacked again, but the attackers are repelled. The news that Castilian reinforcements from the Count of Nájera were approaching the capital demoralized the besiegers, who, after another failed assault on November 29, began their retreat to Baztan. On November 30, when the retreat had not yet been completed, a reinforcement of 6,000 Castilian
infantry
Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and marine i ...
men arrived in Pamplona to reinforce the defense.
A period of consolidation followed. The Navarrese Courts met in March 1513, when the papal bull ''Exigit Contumacium'' of February 18 was presented
excommunicating
Excommunication is an institutional act of religious censure used to end or at least regulate the Koinonia, communion of a member of a congregation with other members of the religious institution who are in normal communion with each other. The ...
the kings of Navarre, Catherine of Foix and John III of Albret, for supporting
Louis XII of France
Louis XII (27 June 14621 January 1515), was King of France from 1498 to 1515 and King of Naples from 1501 to 1504. The son of Charles, Duke of Orléans, and Maria of Cleves, he succeeded his 2nd cousin once removed and brother in law at the tim ...
in the war against the
Papal States
The Papal States ( ; it, Stato Pontificio, ), officially the State of the Church ( it, Stato della Chiesa, ; la, Status Ecclesiasticus;), were a series of territories in the Italian Peninsula under the direct sovereign rule of the pope fro ...
. At this meeting, the
viceroy
A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix ''vice-'', meaning "in the place of" and the French word ''roy'', meaning "k ...
announced a general pardon to those who abided by the new authority, and in the name of Ferdinand II swore to respect the ''fueros'' (
foral
200px, Foral of Castro Verde - Portugal
The word ''foral'' ({{IPA-pt, fuˈɾaɫ, eu, plural: ''forais'') is a noun derived from the Portuguese word ''foro'', ultimately from Latin ''forum'', equivalent to Spanish ''fuero'', Galician ''foro'', Ca ...
s), uses and customs of the kingdom, on the condition that the war would end. Most of the Agramontese nobles were absent from these courts, as were several
abbot
Abbot is an ecclesiastical title given to the male head of a monastery in various Western religious traditions, including Christianity. The office may also be given as an honorary title to a clergyman who is not the head of a monastery. The fem ...
Pamplona
Pamplona (; eu, Iruña or ), historically also known as Pampeluna in English, is the capital city of the Chartered Community of Navarre, in Spain. It is also the third-largest city in the greater Basque cultural region.
Lying at near above ...