The History of
Karnataka
Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Kar ...
goes back several millennia. Several great empires and dynasties have ruled over Karnataka and have contributed greatly to the history, culture and development of Karnataka as well as the entire
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India ...
. The Chindaka Nagas of central India Gangas, Rashtrakutas of
Manyakheta,
[Dr. D.R. Bhandarkar argues that even the viceroys (''Dandanayaka'') of the Gujarat line hailing from the Rashtrakuta family signed their Sanskrit records in Kannada, examples of which are the Navasari and Baroda plates of Karka I and the Baroda records of Dhruva II. The Gujarat Rashtrakuta princes used Kannada signatures as this was the mode of writing in their native country, meaning Kannada country says Dr. Bhandarkar, ''A Concise History of Karnataka'', Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath] Chalukyas of Vengi, Yadava Dynasty of Devagiri were all of Kannada origin who later took to encouraging local languages.
In the medieval and early modern periods, the
Vijayanagara Empire and the
Bahmani Sultanate
The Bahmani Sultanate, or Deccan, was a Persianate Sunni Muslim Indian Kingdom located in the Deccan region. It was the first independent Muslim kingdom of the Deccan, became the major powers in Karnataka. The latter disintegrated to form five
Deccan Sultanates. The Deccan Sultanates defeated the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565.
After the decline of Vijayanagara Empire number of nayaka Gowda kingdoms ruled karnataka later goes to
Kingdom of Mysore began occupying lands in
Southern Karnataka
South Karnataka (officially known as Kannada Nadu) generally refers to the southern part of Karnataka state, excluding the coastal areas. It generally corresponds to former Mysore state. Kannada dialect of South Karnataka is slightly different ...
.
After the
Anglo-Mysore Wars, where the
East India Company
The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and Sout ...
defeated the forces of
Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan (born Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu, 1 December 1751 – 4 May 1799), also known as the Tiger of Mysore, was the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore based in South India. He was a pioneer of rocket artillery.Dalrymple, p. 243 He in ...
, Company Rule began in India. Karnataka was divided between the
Bombay Presidency
The Bombay Presidency or Bombay Province, also called Bombay and Sind (1843–1936), was an administrative subdivision (province) of British India, with its capital in the city that came up over the seven islands of Bombay. The first mainl ...
, the Kingdom of Mysore and the
Nizam of Hyderabad.
India became Independent in 1947, and according to the
States Reorganization Act, 1956, the
Kannada
Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
-speaking areas of Hyderabad State, Madras State were unified with
Mysore State
Mysore State, colloquially Old Mysore, was a state within the Dominion of India and the later Republic of India from 1947 until 1956. The state was formed by renaming the Kingdom of Mysore, and Bangalore replaced Mysore as the state's capita ...
. The state was renamed as ''Karnataka'' in 1973.
Prehistory
The credit for doing early extensive study of prehistoric Karnataka goes to Robert Bruce-Foote and this work was later continued by many other scholars.
[Scholars such as R.V.Joshi, S.Nagaraju, A.Sundara etc. (Kamath 2001, p15)] The pre-historic culture of Karnataka (and South India in general) is called the hand-axe culture, as opposed to the Sohan culture of North India. Paleolithic hand axes and cleavers in the shape of pebbles made with quartz and quartzite which have been found in places such as
Lingadahalli in
Chikkamagaluru district and
Hunasagi
Hunasagi (Hunsagi) is a taluk of Yadgir district in the state of Karnataka in India.Village code= 00356400 Hunsgi, Yadgiri, Karnataka
A number of early Palaeolithic sites have been found in Hunasagi. Hunasagi is 48 km southwest of the dis ...
in
Yadgir district, and a wooden spike at
Kibbanahalli in
Tumkur district
Tumakuru District is an administrative district in the state of Karnataka in India. It is the third largest district in Karnataka by land area with an area of 10,598 km2, and fourth largest by Population. It is a one-and-a-half-hour drive fro ...
are examples of old Stone Age implements.
[Discovered by Dr. K. Paddayya in 1974 (Kamath 2001, pp15-16)] There are reports that a polished
stone axe was discovered at
Lingasugur in the
Raichur district[The hand axe was discovered by Primrose (Kamath 2001, p15)] Neolithic sites (new Stone Age) of importance are
Maski in
Raichur district,
Brahmagiri in
Chitradurga district etc., with abundance of evidence that man begun to domesticate animals such as cows, dogs and sheep, use copper and bronze weapons, wear bangles, rings, necklaces of beads and ear-rings and have burial chambers. To the end of the Neolithic era, during the
Megalithic age, people in Karnataka began to use long swords, sickles, axes, hammers, spikes, chisels and arrows, all made of iron.
[Kamath (2001), p18]
Influences from the Indus Valley Civilization
Scholarly hypothesis postulates contacts between the
Indus Valley cities of
Harappa and
Lothal, citing the discovery of gold found in the Harappan sites that was imported from mines in Karnataka.
Evidence of
Neolithic
The Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is an Old World archaeological period and the final division of the Stone Age. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several part ...
habitation of areas in modern Karnataka and
celt
The Celts (, see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples () are. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic a collection of Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancien ...
s dating back to the 2nd century
BCE were first discovered in 1872. There are reports that a polished
stone axe was discovered at Lingsugur in the
Raichur district; however the authenticity of these reports remains unverifiable.
Megalithic structures and burial grounds were discovered in 1862 in the regions of
Kodagu
Kodagu (also known by its former name Coorg) is an administrative district in the Karnataka state of India. Before 1956, it was an administratively separate Coorg State, at which point it was merged into an enlarged Mysore State.
It occupie ...
and Moorey Betta hills, while
Neolithic
The Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is an Old World archaeological period and the final division of the Stone Age. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several part ...
sites were discovered in north Karnataka.
Scholarly hypothesis postulates of contacts between the
Indus Valley city of
Harappa in 3000 BCE, citing the discovery of gold found in the Harappan sites that was imported from mines in Karnataka.
Classical period
Karnataka was the part of the
Maurya Empire, the first Mauryan Emperor
Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya (350-295 BCE) was a ruler in Ancient India who expanded a geographically-extensive kingdom based in Magadha and founded the Maurya dynasty. He reigned from 320 BCE to 298 BCE. The Maurya kingdom expanded to become an emp ...
died in
Shravanbelgola in
Hassan District around 298 BCE where he spent last days of his life as Jain ascetic.
Around 239 BCE, the
Satavahana
The Satavahanas (''Sādavāhana'' or ''Sātavāhana'', IAST: ), also referred to as the Andhras in the Puranas, were an ancient Indian dynasty based in the Deccan region. Most modern scholars believe that the Satavahana rule began in the la ...
dynasty came to power and its rule lasted nearly four centuries, until the early 3rd century CE. The disintegration of the Satavahana dynasty led to the ascent of the earliest native kingdoms, the
Kadamba Dynasty of
Banavasi in modern
Uttara Kannada district with
Mayuravarma, a native of
Talagunda in modern
Shivamogga district as the founding king,
[From the Talagunda inscription (Dr. B. L. Rice in Kamath, 2001, p30)][Moares (1931), p10][From the Talagunda inscription of 450 Kamath, (2001), pp 30-31][Ramesh (1984), p6] and the
Western Ganga Dynasty in southern Karnataka,
[Adiga and Sheik Ali in Adiga (2006), p89][The Gangas were sons of the Soil - R. S. Panchamukhi and Lakshminarayana Rao ] marking the birth of the region as an independent political entity. These were the first kingdoms to give administrative status to
Kannada language as evidenced by the
Halmidi inscription of 450, attributed to King
Kakusthavarma of the
Kadamba Dynasty.
[From the Halmidi inscription (Ramesh 1984, pp10–11)][Kamath (2001), p10] Also, recent discovery of a 5th-century copper coin in
Banavasi, ancient capital of the
Kadambas, with
Kannada script inscription on it, further proves the usage of Kannada at an official level.
Middle Kingdoms (230 BCE – 1206 CE)
They were followed by large imperial empires, the
Badami Chalukyas,
Rashtrakuta Dynasty and
Western Chalukya Empire, who had their regal capitals in modern Karnataka region and patronized Kannada language and literature.
[Considerable number of their records are in Kannada (Kamath 2001, p67, p73, pp88-89, p114)][7th century Badami Chalukya inscriptions call Kannada the natural language (Thapar 2003, p345)][Altekar (1934), pp411–413][Even royalty of the Rashtrakuta empire took part in poetic and literary activities (Thapar 2003, p334)][Narasimhacharya (1988), p68, p17–21][Reu (1933), pp37–38][More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to the Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI than to any other king prior to the 12th century, ]
Badami Chalukyas
The
Badami Chalukyas ruled between the 6th and the 8th centuries.
Rashtrakutas
The Rashtrakutas were originally vassals of the Badami Chalukyas.
Dantidurga overthrew the Chalukya ruler
Kirtivarman II in 735 CE, and established the rule of the
Rashtrakuta dynasty.
During this period, important contributions were made in the field of literature, arts, and mathematics.
Amoghavarsha I, the most famous king of this dynasty wrote ''
Kavirajamarga'', a landmark literary work in the
Kannada
Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
language. Important mathematical theories and axioms were postulated by
Mahaviracharya.
Western Chalukyas
The
Western Chalukyas ruled between 973 and 1189 CE.
Western Gangas
The
Western Ganga dynasty was founded around 350 CE, ruling southern Karnataka. Their sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 CE, after which they ruled as vassals of the
Badami Chalukyas,
Rashtrakutas, and
Western Chalukyas. Their rule came to an end after the disintegration of the
Western Chalukyas in 1000 CE.
Though a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution to
polity
A polity is an identifiable political entity – a group of people with a collective identity, who are organized by some form of institutionalized social relations, and have a capacity to mobilize resources. A polity can be any other group of p ...
, culture and literature of the modern south Karnataka region is considered important. The Western Ganga kings showed benevolent tolerance to all faiths but are most famous for their patronage toward
Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...
resulting in the construction of monuments in places such as
Shravanabelagola and
Kambadahalli. The kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in
Kannada
Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
and
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominalization, nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cul ...
flourished.
Hoysala Empire
Natives of the
malnad
Malnad (; Malēnādu) is a region in the state of Karnataka in India. Malenadu covers the western and eastern slopes of the Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountain range, and is roughly 100 kilometers in width.
Malnadis a region of Karnataka ...
Karnataka, the Hoysalas established the
Hoysala Empire at the turn of the first millennium. Art and architecture flourished in the region during this time resulting in distinctive Kannada literary metres and the construction of temples and sculptures adhering to the ''Vesara'' style of architecture.
[Kamath (2001), pp. 132–134][Sastri (1955), pp. 359, 361][Foekema (1996), p. 14][Kamath (2001), p. 124] The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought large parts of modern Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu under their rule.
[The Tamil city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam became the second capital of the Hoysalas during the rule of Vira Narasimha II. During the time of Veera Ballala III, Tiruvannamalai in Tamil Nadu had been made an alternate capital. The Hoysalas were arbiters of South Indian politics and took up the leadership role (B.S.K. Iyengar in Kamath (2001), p. 126][Keay (2000), p. 252][Sastri (1955), p. 195][The Hoysalas dominated of Southern ]Deccan
The large Deccan Plateau in southern India is located between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats, and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of the Narmada river. To the north, it is bounded by t ...
as a single empire, (Thapar 2003, p. 368
Other Kingdoms
The
Seuna dynasty
The Seuna, Sevuna, or Yadavas of Devagiri (IAST: Seuṇa, –1317) was a Medieval Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Narmada river in the north to the Tungabhadra river in the south, in the western part of t ...
,
Kadamba dynasty, and
Chola Empire ruled parts of Karnataka.
[A Brief History of India by Alain Daniélou p. 177]
Late Medieval and Early Modern period (1206–1799 CE)
Vijayanagara Empire
In the early 14th century, the
Vijayanagara Empire with its capital at Hosapattana (later to be called
Vijayanagara) rose to successfully challenge the Muslim invasions into the South. This empire was established by
Harihara I and Bukka Raya who many historians claim were commanders of the last Hoysala King
Veera Ballala III and the empire prospered for over two centuries.
P. B. Desai
Pandurangrao Bhimrao Desai (1910–1974) was an Indian epigraphist, historian, and archaeologist.
Early years
Desai was born in Gurmitkal village Gulbarga District on 24 December 1910. Panduranga was the youngest among five sons and faced some ...
(''History of Vijayanagar Empire'', 1936), Henry Heras (''The Aravidu Dynasty of Vijayanagara'', 1927), B.A. Saletore (''Social and Political Life in the Vijayanagara Empire'', 1930), G.S. Gai (Archaeological Survey of India), William Coelho (''The Hoysala Vamsa'', 1955) and Kamath ( Kamath 2001, pp. 157–160)[Karmarkar 1947, p. 30]
The Vijayanagara rulers patronized culture, and a distinct form of
literature
Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to inclu ...
and
architecture
Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing buildings ...
evolved during this period. The best example of Vijayanagara architecture is seen in the ruined city of Hampi.
Battle of Talikota
The main rivals of the Vijayanagara empire were the five
Deccan Sultanates, who defeated the empire in 1565 at the
Battle of Talikota.
Two generals of the Vijayanagara army switched sides and turned their loyalty to the united Sultanates. They captured
Aliya Rama Raya and beheaded him on the spot. The beheading of
Rama Raya created confusion and havoc and in the still loyal portions of the Vijayanagara army, which were then completely routed. The Sultanates' army plundered
Hampi and reduced it into ruins.
[
]
Bahmani and Deccan Sultanates
The Bahmani sultans of Bidar were the main competitors to the Vijayanagara empire for hegemony over the Deccan[Kamath (2001), pp190-191] and after their fall, the Bijapur Sultanate and Bidar Sultanate took their place in the dynastic struggle for control of the southern India.[Kamath (2001), p. 200]
After the defeat and disintegration of the Vijayanagara Empire in battle at Talikota in 1565 to a confederacy of Sultanates, the Bijapur Sultanate rose as the main power in the Deccan before their defeat to the Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire was an early-modern empire that controlled much of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries. Quote: "Although the first two Timurid emperors and many of their noblemen were recent migrants to the subcontinent, the ...
in late 17th century.[Kamath (2001), p. 201][Kamath (2001), p. 202] Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb gave the order to besiege Bijapur and after a 15-month-long siege, the Mughal army emerged victorious and the Adil Shahi dynasty came to an end.
The Bahmani and Bijapur rulers encouraged and Persian literature and Indo Islamic architecture, the Gol Gumbaz
Gol Gumbaz (), also written Gol Gumbad, is a 17th-century mausoleum located in Bijapur, a city in Karnataka, India. It houses the remains of Mohammad Adil Shah, seventh sultan of the Adil Shahi dynasty, and some of his relatives. Begun in t ...
being one of the high points of this contribution.[Kamath (2001), p. 207] Bidriware
Bidriware is a metal handicraft from the city of Bidar in southern India. It was developed in the 14th century C.E. during the rule of the Bahmani Sultans. The term "bidriware" originates from the township of Bidar, which is still the chief cen ...
and Deccan painting developed during this period. The Madrasa Mahmud Gawan was a university built during the reign of the Bahmani Sultanate, one of the few centers of higher learning in medieval India.
The Rise of Mysore and the Anglo-Mysore Wars
The Wodeyars of Mysore, former vassals of the Vijayanagara Empire, After the fall of vijayanagara empire Mysore became independent kingdom 17th-18th century. With the death of Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, Haider Ali, the Commander-in-Chief of the Mysore Army, assumed control over the region, until the rule of the kingdom was passed to Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan (born Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu, 1 December 1751 – 4 May 1799), also known as the Tiger of Mysore, was the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore based in South India. He was a pioneer of rocket artillery.Dalrymple, p. 243 He in ...
, after Haider Ali's death. In attempting to contain European expansion in South India, Tipu Sultan, known as the ''Tiger of Mysore'' fought four significant Anglo-Mysore Wars, the last of which resulted in his death and the incorporation of Mysore into a princely state of the British Raj
The British Raj (; from Hindi language, Hindi ''rāj'': kingdom, realm, state, or empire) was the rule of the British The Crown, Crown on the Indian subcontinent;
*
* it is also called Crown rule in India,
*
*
*
*
or Direct rule in India,
* Q ...
.
Following Tipu's fall, a part of the kingdom of Mysore was annexed and divided between the Madras Presidency and the Nizam. The remaining territory was transformed into a princely state; the five-year-old scion of the Wodeyar family, Krishnaraja III, was installed on the throne with chief minister (''Diwan'') Purnaiah.
The Mysore State
Mysore State, colloquially Old Mysore, was a state within the Dominion of India and the later Republic of India from 1947 until 1956. The state was formed by renaming the Kingdom of Mysore, and Bangalore replaced Mysore as the state's capita ...
and Hyderabad State
Hyderabad State () was a princely state located in the south-central Deccan region of India with its capital at the city of Hyderabad. It is now divided into the present-day state of Telangana, the Kalyana-Karnataka region of Karnataka, and ...
, which ruled most of Karnataka, were allied with the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
The Princely State of Mysore and British influences (1799–1947)
The Princely State of Mysore
During this time, railways and airways, as well as modern universities were introduced in the Kingdom of Mysore, which was ruled by the Wadiyar dynasty. The Kingdom of Mysore became a princely state
A princely state (also called native state or Indian state) was a nominally sovereign entity of the British Indian Empire that was not directly governed by the British, but rather by an Indian ruler under a form of indirect rule, subject to ...
by this time. The Indian Institute of Science (1909) and University of Mysore (1916) were the first educational institutions established in Karnataka.
Independence movement
The British period was a time of racial discrimination, economic exploitation, and numerous preventable famines, most notably in the areas directly administered by the British, which was known then as ''British India''.
By the late 19th century, the independence movement had gained momentum; Aluru Venkata Raya, S. Nijalingappa
Siddavanahalli Nijalingappa (10 December 1902 – 8 August 2000) was an Indian independence activist, Indian National Congress, Congress Party politician, and lawyer who served two terms as the Government of Karnataka, Chief Minister of Karnat ...
, Kengal Hanumanthaiah, Nittoor Srinivasa Rau
Nittoor Srinivasa Rao or Nittur Srinivasa Rao (24 August 1903 – 12 August 2004) was a Gandhian who participated in the Indian independence movement. He was the Chief Justice of the High Court of Mysore State (now Karnataka) and also the ...
and others carried on the struggle into the early 20th century.
Post-independence (1947–present)
Unification of Karnataka
After Indian independence, the Wodeyar Maharaja acceded to India. In 1950, Mysore
Mysore (), officially Mysuru (), is a city in the southern part of the state of Karnataka, India. Mysore city is geographically located between 12° 18′ 26″ north latitude and 76° 38′ 59″ east longitude. It is located at an altitude of ...
became an Indian state, and the former Maharaja became its '' rajpramukh'', or governor, until 1975. The ''Ekikarana'' movement which started in the later half of the 20th century, culminated in the '' States Reorganisation Act'' of 1956 which provided for parts of Coorg, Madras
Chennai (, ), formerly known as Madras (List of renamed Indian cities and states#Tamil Nadu, the official name until 1996), is the capital city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost states and territories of India, Indian state. The largest city ...
, Hyderabad
Hyderabad ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana and the ''de jure'' capital of Andhra Pradesh. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River (India), Musi River, in the northern part ...
, and Bombay states to be incorporated into the state of Mysore
Mysore State, colloquially Old Mysore, was a state within the Dominion of India and the later Republic of India from 1947 until 1956. The state was formed by renaming the Kingdom of Mysore, and Bangalore replaced Mysore as the state's capita ...
. Mysore state was renamed ''Karnataka'' in 1973. The state of Mysore was formed on 1 November 1956 and since then 1 November of every year is celebrated as Kannada Rajyotsava / Karnataka Rajyotsava.
Post-unification
The 1957 elections saw the Indian National Congress
The Indian National Congress (INC), colloquially the Congress Party but often simply the Congress, is a political party in India with widespread roots. Founded in 1885, it was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British ...
win 150 seats out of 208, and S. Nijalingappa
Siddavanahalli Nijalingappa (10 December 1902 – 8 August 2000) was an Indian independence activist, Indian National Congress, Congress Party politician, and lawyer who served two terms as the Government of Karnataka, Chief Minister of Karnat ...
was retained as Chief Minister.
The Congress retained its power in Karnataka till 1983, when the Janata Party
The Janata Party ( JP, lit. ''People's Party'') was a political party that was founded as an amalgam of Indian political parties opposed to the Emergency that was imposed between 1975 and 1977 by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi of the Indian Nat ...
formed the first non-Congress government in Karnataka with the support of other smaller parties. Subsequent elections have seen power switch between the Congress, Bharatiya Janata Party
The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP; ; ) is a political party in India, and one of the two major List of political parties in India, Indian political parties alongside the Indian National Congress. Since 2014, it has been the List of ruling p ...
, and other parties.
Timeline
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
* Dr. Suryanath U. Kamat, Concise history of Karnataka, 2001, MCC, Bangalore (Reprinted 2002)
* S. Srikanta Sastri,
Sources of Karnataka History, Vol I (1940)
" - University of Mysore Historical Series, University of Mysore, Mysore.
* Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955). A History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002) ..
* Dr. Romila Thapar, The Penguin History of Early India From Origins to 1300 A.D., 2003, Penguin, New Delhi, .
* R. Narasimhacharya, History of Kannada Literature, 1988, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras,1988, .
*
*
*
*
*
*
* John Keay, History of India, 2000, Grove publications, New York, , BINC: 6494766
* Karmarkar, A.P. (1947), Cultural history of Karnataka : ancient and medieval, Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha, Dharwad
*
*
External links
Rice, B L 1898. Epigraphica Carnatica Vol 2
*
Sources of Karnataka History, Vol I (1940)
by S. Srikanta Sastri
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Karnataka