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The Haya (or Bahaya) are a
Bantu Bantu may refer to: *Bantu languages, constitute the largest sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages *Bantu peoples, over 400 peoples of Africa speaking a Bantu language * Bantu knots, a type of African hairstyle *Black Association for National ...
ethnic group based in
Kagera Region Kagera Region (''Mkoa wa Kagera'' in Swahili) is one of Tanzania's 31 administrative regions. The region covers an area of . The region is comparable in size to the combined land area of the nation state of Netherlands. Kagera Region is borde ...
, northwestern
Tanzania Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands and ...
, on the western side of Lake Victoria. With over one million people, it is estimated the Haya make up approximately 2% of the population of Tanzania. Historically, the Haya have had a complex
kingship King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen, which title is also given to the consort of a king. *In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the tit ...
-based political system. Agriculture, particularly
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus ''Musa''. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called "plantains", distinguis ...
farming, is central to Haya economic life. They are credited with the independent development of carbon steel dating to 2000 years ago using pre-heating techniques.


Etymology

According to Hans Cory, the term ( Haya for fisher-people) was originally used to differentiate the Haya from the Banyambo of Karagwe. This distinction is said to be based on cultural differences, with the Haya economy predominantly oriented toward fishing and other industries on Lake Victoria and the Banyambo predominately engaged in
pastoralism Pastoralism is a form of animal husbandry where domesticated animals (known as "livestock") are released onto large vegetated outdoor lands (pastures) for grazing, historically by nomadic people who moved around with their herds. The animal ...
. Other sources on the origin of the term Haya cite oral accounts that state it derives from a goddess named Muhaya, whose father was King Ruhinda Mushure. This second version is not as popular.


Haya history and kingdoms


Early history

Linguistic evidence indicates the Haya settled in the Kagera Region during the time of the
Bantu expansion The Bantu expansion is a hypothesis about the history of the major series of migrations of the original Proto-Bantu-speaking group, which spread from an original nucleus around Central Africa across much of sub-Saharan Africa. In the process, t ...
. They are believed to be some of the earliest inhabitants in the region to practice
iron smelting Smelting is a process of applying heat to ore, to extract a base metal. It is a form of extractive metallurgy. It is used to extract many metals from their ores, including silver, iron, copper, and other base metals. Smelting uses heat and a c ...
and were part of the iron-making Urewe pottery culture (ancestral to many
Eastern Bantu The Northeast Bantu languages are a group of Bantu languages spoken in East Africa. In Guthrie's geographic classification, they fall within Bantu zones E50 plus E46 (Sonjo), E60 plus E74a (Taita), F21–22, J, G60, plus Northeast Coast Bantu (o ...
groups) dating from the 5th century BC to the 6th century AD. Around 200 BC is when the first strong evidence of
Early Iron Age The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the Bronze Age (Chalcolithic). The concept has been mostly appl ...
settlements were established along
Lake Victoria Lake Victoria is one of the African Great Lakes. With a surface area of approximately , Lake Victoria is Africa's largest lake by area, the world's largest tropical lake, and the world's second-largest fresh water lake by surface area after ...
in Buhaya. Iron tools may have helped expand agricultural production in the region which included a combination of cereal crop cultivation (
finger millet ''Eleusine coracana'', or finger millet, also known as ragi in India, kodo in Nepal, is an annual herbaceous plant widely grown as a cereal crop in the arid and semiarid areas in Africa and Asia. It is a tetraploid and self-pollinating species p ...
and
sorghum ''Sorghum'' () is a genus of about 25 species of flowering plants in the grass family (Poaceae). Some of these species are grown as cereals for human consumption and some in pastures for animals. One species is grown for grain, while many othe ...
), root-cropping, and the gradual use of beans. Between 800 and 1500 AD, Bahaya lifeways were greatly influenced by other Bantu peoples moving in from an area further north in the
African Great Lakes The African Great Lakes ( sw, Maziwa Makuu; rw, Ibiyaga bigari) are a series of lakes constituting the part of the Rift Valley lakes in and around the East African Rift. They include Lake Victoria, the second-largest fresh water lake in the ...
region. These northern
Bantu peoples The Bantu peoples, or Bantu, are an ethnolinguistic grouping of approximately 400 distinct ethnic groups who speak Bantu languages. They are native to 24 countries spread over a vast area from Central Africa to Southeast Africa and into Southern A ...
, whose descendants founded the kingdoms of
Bunyoro-Kitara Bunyoro or Bunyoro-Kitara is a Bantu kingdom in Western Uganda. It was one of the most powerful kingdoms in Central and East Africa from the 13th century to the 19th century. It is ruled by the King ('' Omukama'') of Bunyoro-Kitara. The cur ...
and
Buganda Buganda is a Bantu peoples, Bantu kingdom within Uganda. The kingdom of the Baganda, Baganda people, Buganda is the largest of the traditional kingdoms in present-day East Africa, consisting of Buganda's Districts of Uganda, Central Region, inclu ...
, are said to have brought with them new breeds of cattle as well as varieties of banana. It remains unclear as to why these peoples moved into the region but evidence indicates severe ecological change that facilitated the movement of people with specialized cattle herding practices for adapting to environmental stress. One of the main strategies for adapting to environmental stress included using cattle manure to maintain soil fertility for banana groves, a practice the Haya continue to this day but at a reduced level due to a decline in cattle holding that began after the 1890s rinderpest epizootic.


Kingdoms (16th to 18th centuries)

Prior to the establishment of Haya kingdoms, land tenure was controlled by corporate groups such as the clan. Religion played a prominent role in pre-dynastic social structure as well and included Bacwezi beliefs guided by practitioners ( spirit mediums,
diviners Divination (from Latin ''divinare'', 'to foresee, to foretell, to predict, to prophesy') is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual. Used in various forms throughout history ...
,
priest A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particu ...
s and priestesses) capable of communicating with or channeling ancient Bacwezi gods and goddesses.
Oral history Oral history is the collection and study of historical information about individuals, families, important events, or everyday life using audiotapes, videotapes, or transcriptions of planned interviews. These interviews are conducted with people wh ...
indicates some clans founded Haya kingdoms beginning around the 16th century, such as the Bayango clan of Kyamtwara Kingdom and the Bakuma clan of Kiziba Kingdom. The third Haya kingdom during this period was Ihangiro to the south of Kyamtwara. Oral accounts state that the Bahinda royal clan entered Kyamtwara Kingdom during the 17th century, coopting the Bayango clan and establishing their rule under King Rugamora Mahe. The Bahinda clan, who ruled Karagwe Kingdom to the west, trace their ancestry to the first king of
Ankole Ankole (Nkore language, Runyankore: ''Nkore''), was a traditional Bantu peoples, Bantu kingdom in Uganda and lasted from the 15th century until 1967. The kingdom was located in south-western Uganda, east of Lake Edward. History Ankole Realm, K ...
,
Ruhinda Ruhinda was the first Omugabe of Nkore, a king-like position, in Nkore, a kingdom in present-day Uganda that was renamed Ankole in colonial times. His approximate reign dates are c. 1430 to 1446. He is descended from the Bachwezi Dynasty of the E ...
.


Kingdoms (19th century to 1963)

During the late 18th century, Kyamtwara Kingdom broke up due to revolts. Results of this breakup led to the founding of the kingdoms of Kihanja, Bukara, Lesser Kyamtwara, and Bugabo. The outcome of this breakup divided leadership of the four new kingdoms between the Bahinda and the Bakango clans. The Bahinda ruled Kihanja and Bukara while Lesser Kyamtwara and Bugabo were ruled by the Bakango. According to accounts, the Bakango took the opportunity to overthrow the Bahinda who depended on their power. When the German colonial government established their rule in
Tanganyika Tanganyika may refer to: Places * Tanganyika Territory (1916–1961), a former British territory which preceded the sovereign state * Tanganyika (1961–1964), a sovereign state, comprising the mainland part of present-day Tanzania * Tanzania Main ...
in the 1890s, there were six Haya kingdoms: Kiziba, Ihangiro, Kihanja, Bukara, Lesster Kyamtwara, and Bugabo. After the Anglo-German agreement of 1890, the kingdom of Missenye, north of Kiziba Kingdom, was added, making the total number of Haya kingdoms seven. In 1963, the newly independent Tanzania government abolished all forms of traditional kingship and chieftainship in the country. Kings with the necessary qualifications were offered jobs by the new government. Five Haya kings took up the offer while the others remained honorary kings and continued to perform their traditional religious and ceremonial duties.


Uganda-Tanzania War

In 1978, the ancestral region to which the Haya belong was subject to an attempted annexation by the former
Ugandan }), is a landlocked country in East Africa. The country is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, and to the south by Tanzania. The southe ...
president Idi Amin Dada, whose invasion of the Kagera region in the Uganda-Tanzania War eventually led to the toppling of his government by the Army of Tanzania.


Haya kingship

Haya kings (''bakama'') had absolute rule over their territory and assigned duties to specific clans. For example, in Kiziba Kingdom it is said the Batunda were royal bodyguards, the Bashonde royal brewers, and the Baihuzi royal cooks. Other duties assigned to clans were providing wives for the king, crushing rebellions, producing iron, and tending the royal cattle. These assigned duties sought to maintain structure in the kingdom. The administrative system of each kingdom was organized hierarchically with the king (''mukama'') at the top followed by the chief minister (''omukuru we kibuga''), ministers (''batongole''), council of advisers (''lukiiko''), county chiefs (''bami b'enshozi''), and village headmen (''bakungu).'' These delegations were divided between two categories of authority: the princes (''balangira'') of royal descent and the king's non-royal followers (''batekwa''). During British colonial rule, the
Ganda Ganda may refer to: Places * Ganda, Angola * Ganda, Tibet, China * Ganda, the ancient Latin name of Ghent, a city in Belgium Other uses * Baganda or Ganda, a people of Uganda ** Luganda or Ganda language, a language of Uganda * ''Ganda'' and "Ga ...
term '' katikiro'' replaced the Haya term .


Omuteko

Future decisions for non-royal positions were guided by a training program called ''omuteko'' ( age-set). This program required all boys between the ages of 10 and 12 to report to the king's capital for schooling and training. Selection was carried out by the village headman (''mukungu'') under the order of the king. Oral accounts describe how the initial training period lasted 10 days and included moral instruction on what was required of boys regarding their duties to the kingdom and their sub-county. After this initial period, boys were sent to the king's royal court for further training that included sports, games, dancing, and singing, all of which were competitive and consisted of each sub-county competing against the other. The best group remained at the court for additional training while the others were sent away for moral and physical training until called upon. Other schooling under ''omuteko'' included the art and science of war, history, and culture. Overall, ''omuteko'' was off and on, lasting roughly three years and establishing social cohesion among different sub-counties. Estimates indicate 50% of the boys taken in were dismissed after the initial training period. Those who excelled were provided specialized training in the courses they did well in. Young women are said to have been called to the king's court as well under a program called ''buzana''. This program, according to
missionary A missionary is a member of a Religious denomination, religious group which is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Tho ...
accounts, was largely to appease the sexual appetites of the king.


War and ritual

Important decisions made by kings such as going to war or conducting a raid on a neighboring kingdom are said to have been made inside a divining house called a ''buchwankwanzi''. Inside this structure, the king, along with his most trusted advisers, would base their decisions on what the diviner(s) foretold. The term ''buchwankwanzi'' is translated as "spitting pearls," which refers to the words of wisdom coming from mouths of those prophesying within. Along with military operations, kings were responsible for the fertility and prosperity of their kingdom such as good crops, healthy livestock, good hunting and fishing, and a productive economy. Some of the most important rituals to ensure these conditions were the
new moon In astronomy, the new moon is the first lunar phase, when the Moon and Sun have the same ecliptic longitude. At this phase, the lunar disk is not visible to the naked eye, except when it is silhouetted against the Sun during a solar eclipse. ...
ceremonies conducted by the king each month and overseen by religious specialists. These ceremonies involved feasting, consumption of alcohol, offerings to gods and goddesses, and the use of a deceased king's regalia as ritual catalysts. The new moon ceremonies also required kings to visit sacred centers throughout their kingdom with offerings to ancient Bacwezi gods and goddesses believed to be capable of bringing prosperity, fertility, famine, and disease.


Death and renewal

The death of a king brought about a mourning period that required everyone in the kingdom to cease all labor until a new king was installed. Anyone caught breaking this temporary ordinance would be punished. The installment of a new king was not always a smooth transition. Oral histories recount how factions among the royal clan and the court often delayed the installment of a new king, including the king's family as siblings schemed as well as fought one another over the vacant throne. Two of the most sacred objects to successfully secure the throne were the royal drums of the kingdom, closely protected by the clan given charge over them, and the jawbone of the deceased king which required special burial, accompanied by rituals, on his royal burial estate (''gashani'') within his royal compound (''kikale''). The former king's regalia and ritual paraphernalia would be amassed and curated in his ''buchwankwanzi'' house. Newly elected kings would undergo the rituals of accession and, upon the completion these rituals, the temporary ordinance prohibiting labor would be lifted, bringing order back to the kingdom.


Arab trade and European contact

By the mid-19th century the Haya were linked into
Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
, Swahili, Nyamwezi, and Sumbwa trade networks. It is unclear when the first Arabs arrived in Buhaya but records indicate the first Arab to visit Buganda was Ahmed bin Ibrahim in 1841, who later visited Karagwe Kingdom and built a residence at Kafuro a few miles east from the kingdom's capital, Bweranyange. By and large, the Arabs were most interested in acquiring
ivory Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals is ...
and
slaves Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
. Goods brought in for exchange included copper coils, cloth, salt, trade beads, Chinese porcelain, and
cowrie Cowrie or cowry () is the common name for a group of small to large sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Cypraeidae, the cowries. The term ''porcelain'' derives from the old Italian term for the cowrie shell (''porcellana'') d ...
shells. The introduction of cowrie shells (''ensimbi'') purportedly displaced the traditional Haya barter system, becoming a form of currency as well as an object used in rituals. Compared to Buhaya kingdoms, Karagwe Kingdom had stronger links to Arab trade networks, with notable trade depots in Kafuro and Kitengure. The presence of Arab traders at Kafuo was, however, short-lived after locals murdered Ahmed bin Ibrahim for his alleged meddling in internal power dynamics following the death of King Rumanyika I of Karagwe. The first
Europeans Europeans are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the states of Europe. Groups may be defined by common genetic ancestry, common language, or both. Pan and Pfeil (2004) ...
to pass through Kagera Region were John H. Speke and James A. Grant during their 1860-1861 expedition in search for the source of the
Nile The Nile, , Bohairic , lg, Kiira , Nobiin language, Nobiin: Áman Dawū is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa and has historically been considered ...
. Their expedition, sponsored by the
Royal Geographical Society The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers), often shortened to RGS, is a learned society and professional body for geography based in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1830 for the advancement of geographical scien ...
, started in
Zanzibar Zanzibar (; ; ) is an insular semi-autonomous province which united with Tanganyika in 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania. It is an archipelago in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of the mainland, and consists of many small islands ...
in October 1860 and took them across the mainland where they arrived in Karagwe in November 1861. It is said that upon their arrival in Karagwe, King Rumanyika I consulted his spiritual advisers and, after clearing Speke and Grant of any threat, waived the entry fee (''hongo'') typically required foreigners, going so far as to refer to Speke and Grant as his guests. Speke's journal talks kindly of King Rumanyka's hospitality. Speke left Karagwe for Buganda in January 1862 while Grant, forced to remain due to a swollen foot, did not depart until April. The next European to visit the region was Welsh journalist
Henry Morton Stanley Sir Henry Morton Stanley (born John Rowlands; 28 January 1841 – 10 May 1904) was a Welsh-American explorer, journalist, soldier, colonial administrator, author and politician who was famous for his exploration of Central Africa Cen ...
in 1874. Stanley's expedition, subsidized by the ''
New York Herald The ''New York Herald'' was a large-distribution newspaper based in New York City that existed between 1835 and 1924. At that point it was acquired by its smaller rival the ''New-York Tribune'' to form the '' New York Herald Tribune''. His ...
'' and ''The'' ''Daily Telegraph'', was to continue mapping the region's lakes and rivers initiated by Speke and Grant. During his travels through the Kingdom of Ihangiro, Stanley's party engaged in a small skirmish with King Ntare II over their passage through his territory. Stanley's party, setting up camp on Bumbire Island, negotiated with King Ntare II and secured passage north through to Karagwe on their way to Buganda. Overall, European interests in Haya kingdoms during this period were of marginal interest compared to Karagwe and Buganda.


European colonialism in Buhaya  

Compared to Buhaya kingdoms, Karagwe Kingdom was more powerful. However, internal power struggles following the death of King Rumanyika I in 1881 destabilized the kingdom and, with the 1890s rinderpest epizootic killing upwards of 90% of Karagwe's cattle population, the kingdom went into a decline from which it was never able to fully recover. It was around this time the
Germans , native_name_lang = de , region1 = , pop1 = 72,650,269 , region2 = , pop2 = 534,000 , region3 = , pop3 = 157,000 3,322,405 , region4 = , pop4 = ...
entered the region, whose interests were peaked due to news reports from Speke, Grant, and Stanley's travels. Rather than establish a colonial government, the Germans chose to have a privately sponsored colonialist company, the
Society for German Colonization The Society for German Colonization (german: Gesellschaft für Deutsche Kolonisation, GfdK) was founded on 28 March 1884 in Berlin by Carl Peters. Its goal was to accumulate capital for the acquisition of German colonial territories in overseas co ...
. This society, founded by
Carl Peters Carl Peters (27 September 1856 – 10 September 1918), was a German colonial ruler, explorer, politician and author and a major promoter of the establishment of the German colony of East Africa (part of the modern republic Tanzania). Life H ...
in 1885, put the Germans in competition with the British presence in Eastern Africa.


German colonialism (1890-1919)

Following the Anglo-German Agreement of 1890, a boundary was drawn between British and German territories along the west side of Lake Victoria. This line placed Buganda under British influence and Buhaya under German influence. In 1902, the southern portion of Buganda known as Missenye was ceded, becoming its own separate kingdom under German rule. The Germans referred to Kagera Region as ''Zwischenseengebiet'' (inter-lake area) and included Rwanda and Burundi. In November 1890, the Germans arrived in
Bukoba Bukoba is a city with a population of 128,796 (2012 census), situated in the north west of Tanzania on the south western shores of Lake Victoria. It is the capital of the Kagera region, and the administrative seat for Bukoba Urban District. T ...
under the command of
Emin Pasha 185px, Schnitzer in 1875 Mehmed Emin Pasha (born Isaak Eduard Schnitzer, baptized Eduard Carl Oscar Theodor Schnitzer; March 28, 1840 – October 23, 1892) was an Ottoman physician of German Jewish origin, naturalist, and governor of the Egyp ...
. Pasha, with a contingent of around 40 soldiers, established a German ''boma'' in Bukoba which at the time was a swamp of uninhabited lower-lands along the shore of Lake Victoria. In addition to establishing a ''boma'', Pasha drew up treaties to submit to Haya kings and recognized chiefs in the region before the arrival of his successor Lieutenant Wilhelm Langheld. Under Langheld's leadership, Haya kingdoms were ruled indirectly. The Haya referred to Langheld as "Bwana Mzuri" (Mr. Good) not because he was considered a good person but rather due to his overuse of the Swahili word ''mzuri'' (good) in his speeches. Langheld's method to keep Haya kings under German control was, in his own words, to "play one off against the other." His successor, Lieutenant Carl Herrmann, was no different regarding the use of diplomatic manipulation to keep Haya kingdoms under German control. Along with the arrival of Herrmann was Lieutenant Franz Richter − the Haya referred to Richter as a ''Hauptmann'' (Captain), and his nickname was "Bwana Korongo" (Mr. Crane or Stork). During the latter part of Richter's command (ca. 1898–1902) he, along with a contingent of ''askaris'' and Bahamba (citizens of Kihanja) under the leadership of King Kahigi II, murdered hundreds of Haya from Bukara Kingdom. The event, referred to as the Ngogo massacre, is said to have occurred after Richter became irritated during a confrontation with a gathering of Bakara along the Ngogo River. Richter, who had a heavy hand in Haya affairs through military force and intimidation, has also been implicated in the massacre of 200 people in 1907 during the
Maji Maji Rebellion The Maji Maji Rebellion (german: Maji-Maji-Aufstand, sw, Vita vya Maji Maji), was an armed rebellion of Islamic and animist Africans against German colonial rule in German East Africa (modern-day Tanzania). The war was triggered by German Colon ...
. With the arrival of the
European European, or Europeans, or Europeneans, may refer to: In general * ''European'', an adjective referring to something of, from, or related to Europe ** Ethnic groups in Europe ** Demographics of Europe ** European cuisine, the cuisines of Europe ...
s and
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
the region became famous for yielding the first African Roman Catholic Cardinal the late Cardinal
Laurean Rugambwa Laurean Rugambwa (July 12, 1912 – December 8, 1997) was the first modern native African Cardinal of the Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of Dar es Salaam from 1968 to 1992, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1960. Biography Laurea ...
; they also adopted the European style of formal education earlier when compared to other nearby tribes.


Archaeological discoveries and iron technology

Archaeologist Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...
Peter R. Schmidt discovered evidence through a combination of archaeology and
oral tradition Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication wherein knowledge, art, ideas and cultural material is received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another. Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (1985 ...
that the Haya had been smelting iron ore to make
carbon steel Carbon steel is a steel with carbon content from about 0.05 up to 2.1 percent by weight. The definition of carbon steel from the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) states: * no minimum content is specified or required for chromium, cobalt ...
for around 2300–2000 years. This discovery happened when Schmidt was working at the village of Kataruka. Elders at Kataruka informed Schmidt that their ancestors had smelted iron underneath a sacred shrine tree called Kaiija ("the place of the forge"). Curious to verify their own history, elders asked Schmidt to conduct an excavation underneath the sacred shrine tree. Results of this excavation led to the discovery of an iron
furnace A furnace is a structure in which heat is produced with the help of combustion. Furnace may also refer to: Appliances Buildings * Furnace (central heating): a furnace , or a heater or boiler , used to generate heat for buildings * Boiler, used t ...
carbon-dated Radiocarbon dating (also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon. The method was dev ...
to the 1st millennium BC. In the 1970s and 1980s, Schmidt documented a series of experimental smelts to understand social, cultural, and technological processes of past Haya iron making. A challenge at the time is that the Haya had abandoned iron smelting due to the introduction of cheap steel from foreign sources. Haya familiar with iron smelting practices were later tasked with recreating an iron furnace. This included gathering and preparing necessary materials such as iron ore, charcoal, clay to make
tuyere A tuyere or tuyère (; ) is a tube, nozzle or pipe through which air is blown into a furnace or hearth.W. K. V. Gale, The iron and Steel industry: a dictionary of terms (David and Charles, Newton Abbot 1972), 216–217. Air or oxygen is in ...
s, and grasses. Haya participating in these experiments were able to create a furnace and produce iron of similar quality as those found at
Iron Age The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the Bronze Age (Chalcolithic). The concept has been mostly appl ...
sites in the region, such as KM2 and KM3. Iron smelting documented during these experiments were similar to
open hearth furnace An open-hearth furnace or open hearth furnace is any of several kinds of industrial furnace in which excess carbon and other impurities are burnt out of pig iron to produce steel. Because steel is difficult to manufacture owing to its high melt ...
steel making developed in Europe during the 19th century. These experiments led Schmidt to forward his "preheating hypothesis." This hypothesis proposes that preheating was a critical component to Early Iron Age technologies in the region, allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C. During a 1976 experimental smelt, the preheating hypothesis was confirmed. This hypothesis was challenged by David Killick and defended by Schmidt and archaeologist Donald Avery in response to Killick's critique. Schmidt's preheating hypothesis was also tested and again supported by S. Terry Childs in 1996.
Pollen core A pollen core is a core sample of a medium containing a stratigraphic sequence of pollen. Analysis of the type and frequency of the pollen in each layer is used to study changes in climate or land use using regional vegetation as a proxy. This ...
samples in the region document the loss of forested habitats and the expansion of grasslands beginning around the 2nd millennium BC and continuing up to the 11th century AD. It is argued that part of the advancement of grasslands in Kagera Region was due to iron smelting as it required the production of charcoal on a large scale. By 1500 AD, Haya iron smelters introduced the use of ''Miscanthidium'' grass (''M.'' grass). As a fast-growing renewable resource, ''M.'' grass reduced the need for charcoal. Furthermore, its use allows for a larger carbon contact surface with iron ore inside a furnace, creating a better smelting environment.


Culture

Traditionally, the Haya are a patrilineal society structured around a
clan system A Scottish clan (from Gaelic , literally 'children', more broadly 'kindred') is a kinship group among the Scottish people. Clans give a sense of shared identity and descent to members, and in modern times have an official structure recogni ...
(''oluganda'') with a common
totem A totem (from oj, ᑑᑌᒼ, italics=no or ''doodem'') is a spirit being, sacred object, or symbol that serves as an emblem of a group of people, such as a family, clan, lineage, or tribe, such as in the Anishinaabe clan system. While ''the wo ...
(''omuziro'') that all members collectively identify with. Totems are typically an animal, and each clan has proscriptions such as not eating their totem or causing it harm. Haya who continue to practice this tradition believe that anyone who harms or consumes their totem will bring affliction to themselves as well as their family. Moreover, each male head of the household manages a shrine (''ekikalo'') dedicated to his ancestors. These family shrines are regularly provided offerings such as banana beer (''orubisi''), unripe bananas, and dried coffee beans to appease ancestral spirits.


Mushonge

The traditional Haya house is called a ''mushonge''. Made out of flexible reeds, wooden poles, banana fiber, and grass, ''mushonge'' are built from the top down and are circular in shape with a conical peak. The word ''mushonge'' comes from the Haya term ''mushongole'', translated as someone who is wealthy, powerful, and respected. Construction of a ''mushonge'' includes the performance of rituals as well as the consumption of alcohol during and after its completion. The spatial arrangement of each ''mushonge'' is defined by wooden poles for structural support and include sections for men and women, corralling animals, and shrines honoring ancestors. It is said the size of the ''mushonge'' reflected the social hierarchy of the village, with the chief's being the largest followed by religious authorities, clan leaders, sub-clan leaders, and common people. Haya kings often moved throughout their kingdom and lived in a similar structure called a ''nyaruju'' (palace). The ''mushonge'' gradually shifted to a mud walled design (''kiteti'') and then a mudbrick design (''banda''). Today, most Haya live in square houses with a corrugated iron sheet roof. Reasons for the shift from
vernacular architecture Vernacular architecture is building done outside any academic tradition, and without professional guidance. This category encompasses a wide range and variety of building types, with differing methods of construction, from around the world, bo ...
to a modern design vary and include the issue of space as land was further divided up among the family, Tanzania policies under ''
ujamaa Ujamaa ( in Swahili) was a socialist ideology that formed the basis of Julius Nyerere's social and economic development policies in Tanzania after it gained independence from Britain in 1961. More broadly, ujamaa may mean "cooperative economics ...
'' aimed a rural development, and
Christian Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
values that viewed the vernacular design as backwards, including its symbolic components that reflect traditional Haya religion.


Agriculture and foodways

Productive soils for raising crops have been a challenge for the Haya due to rainfall
leaching Leaching is the loss or extraction of certain materials from a carrier into a liquid (usually, but not always a solvent). and may refer to: * Leaching (agriculture), the loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from the soil; or applying a small amou ...
nutrients from the soil and the landscapes physical makeup, notably along the coast of Lake Victoria, which provides only patches of fertile soil. To overcome these challenges, the Haya practice
mixed farming Mixed farming is a type of farming which involves both the growing of crops and the raising of livestock. Such agriculture occurs across Asia and in countries such as India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Afghanistan, South Africa, China, Central Europe, Can ...
framed around three types of land: the
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus ''Musa''. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called "plantains", distinguis ...
grove (''kibanja'') surrounding the homestead, tended to all year round as bananas are a
perennial A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wide ...
plant; family plots (''musiri'') for supplementary foods such as
maize Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. Th ...
,
cassava ''Manihot esculenta'', common name, commonly called cassava (), manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America. Although a perennial plant, cassava is extensively ...
,
sweet potato The sweet potato or sweetpotato (''Ipomoea batatas'') is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the Convolvulus, bindweed or morning glory family (biology), family, Convolvulaceae. Its large, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are used as a r ...
es, and other
staple food A staple food, food staple, or simply a staple, is a food that is eaten often and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard diet for a given person or group of people, supplying a large fraction of energy needs and ...
s; and communal grasslands (''rweya'') for animal grazing and grass cutting for various uses such as
mulch A mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil. Reasons for applying mulch include conservation of soil moisture, improving fertility and health of the soil, reducing weed growth and enhancing the visual appeal of the area. A m ...
ing,
thatching Thatching is the craft of building a roof with dry vegetation such as straw, water reed, sedge (''Cladium mariscus''), rushes, heather, or palm branches, layering the vegetation so as to shed water away from the inner roof. Since the bulk of ...
, and
flooring Flooring is the general term for a permanent covering of a floor, or for the work of installing such a floor covering. Floor covering is a term to generically describe any finish material applied over a floor structure to provide a walking surface ...
.  Forested areas are used as well and include harvesting wood for building materials and charcoal to cook food. The ''kibanja'' (plural ''bibanja'') is the most important when it comes to Haya foodways. Kagera Region is said to produce nearly half of Tanzania's banana production with the cooking banana (''
matoke Matoke, locally also known as matooke, amatooke in Buganda (Central Uganda), ekitookye in southwestern Uganda, ekitooke in western Uganda, kamatore in Lugisu ( Eastern Uganda), ebitooke in northwestern Tanzania, igitoki in Rwanda, Burundi and b ...
'') making up the majority of the banana yield. The popular food dish ''matoke'' includes beans with either beef or fish, and it is seen as a fulfilling meal compared to only consuming crops like maize and cassava. Other varieties of banana include those for making beer (''orubisi'') and
spirits Spirit or spirits may refer to: Liquor and other volatile liquids * Spirits, a.k.a. liquor, distilled alcoholic drinks * Spirit or tincture, an extract of plant or animal material dissolved in ethanol * Volatile (especially flammable) liquids, ...
(''konyagi'') as well as non-cooking types considered to be sweet. Beyond food and nutrition, banana use among the Haya includes their ritual use as offerings to ancestors as well as a ritual called ''koshobekera'' believed to assist in a child's growth. Raised alongside bananas are
coffee Coffee is a drink prepared from roasted coffee beans. Darkly colored, bitter, and slightly acidic, coffee has a stimulant, stimulating effect on humans, primarily due to its caffeine content. It is the most popular hot drink in the world. S ...
shrubs, a once prosperous
cash crop A cash crop or profit crop is an Agriculture, agricultural crop which is grown to sell for profit. It is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm. The term is used to differentiate marketed crops from staple crop (or "subsistence crop") ...
for the Haya until market influences coupled with
El Niño El Niño (; ; ) is the warm phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific (approximately between the International Date L ...
rains from 1998 to 2000, followed by a severe drought, destroyed much of the crop. Rather than roast and brew coffee for drinking, the Haya sun-dry the beans and chew on them. Coffee beans are often provide for guests visiting the homestead and, traditionally, they are left as offerings to ancestors at shrines and, in the past, were used to seal blood-pacts by splitting a single bean in half, cutting one's navel, smearing blood onto the half-bean, and placing the bean in the other participant's mouth.    The shortage of cattle
manure Manure is organic matter that is used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Most manure consists of animal feces; other sources include compost and green manure. Manures contribute to the fertility of soil by adding organic matter and nutri ...
and other types of agricultural
fertilizer A fertilizer (American English) or fertiliser (British English; see spelling differences) is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from ...
has greatly impacted banana production among the Haya. Moreover, the spread of
Banana Xanthomonas Wilt Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW), or banana bacterial wilt (BBW) or enset wilt is a bacterial disease caused by ''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''musacearum''. After being originally identified on a close relative of banana, ''Ensete ventricosum'', i ...
(BXW) into the region around 2006 is changing the ''kibanja'' way of life, leading to a greater reliance on other crops such as cassava and maize. Another concern cited is the growing youth population in the region and its impact on land inheritance as fathers divide their landholdings to such a degree that ''kibanja'' plots are too small to produce enough bananas to feed new families, leading more Haya to orient their efforts to developing communal grasslands (''rewya''). Communal grasslands include harvesting edible grasshoppers (''
nsenene Nsenene is the Luganda name for ''Ruspolia differens'': a bush cricket (a.k.a. katydids or misnamed "long-horned grasshoppers") in the tribe Copiphorini of the 'cone-head' subfamily. It is often confused with the closely related '' Ruspolia ni ...
'') when they are in season. Traditionally, Haya women were required to harvest these grasshoppers by hand, storing captured grasshoppers in a woven basket, and roast them for men to consume. It was considered
taboo A taboo or tabu is a social group's ban, prohibition, or avoidance of something (usually an utterance or behavior) based on the group's sense that it is excessively repulsive, sacred, or allowed only for certain persons.''Encyclopædia Britannica ...
for women to eat ''nsenene''. Today, this taboo is not followed and Haya men and women consume them. Along with the Haya, other cultural groups in southwestern
Uganda }), is a landlocked country in East Africa East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territor ...
harvest ''nsenene'' for food as well as income.


Health and medicine

The Haya have a rich array of traditional medicines for treating sickness and disease. Research on Haya
ethnomedicine Ethnomedicine is a study or comparison of the traditional medicine based on bioactive compounds in plants and animals and practiced by various ethnic groups, especially those with little access to western medicines, e.g., indigenous peoples. The ...
documents the use of dozens of plant species for treating a range of health issues from
malaria Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. S ...
, skin conditions,
infection An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable dise ...
s and
wound A wound is a rapid onset of injury that involves laceration, lacerated or puncture wound, punctured skin (an ''open'' wound), or a bruise, contusion (a ''closed'' wound) from blunt force physical trauma, trauma or compression. In pathology, a '' ...
s,
gastrointestinal disorders Gastrointestinal diseases (abbrev. GI diseases or GI illnesses) refer to diseases involving the gastrointestinal tract, namely the oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and rectum, and the accessory organs of digestion, the live ...
, and
gynecological Gynaecology or gynecology (see spelling differences) is the area of medicine that involves the treatment of women's diseases, especially those of the reproductive organs. It is often paired with the field of obstetrics, forming the combined area ...
problems. Prior to modern medicine, Haya health issues were brought to the attention of traditional doctors (often diviners or priests) skilled in medicine and identifying sicknesses. Today, it is not uncommon for a Haya person to seek the services of both a traditional doctor as well as trained medical specialists working at local
dispensaries A dispensary is an office in a school, hospital, industrial plant, or other organization that dispenses medications, medical supplies, and in some cases even medical and dental treatment. In a traditional dispensary set-up, a pharmacist dispense ...
and
clinic A clinic (or outpatient clinic or ambulatory care clinic) is a health facility that is primarily focused on the care of outpatients. Clinics can be privately operated or publicly managed and funded. They typically cover the primary care needs ...
s. Historically, Kagera Region had the first documented case of
HIV/AIDS Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a retrovirus. Following initial infection an individual ...
in Tanzania. Described as a region hit hard by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, Kagera Region has an extensive history of HIV/AIDS research, ranging from statistics on reported cases, how families cope with infected loved ones, gender disparities, and the loss of traditional knowledge due to elders suffering from the virus passing away before they can transmit their wisdom to the next generation.


Arts

In the area covering the present day Muleba, Bukoba Urban, Bukoba Rural, and Missenyi, as is the case in other areas where Buhaya culture is predominant in the Kagera Region in
Tanzania Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands and ...
, musical performances - singing, dancing, and playing of musical instruments - are integral parts of everyday life. As is the case in many African societies, among the Haya musical performances are inseparable from the daily events and the social, political and cultural life of the community. Traditionally, events such as marriage, funerals, worship, installation, praise, and exaltation of kings (''omukama''), celebratory war dances (''omutoro'') and heroic recitations or self-praise recitations (''ebyebugo''), healing practices such as cleansing and chasing away evil spirits, and all occasions calling for celebration produced performances. In 1952 world-renowned ethnomusicologist,
Hugh Tracey Hugh Travers Tracey was an English ethnomusicologist. He and his wife collected and archived music from Southern and Central Africa. From the 1920s through the 1970s, Tracey made over 35,000 recordings of African folk music. He popularized the ...
, recorded songs of the Haya people. These songs are preserved by the
International Library of African Music The International Library of African Music (ILAM) is an organization dedicated to the preservation and study of African music. Seated in Grahamstown, South Africa, ILAM is attached to the Music Department at Rhodes University and coordinates its ...
. A sample of one of these songs include the use of ''enkoito'' drum rhythms.


References


See also

Haya language Haya (''Oluhaya''; Swahili: ''Kihaya'') is a Bantu language spoken by the Haya people of Tanzania, in the south and southwest coast of Lake Victoria. In 1991, the population of Haya speakers was estimated at 1,200,000 peopl Its closest relati ...
{{Authority control Ethnic groups in Tanzania Indigenous peoples of East Africa