Gotthold Lessing
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Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (, ; 22 January 1729 – 15 February 1781) was a philosopher,
dramatist A playwright or dramatist is a person who writes plays. Etymology The word "play" is from Middle English pleye, from Old English plæġ, pleġa, plæġa ("play, exercise; sport, game; drama, applause"). The word "wright" is an archaic English ...
,
publicist A publicist is a person whose job is to generate and manage publicity for a company, a brand, or public figure – especially a celebrity – or for a work such as a book, film, or album. Publicists are public relations specialists who ...
and
art critic An art critic is a person who is specialized in analyzing, interpreting, and evaluating art. Their written critiques or reviews contribute to art criticism and they are published in newspapers, magazines, books, exhibition brochures, and catalogue ...
, and a representative of
the Enlightenment The Age of Enlightenment or the Enlightenment; german: Aufklärung, "Enlightenment"; it, L'Illuminismo, "Enlightenment"; pl, Oświecenie, "Enlightenment"; pt, Iluminismo, "Enlightenment"; es, La Ilustración, "Enlightenment" was an intel ...
era. His plays and theoretical writings substantially influenced the development of
German literature German literature () comprises those literature, literary texts written in the German language. This includes literature written in Germany, Austria, the German parts of Switzerland and Belgium, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, South Tyrol in Italy a ...
. He is widely considered by theatre historians to be the first
dramaturg A dramaturge or dramaturg is a literary adviser or editor in a theatre, opera, or film company who researches, selects, adapts, edits, and interprets scripts, libretti, texts, and printed programmes (or helps others with these tasks), consults auth ...
in his role at
Abel Seyler Abel Seyler (23 August 1730, Liestal – 25 April 1800, Rellingen) was a Swiss-born theatre director and former merchant banker, who was regarded as one of the great theatre principals of 18th century Europe. He played a pivotal role in the deve ...
's
Hamburg National Theatre The Hamburg Enterprise (german: Hamburgische Entreprise), commonly known as the Hamburg National Theatre, was a theatre company in Hamburg (now Germany), that existed 1767–1769 at the Gänsemarkt square, and that was led by Abel Seyler. It was ...
.


Life

Lessing was born in
Kamenz Kamenz () or Kamjenc ( Sorbian) is a town (''Große Kreisstadt'') in the district of Bautzen in Saxony, Germany. Until 2008 it was the administrative seat of Kamenz District. The town is known as the birthplace of the philosopher and poet Gotthol ...
, a small town in
Saxony Saxony (german: Sachsen ; Upper Saxon: ''Saggsn''; hsb, Sakska), officially the Free State of Saxony (german: Freistaat Sachsen, links=no ; Upper Saxon: ''Freischdaad Saggsn''; hsb, Swobodny stat Sakska, links=no), is a landlocked state of ...
, to Johann Gottfried Lessing and Justine Salome Feller. His father was a Lutheran minister and wrote on theology. Young Lessing studied at the Latin School in Kamenz from 1737 to 1741. With a father who wanted his son to follow in his footsteps, Lessing next attended the Fürstenschule St. Afra in
Meissen Meissen (in German orthography: ''Meißen'', ) is a town of approximately 30,000 about northwest of Dresden on both banks of the Elbe river in the Free State of Saxony, in eastern Germany. Meissen is the home of Meissen porcelain, the Albrecht ...
. After completing his education at St. Afra's, he enrolled at the University of
Leipzig Leipzig ( , ; Upper Saxon: ) is the most populous city in the German state of Saxony. Leipzig's population of 605,407 inhabitants (1.1 million in the larger urban zone) as of 2021 places the city as Germany's eighth most populous, as wel ...
where he pursued a degree in theology, medicine, philosophy, and philology (1746–1748). It was here that his relationship with Karoline Neuber, a famous German actress, began. He translated several French plays for her, and his interest in theatre grew. During this time, he wrote his first play, ''The Young Scholar.'' Neuber eventually produced the play in 1748. From 1748 to 1760, Lessing lived in Leipzig and
Berlin Berlin ( , ) is the capital and largest city of Germany by both area and population. Its 3.7 million inhabitants make it the European Union's most populous city, according to population within city limits. One of Germany's sixteen constitue ...
. He began to work as a reviewer and editor for the ''
Vossische Zeitung The (''Voss's Newspaper'') was a nationally-known Berlin newspaper that represented the interests of the liberal middle class. It was also generally regarded as Germany's national newspaper of record. In the Berlin press it held a special role d ...
'' and other periodicals. Lessing formed a close connection with his cousin, Christlob Mylius, and decided to follow him to Berlin. In 1750, Lessing and Mylius teamed together to begin a periodical publication named ''Beiträge zur Historie und Aufnahme des Theaters''. The publication ran only four issues, but it caught the public's eye and revealed Lessing to be a serious critic and theorist of drama. In 1752, he took his master's degree in
Wittenberg Wittenberg ( , ; Low Saxon language, Low Saxon: ''Wittenbarg''; meaning ''White Mountain''; officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg (''Luther City Wittenberg'')), is the fourth largest town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Wittenberg is situated on the Ri ...
. From 1760 to 1765, he worked in Breslau (now
Wrocław Wrocław (; german: Breslau, or . ; Silesian German: ''Brassel'') is a city in southwestern Poland and the largest city in the historical region of Silesia. It lies on the banks of the River Oder in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Europe, rou ...
) as secretary to General Tauentzien during the
Seven Years' War The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict that involved most of the European Great Powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. Other concurrent conflicts include the French and Indian War (1754 ...
between Britain and France, which had effects in Europe. It was during this time that he wrote his famous . In 1765, Lessing returned to Berlin, leaving in 1767 to work for three years at the
Hamburg National Theatre The Hamburg Enterprise (german: Hamburgische Entreprise), commonly known as the Hamburg National Theatre, was a theatre company in Hamburg (now Germany), that existed 1767–1769 at the Gänsemarkt square, and that was led by Abel Seyler. It was ...
. Actor-manager Konrad Ackermann began construction of Germany's first permanent national theatre in Hamburg, established by . The owners of the new
Hamburg National Theatre The Hamburg Enterprise (german: Hamburgische Entreprise), commonly known as the Hamburg National Theatre, was a theatre company in Hamburg (now Germany), that existed 1767–1769 at the Gänsemarkt square, and that was led by Abel Seyler. It was ...
hired Lessing as the theatre's critic of plays and acting, an activity later known as
dramaturgy Dramaturgy is the study of dramatic composition and the Representation (arts), representation of the main elements of drama on the stage. The term first appears in the eponymous work ''Hamburg Dramaturgy'' (1767–69) by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing ...
(based on his own words), making Lessing the very first
dramaturge A dramaturge or dramaturg is a literary adviser or editor in a theatre, opera, or film company who researches, selects, adapts, edits, and interprets scripts, libretti, texts, and printed programmes (or helps others with these tasks), consults auth ...
. The theatre's main backer was
Abel Seyler Abel Seyler (23 August 1730, Liestal – 25 April 1800, Rellingen) was a Swiss-born theatre director and former merchant banker, who was regarded as one of the great theatre principals of 18th century Europe. He played a pivotal role in the deve ...
, a former currency speculator who since became known as "the leading patron of German theatre." There he met
Eva König Eva König (22nd March 1736 - 10th January 1778) was a German woman letter writer. Life In 1756, she married the Hamburg businessman Engelbert König with whom she had four children: Maria Amalie Henneberg, Theodor, Engelbert, and Fritz. In 17 ...
, his future wife. His work in Hamburg formed the basis of his pioneering work on drama, titled '' Hamburgische Dramaturgie''. Unfortunately, because of financial losses due to pirated editions of the '' Hamburgische Dramaturgie'', the Hamburg Theatre closed just three years later. In 1770, Lessing became librarian at the ducal library, now the
Herzog August Library The Herzog August Library (german: link=no, Herzog August Bibliothek — "HAB"), in Wolfenbüttel, Lower Saxony, known also as ''Bibliotheca Augusta'', is a library of international importance for its collection from the Middle Ages and ear ...
(''Herzog-August-Bibliothek'', ''Bibliotheca Augusta''), in
Wolfenbüttel Wolfenbüttel (; nds, Wulfenbüddel) is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany, the administrative capital of Wolfenbüttel District. It is best known as the location of the internationally renowned Herzog August Library and for having the largest c ...
under the commission of the Duke of Brunswick. His tenure there was energetic, if interrupted by many journeys. In 1775, for example, he accompanied Prince Leopold to Italy. On 14 October 1771, Lessing was initiated into Freemasonry in the lodge "Zu den drei Goldenen Rosen" in Hamburg. In 1773, he discovered
Archimedes Archimedes of Syracuse (;; ) was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor from the ancient city of Syracuse in Sicily. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists ...
' cattle problem in a Greek manuscript containing a poem of 44 lines, in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel. This problem would remain unsolved until 1880. In 1776, he married
Eva König Eva König (22nd March 1736 - 10th January 1778) was a German woman letter writer. Life In 1756, she married the Hamburg businessman Engelbert König with whom she had four children: Maria Amalie Henneberg, Theodor, Engelbert, and Fritz. In 17 ...
, who was then a widow, in Jork (near Hamburg). She died in 1778 after giving birth to a short-lived son. On 15 February 1781, Lessing, aged 52, died during a visit to the wine dealer Angott in Brunswick. Lessing was also famous for his friendship with Jewish-German philosopher
Moses Mendelssohn Moses Mendelssohn (6 September 1729 – 4 January 1786) was a German-Jewish philosopher and theologian. His writings and ideas on Jews and the Jewish religion and identity were a central element in the development of the ''Haskalah'', or 'Je ...
. A recent biography of Mendelssohn's grandson,
Felix Felix may refer to: * Felix (name), people and fictional characters with the name Places * Arabia Felix is the ancient Latin name of Yemen * Felix, Spain, a municipality of the province Almería, in the autonomous community of Andalusia, ...
, describes their friendship as one of the most "illuminating
metaphor A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are often compared wit ...
s orthe clarion call of the Enlightenment for
religious tolerance Religious toleration may signify "no more than forbearance and the permission given by the adherents of a dominant religion for other religions to exist, even though the latter are looked on with disapproval as inferior, mistaken, or harmful". ...
". It was this relationship that sparked his interest in popular religious debates of the time. He began publishing heated pamphlets on his beliefs which were eventually banned. It was this banishment that inspired him to return to theatre to portray his views and to write ''
Nathan the Wise ''Nathan the Wise'' (original German title: ', ) is a play by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing from 1779. It is a fervent plea for religious tolerance. It was never performed during Lessing's lifetime and was first performed in 1783 at the Döbbelinsch ...
''.


Works

Early in his life, Lessing showed interest in the theatre. In his theoretical and critical writings on the subject—as in his own plays—he tried to contribute to the development of a new type of theatre in Germany. With this he especially turned against the then predominant
literary theory Literary theory is the systematic study of the nature of literature and of the methods for literary analysis. Culler 1997, p.1 Since the 19th century, literary scholarship includes literary theory and considerations of intellectual history, mo ...
of
Gottsched Johann Christoph Gottsched (2 February 1700 – 12 December 1766) was a German philosopher, author and critic of the Enlightenment. Biography Early life He was born at Juditten (Mendeleyevo) near Königsberg (Kaliningrad), Brandenburg-Pr ...
and his followers. Lessing's '' Hamburgische Dramaturgie'' ran critiques of plays that were performed in the Hamburg Theatre, but after dealing with dissatisfied actors and actresses, Lessing redirected his writings to more of an analysis on the proper uses of drama. Lessing advocated the outline of drama in Aristotle's ''Poetics''. He believed the
French Academy French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
had devalued the uses of drama through their neoclassical rules of form and separation of genres. His repeated opinions on this issue influenced theatre practitioners who began the movement of rejecting theatre rules known as ''
Sturm und Drang ''Sturm und Drang'' (, ; usually translated as "storm and stress") was a proto- Romantic movement in German literature and music that occurred between the late 1760s and early 1780s. Within the movement, individual subjectivity and, in particul ...
'' ("Storm and Stress"). He also supported serious reception of
Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
's works. He worked with many theatre groups (e.g. the one of the Neuberin). In Hamburg he tried with others to set up the German National Theatre. Today his own works appear as prototypes of the later developed bourgeois German drama. Scholars see ''
Miss Sara Sampson ''Miss Sara Sampson'' (original spelling ''Miß Sara Sampson''" Miß" on the titlepage of the 1772 "Tragedies of G. E. Lessing" and " MISS" in all caps Dramatis personæ, though the spelling " Miss" now has wide currency in German) is a play by ...
'' and ''
Emilia Galotti ''Emilia Galotti'' () is a play in five acts by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781), which premiered on 8 March 1772 in Brunswick ("Braunschweig" in German). The work is a classic example of German '' bürgerliches Trauerspiel'' (bourgeois ...
'' as amongst the first bourgeois tragedies, ''
Minna von Barnhelm ''Minna von Barnhelm or the Soldiers' Happiness'' (german: Minna von Barnhelm oder das Soldatenglück, ) is a ''lustspiel'' or comedy by the German author Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. It has five acts, was begun in 1763 and completed in 1767 – ...
'' (Minna of Barnhelm) as the model for many classic German comedies, ''
Nathan the Wise ''Nathan the Wise'' (original German title: ', ) is a play by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing from 1779. It is a fervent plea for religious tolerance. It was never performed during Lessing's lifetime and was first performed in 1783 at the Döbbelinsch ...
'' (''Nathan der Weise'') as the first German drama of ideas ("Ideendrama"). His theoretical writings ''Laocoön'' and ''
Hamburg Dramaturgy The ''Hamburg Dramaturgy'' (german: Hamburgische Dramaturgie) is a highly influential work on drama by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, written between 1767 and 1769 when he worked as a dramaturg for Abel Seyler's Hamburg National Theatre. It was not or ...
'' (''Hamburgische Dramaturgie'') set the standards for the discussion of aesthetic and literary theoretical principles. Lessing advocated that dramaturgs should carry their work out working directly with theatre companies rather than in isolation. In his religious and philosophical writings he defended the faithful Christian's right for freedom of thought. He argued against the belief in
revelation In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form of truth or knowledge through communication with a deity or other supernatural entity or entities. Background Inspiration – such as that bestowed by God on the ...
and the holding on to a literal interpretation of the Bible by the predominant orthodox doctrine through a problem later to be called Lessing's Ditch. Lessing outlined the concept of the religious "Proof of Power": How can
miracles A miracle is an event that is inexplicable by natural or scientific lawsOne dictionary define"Miracle"as: "A surprising and welcome event that is not explicable by natural or scientific laws and is therefore considered to be the work of a divin ...
continue to be used as a base for Christianity when we have no proof of miracles? Historical truths which are in doubt cannot be used to prove metaphysical truths (such as God's existence). As Lessing says it: "That, then, is the ugly great ditch which I cannot cross, however often and however earnestly I have tried to make that leap." In the final leg of his life, Lessing threw himself into an intense evaluation of theology and religion. He did much of his studying by reading manuscripts he found while working as a librarian. While working for the Duke, he formed a close friendship with a family by the name of Reimarus. The family held an unpublished manuscript by
Hermann Samuel Reimarus Hermann Samuel Reimarus (22 December 1694, Hamburg – 1 March 1768, Hamburg), was a German philosopher and writer of the Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment who is remembered for his Deism, the doctrine that human reason can arrive at a existenc ...
which attacked the historicity of Christian revelation. Despite discouragement from his brother Karl Gotthelf Lessing, he began publishing pieces of the manuscript in pamphlets known as ''Fragments from an Unnamed Author''. The controversial pamphlets resulted in a heated debate between him and another theologian, Johann Melchior Goeze. In concern for tarnishing his reputation, Goeze requested the government put an end to the feud, and Lessing was silenced through a law that took away his freedom from censorship.Vallee, Gerard. ''Soundings in G.E. Lessing's Philosophy of Religion''. Lanham: University of America, 2000. Print. In response, Lessing relied upon his skills as a playwright to write what is undoubtedly his most influential play, ''
Nathan the Wise ''Nathan the Wise'' (original German title: ', ) is a play by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing from 1779. It is a fervent plea for religious tolerance. It was never performed during Lessing's lifetime and was first performed in 1783 at the Döbbelinsch ...
''. In the play, Lessing set up tension between
Judaism Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in the ...
,
Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
, and
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
by having one character ask Nathan which religion was the most genuine. Nathan avoids the question by telling the parable of the three rings, which implies the idea that no specific religion is the "correct religion." The Enlightenment ideas to which Lessing held tight were portrayed through his "ideal of humanity," stating that religion is relative to the individual's ability to reason. ''
Nathan the Wise ''Nathan the Wise'' (original German title: ', ) is a play by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing from 1779. It is a fervent plea for religious tolerance. It was never performed during Lessing's lifetime and was first performed in 1783 at the Döbbelinsch ...
'' is considered to be the first example of the German "literature of humanity". As a child of the Enlightenment he trusted in a "Christianity of Reason", which oriented itself by the spirit of religion. He believed that human reason (initiated by criticism and dissent) would develop, even without help by a divine revelation. In his writing ''The Education of Humankind'' (''Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts'') he extensively and coherently lays out his position. The idea of freedom (for the theatre against the dominance of its French model; for religion from the church's dogma) is his central theme throughout his life. Therefore, he also stood up for the liberation of the upcoming middle and upper class from the nobility making up their minds for them. In his own literary existence he also constantly strove for independence. But his ideal of a possible life as a free author was hard to keep up against the economic constraints he faced. His project of authors self-publishing their works, which he tried to accomplish in Hamburg with C. J. Bode, failed. Lessing is important as a
literary critic Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods. Th ...
for his work ''Laocoon: An Essay on the Limits of Painting and Poetry''. In this work, he argues against the tendency to take
Horace Quintus Horatius Flaccus (; 8 December 65 – 27 November 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as Horace (), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his ' ...
's ''ut pictura poesis'' (as painting, so poetry) as prescriptive for literature. In other words, he objected to trying to write poetry using the same devices as one would in painting. Instead, poetry and painting each has its character (the former is extended in time; the latter is extended in space). This is related to Lessing's turn from French
classicism Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for a classical period, classical antiquity in the Western tradition, as setting standards for taste which the classicists seek to emulate. In its purest form, classicism is an aestheti ...
to Aristotelian
mimesis Mimesis (; grc, μίμησις, ''mīmēsis'') is a term used in literary criticism and philosophy that carries a wide range of meanings, including ''imitatio'', imitation, nonsensuous similarity, receptivity, representation, mimicry, the act ...
, discussed above.


Attack by Johann Daniel Müller

The
Radical Pietist Radical Pietism are those Ecclesiastical separatism, Christian churches who decided to break with denominational Lutheranism in order to emphasize certain teachings regarding holy living. Radical Pietists contrast with Church Pietists, who chose t ...
(born 1716 in Wissenbach/Nassau, today part of
Eschenburg Eschenburg is a municipality in the Lahn-Dill-Kreis in Hesse, Germany. The community inherited its name from nearby Eschenburg mountain. Geography About 20 km², or 43.8%, of the municipal area is wooded, 9.85 km² of this being munic ...
, deceased after 1785) published the following anonymous book against Lessing and Reimarus: * Johann Daniel Müller: ''Der Sieg der Wahrheit des Worts Gottes über die Lügen des
Wolfenbüttel Wolfenbüttel (; nds, Wulfenbüddel) is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany, the administrative capital of Wolfenbüttel District. It is best known as the location of the internationally renowned Herzog August Library and for having the largest c ...
schen Bibliothecarii,'' otthold''Ephraim Lessing, und seines Fragmenten-Schreibers'' . e. Hermann Samuel Reimarus''in ihren Lästerungen gegen Jesum Christum, seine Jünger, Apostel, und die ganze Bibel.'' 1780. * Cf. Reinhard Breymayer: Ein unbekannter Gegner Gotthold Ephraim Lessings. Der ehemalige Frankfurter Konzertdirektor Johann Daniel Müller aus Wissenbach/Nassau (1716 bis nach 1785),
Alchemist Alchemy (from Arabic: ''al-kīmiyā''; from Ancient Greek: χυμεία, ''khumeía'') is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscience, protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in Chinese alchemy, C ...
im Umkreis ohann WolfgangGoethes, Kabbalist,
separatist Separatism is the advocacy of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, governmental or gender separation from the larger group. As with secession, separatism conventionally refers to full political separation. Groups simply seeking greate ...
ischer
Chiliast Millennialism (from millennium, Latin for "a thousand years") or chiliasm (from the Greek equivalent) is a belief advanced by some religious denominations that a Golden Age or Paradise will occur on Earth prior to the final judgment and future ...
, Freund der Illuminaten von Avignon ("Elias / Elias Artista") Dietrich Meyer (Ed.): ''
Pietism Pietism (), also known as Pietistic Lutheranism, is a movement within Lutheranism that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with an emphasis on individual piety and living a holy Christian life, including a social concern for the needy and ...
us'' – ''
Herrnhut Herrnhut ( Sorbian: ''Ochranow''; cs, Ochranov) is an Upper Lusatian town in the Görlitz district in Saxony, Germany, known for the community of the Moravian Church established by Nicolas Ludwig, Count von Zinzendorf in 1722. Geography It is ...
ertum'' – '' Erweckungsbewegung''. ''Festschrift für Erich Beyreuther''. Köln ulheim-Brauweilerand Bonn 1982 (''Schriftenreihe des Vereins für Rheinische Kirchengeschichte'', volume 70), pp. 109–145, and p. 108 Silhouette of ohannDaniel Müller.


Selected works

* ''Der junge Gelehrte'' (''The Young Scholar'') (1748) * ''Der Freigeist'' (''The Freethinker'') (1749) * ''Die Juden'' (''The Jews'') (1749) * ''
Miss Sara Sampson ''Miss Sara Sampson'' (original spelling ''Miß Sara Sampson''" Miß" on the titlepage of the 1772 "Tragedies of G. E. Lessing" and " MISS" in all caps Dramatis personæ, though the spelling " Miss" now has wide currency in German) is a play by ...
'' (1755) * ''
Philotas Philotas ( el, Φιλώτας; 365 BC – October 330 BC) was the eldest son of Parmenion, one of Alexander the Great's most experienced and talented generals. He rose to command the Companion Cavalry, but was accused of conspiring against Alexa ...
'' (1759) * ''Fabeln'' (''Fables'') (1759) * ''Laokoön oder Über die Grenzen der Malerei und Poesie'' (Laocoön) (1767) * ''
Minna von Barnhelm ''Minna von Barnhelm or the Soldiers' Happiness'' (german: Minna von Barnhelm oder das Soldatenglück, ) is a ''lustspiel'' or comedy by the German author Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. It has five acts, was begun in 1763 and completed in 1767 – ...
'' (Minna of Barnhelm) (1767) * '' Hamburgische Dramaturgie'' (1767–69) * ''
Emilia Galotti ''Emilia Galotti'' () is a play in five acts by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781), which premiered on 8 March 1772 in Brunswick ("Braunschweig" in German). The work is a classic example of German '' bürgerliches Trauerspiel'' (bourgeois ...
'' (1772) * ''Anti-Goeze'' (1778) (written against
Johann Melchior Goeze Johann Melchior Goeze (born 16 October 1717 in Halberstadt, died 19 May 1786 in Hamburg, epithet: Zionswächter, i.e. Zion's Guardian) was a Lutheran pastor and theologian during the period of Late Orthodoxy. From 1760 to 1770 he served as sen ...
, pastor in Hamburg) * ''Nathan der Weise'' (''
Nathan the Wise ''Nathan the Wise'' (original German title: ', ) is a play by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing from 1779. It is a fervent plea for religious tolerance. It was never performed during Lessing's lifetime and was first performed in 1783 at the Döbbelinsch ...
'') (1779) * ''Ernst und Falk – Gespräche für Freymäurer'' (1776–1778) * ''Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts'' (''The Education of the Human Race'') (1780)


English translations

*''Fables and epigrams''. London, Printed for J.& H.L. Hunt, 1825. *''Laocoon: or, The limits of Poetry and Painting'', translated by William Ross. London, Ridgeway, 1836. *''Nathan the Wise: a dramatic poem in five acts'', translated by Adolph Reich. London, A. W. Bennett, 1860. *''Nathan, the Wise. A dramatic poem of five acts'', translated by Dr. Isidor Kalisch. New York, Waldheimer & Zenn, 1869. *''The Education of the Human Race'', translated by Fred W. Robertson, M.A.. London, C.K. Paul & Co., 1881. *''Plays of Lessing: Nathan the Wise and Minna von Barnhelm'', translated by Ernest Bell. London, G. Bell, 1888. *''Selected prose works of G. E. Lessing'', translated by E. C. Beasley, B. A., and Helen Zimmern. London, G. Bell and sons, 1890. *''Lessing’s Emilia Galotti'', with footnotes and vocabulary; New York, Hinds & Noble, 1899. *''Lessing’s Nathan der Weise'', with footnotes and vocabulary. New York, Hinds & Noble, 1899. *''Laocoon. An essay upon the limits of painting and poetry: With remarks illustrative of various points in the history of ancient art'', translated by
Ellen Frothingham Ellen Frothingham (25 March 1835 - 1902) worked in the United States as a translator of German-language works into English. Biography She was born in Boston, the daughter of Nathaniel Frothingham. She studied German literature, and was well known ...
. Boston, Little, Brown, 1904. *''Laocoon'', translated by Sir Robert Phillimore, London, G. Routledge & sons, 1905. *''Minna von Barnhelm'', edited with an introduction, German questions, notes and vocabulary, by Philip Schuyler Allen. New York, Charles E. Merrill Co., 1907. *''Minna von Barnhelm; or, Soldier’s fortune'' translated by
Otto Heller Otto Heller, B.S.C. (8 March 1896 – 19 February 1970) was a Czech cinematographer long resident in the United Kingdom. He worked on more than 250 films, including '' Richard III'' (1955), '' The Ladykillers'' (1955) and ''Peeping Tom'' (1960 ...
. New York, H. Holt and company, 1917. *''Nathan the Wise; a dramatic poem in five acts'', translated and edited by Leo Markun. Girard, Kan., Haldeman-Julius Co., 1926. *''Laocoon, Nathan the Wise, Minna von Barnhelm'', translated by William A. Steel. London, J. M. Dent & sons, ltd.; New York, E. P. Dutton & co., inc., 1930. *''Nathan the Wise'', translated by Berthold August Eisenlohr. Ann Arbor, Mich., Lithoprinted by Edwards Brothers, inc., 1942. *''Nathan the Wise'', translated by
Guenther Reinhardt Guenther Reinhardt (1904-1968) was a German-American writer and investigator, best known for his book ''Crime Without Punishment: The Secret Soviet Terror Against America'' (1952). Background Guenther Reinhardt was born Günther Reinhardt ...
. Brooklyn, Barron's Educational Series, inc., 1950. *''Nathan the Wise; a dramatic poem in five acts'', translated into English verse by Bayard Quincy Morgan. New York, Ungar, 1955.
''Theological Writings; Selections in Translation with an Introductory Essay''
by Henry Chadwick. London, A. & C. Black, 1956. * ''Lessing's Theological Writings''. Selections in Translation, edited by Henry Chadwick. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957. *''Emilia Galotti: a tragedy in five acts'', translated by Anna Johanna Gode von Aesch. Great Neck, N.Y., Barron's Educational Series, inc., 1959. *''Emilia Galotti, a tragedy in five acts'', translated by Edward Dvoretzky. New York, Ungar, 1962, reprinted German Book Center, 2003. *''Hamburg dramaturgy'', translated by Victor Lange. New York, Dover Publications, 1962. Reprint of Helen Zimmern's 1890 translation. *''Laocoon: an essay on the limits of painting and poetry'', translated by Edward Allen McCormick. Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill, 1962. *''Minna von Barnhelm: a comedy in five acts'', translated by Kenneth J. Northcott. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
972 Year 972 ( CMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events By place Byzantine Empire * Spring – Emperor John I Tzimiskes divides the Bulgarian territories, recent ...
*''Nathan the Wise, Minna von Barnhelm, and Other Plays and Writings'', edited by Peter Demetz with a Foreword by Hannah Arendt. New York: Continuum, 1991. *''Nathan the Wise, with Related Documents'', translated, edited, and with an introduction by Ronald Schechter. Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2004. *''Philosophical and Theological Writings'', edited by H. B. Nisbet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.


See also

*
Fable Fable is a literary genre: a succinct fictional story, in prose or verse, that features animals, legendary creatures, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that are anthropomorphized, and that illustrates or leads to a particular mo ...
*
Greek revival The Greek Revival was an architectural movement which began in the middle of the 18th century but which particularly flourished in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, predominantly in northern Europe and the United States and Canada, but ...
*
Lessing Monument The Lessing Monument (German: Lessing-Denkmal) is a monument to Gotthold Ephraim Lessing by Otto Lessing, installed at Tiergarten in Berlin, Germany. See also * List of works by Otto Lessing This is a list of the major public architectural ...
, Tiergarten, Berlin * Lessing Theater * Pantheism controversy


References


Further reading

* Hazard, Paul. ''European thought in the eighteenth century from Montesquieu to Lessing'' (1954). pp 416–34 on his deism. * Nisbet, Hugh Barr
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: His Life, Works and Thought
Oxford University Press, 2013 * Liptzin, Sol. Historical Survey of German Literature. New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1936. * Priest, George. A Brief History of German Literature. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909. * Robertson, John. A History of German Literature. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1902. * Rose, Ernst. A History of German Literature. New York: New York University, 1960.


External links

* * *
''Minna von Barnhelm'', by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing

Literary and Philosophical Essays: French, German and Italian, 1910, includes ''The Education of the Human Race'', by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing

''Nathan the Wise'', by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing

''The Parable of the Ring''

''Laocoon''

The Dramatic Works of G.E. Lessing

''Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: His Life and his Works'' (1878)
by
Helen Zimmern Helen Zimmern (25 March 1846 – 11 January 1934) was a naturalised British writer and translator born in Germany. She was instrumental in making European culture more accessible in English. Biography Zimmern and her parents emigrated in 1850 t ...
*
Works by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
at Projekt Gutenberg


Coin to commemorate his 200th birth anniversary
{{DEFAULTSORT:Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim 1729 births 1781 deaths 18th-century German dramatists and playwrights 18th-century German Protestant theologians 18th-century German poets 18th-century philosophers Christian poets Enlightenment philosophers German Christians German male non-fiction writers Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences People from Kamenz People from the Electorate of Saxony People of the Age of Enlightenment Protestant philosophers Leipzig University alumni University of Wittenberg alumni Wolfenbüttel German Freemasons German male poets German male dramatists and playwrights German-language poets