![Achill](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Achill.jpg)
Chili peppers (also chile, chile pepper, chilli pepper, or chilli), from
Nahuatl ''
chīlli'' (), are varieties of the
berry-fruit of plants from the
genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...
''
Capsicum
''Capsicum'' () is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae, native to the Americas, cultivated worldwide for their chili pepper or bell pepper fruit.
Etymology and names
The generic name may come from Latin , me ...
'', which are members of the nightshade family
Solanaceae, cultivated for their
pungency
Pungency () refers to the taste of food commonly referred to as spiciness, hotness or heat, found in foods such as chili peppers. Highly pungent tastes may be experienced as unpleasant. The term piquancy () is sometimes applied to foods with a l ...
. Chili peppers are widely used in many cuisines as a
spice
A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavoring or as a garnish. Spice ...
to add "heat" to dishes.
Capsaicin
Capsaicin (8-methyl-''N''-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) ( or ) is an active component of chili peppers, which are plants belonging to the genus ''Capsicum''. It is a chemical irritant for mammals, including humans, and produces a sensation of burnin ...
and related compounds known as
capsaicinoids
Capsaicin (8-methyl-''N''-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) ( or ) is an active component of chili peppers, which are plants belonging to the genus ''Capsicum''. It is a chemical irritant for mammals, including humans, and produces a sensation of burning ...
are the substances giving chili peppers their intensity when ingested or
applied topically. While ''chili peppers'' are (to varying degrees) pungent or "spicy", there are other varieties of capsicum such as
bell peppers (UK: peppers) which generally provide additional sweetness and flavor to a meal rather than “heat.”
Chili peppers are believed to have originated somewhere in
Central or
South America
South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the sout ...
.
and were first cultivated in
Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
.
After the
Columbian Exchange, many
cultivar
A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture ...
s of chili pepper spread around the world, used for both food and
traditional medicine
Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous medicine or folk medicine) comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed over generations within the folk beliefs of various societies, including indigenous peoples, before the ...
. This led to a wide variety of cultivars, including the ''
annuum'' species, with its
''glabriusculum'' variety and
New Mexico cultivar group, and the species of ''
baccatum'', ''
chinense'', ''
frutescens'', and ''
pubescens''.
Cultivar
A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture ...
s grown in
North America and
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...
are believed to all derive from ''
Capsicum annuum
''Capsicum annuum'' is a species of the plant genus ''Capsicum'' native to southern North America, the Caribbean, and northern South America. This species is the most common and extensively cultivated of the five domesticated capsicums. The spec ...
'', and have white, yellow, red or purple to black fruits. In 2019, the world's production of raw green chili peppers amounted to 38 million
ton
Ton is the name of any one of several units of measure. It has a long history and has acquired several meanings and uses.
Mainly it describes units of weight. Confusion can arise because ''ton'' can mean
* the long ton, which is 2,240 pounds
...
s, with China producing half.
History
Origins
''Capsicum'' plants originated in modern-day
Bolivia and have been a part of human diets since about 7,500 BC.
They are one of the oldest
cultivated crops in the Americas.
Origins of cultivating chili peppers have been traced to east-central
Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
some 6,000 years ago,
although, according to research by the
New York Botanical Garden
The New York Botanical Garden (NYBG) is a botanical garden at Bronx Park in the Bronx, New York City. Established in 1891, it is located on a site that contains a landscape with over one million living plants; the Enid A. Haupt Conservatory, ...
press in 2014, chili plants were first cultivated independently across different locations in the Americas including highland Bolivia, central Mexico, and the
Amazon
Amazon most often refers to:
* Amazons, a tribe of female warriors in Greek mythology
* Amazon rainforest, a rainforest covering most of the Amazon basin
* Amazon River, in South America
* Amazon (company), an American multinational technolog ...
.
They were one of the first
self-pollinating
Self-pollination is a form of pollination in which pollen from the same plant arrives at the stigma of a flower (in flowering plants) or at the ovule (in gymnosperms). There are two types of self-pollination: in autogamy, pollen is transferred t ...
crops cultivated in Mexico, Central America, and parts of South America.
[
]Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
, other_symbol = Great Seal of the State
, other_symbol_type = National seal
, national_motto = "Firm and Happy f ...
has the highest variety of cultivated ''Capsicum'' diversity because it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times. The largest diversity of wild ''Capsicum'' peppers is consumed in Bolivia. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ''ulupicas'', species with small round fruits including ''C. eximium'', ''C. cardenasii'', ''C. eshbaughii'', and ''C. caballeroi'' landraces; and ''arivivis'' with small elongated fruits including ''C. baccatum'' var. ''baccatum'' and ''C. chacoense'' varieties.[
]
Distribution to Europe
When Christopher Columbus
Christopher Columbus
* lij, Cristoffa C(or)ombo
* es, link=no, Cristóbal Colón
* pt, Cristóvão Colombo
* ca, Cristòfor (or )
* la, Christophorus Columbus. (; born between 25 August and 31 October 1451, died 20 May 1506) was a ...
and his crew reached the Caribbean, they were the first Europeans to encounter ''Capsicum.'' They called them "peppers" because, like black pepper
Black pepper (''Piper nigrum'') is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, known as a peppercorn, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit is a drupe (stonefruit) which is about in dia ...
of the genus ''Piper
Piper may refer to:
People
* Piper (given name)
* Piper (surname)
Arts and entertainment Fictional characters Comics
* Piper (Morlock), in the Marvel Universe
* Piper (Mutate), in the Marvel Universe
Television
* Piper Chapman, lea ...
'' known in Europe, they have a spicy, hot taste unlike other foods.
Distribution to Asia
Chili peppers spread to Asia through their introduction by Portuguese traders, who—aware of their trade value and resemblance to the spiciness of black pepper—promoted their commerce in the Asian spice trade routes.[ They were introduced in India by the Portuguese towards the end of the 16th century.] In 21st-century Asian cuisine
Asian cuisine includes several major regional cuisines: Central Asian, East Asian, North Asian, South Asian, Southeast Asian, and West Asian. A cuisine is a characteristic style of cooking practices and traditions, usually associated with ...
, chili peppers are commonly used across many regions.
Production
In 2020, 36 million tonne
The tonne ( or ; symbol: t) is a unit of mass equal to 1000 kilograms. It is a non-SI unit accepted for use with SI. It is also referred to as a metric ton to distinguish it from the non-metric units of the short ton ( United State ...
s of green chili peppers were produced worldwide, with China producing 46% of the total.
Species and cultivars
There are five domesticated species of chili peppers:
# ''Capsicum annuum
''Capsicum annuum'' is a species of the plant genus ''Capsicum'' native to southern North America, the Caribbean, and northern South America. This species is the most common and extensively cultivated of the five domesticated capsicums. The spec ...
'' includes many common varieties such as bell peppers, wax
Waxes are a diverse class of organic compounds that are lipophilic, malleable solids near ambient temperatures. They include higher alkanes and lipids, typically with melting points above about 40 °C (104 °F), melting to giv ...
, cayenne, jalapeño
The jalapeño ( , , ) is a medium-sized chili pepper pod type cultivar of the species ''Capsicum annuum''. A mature jalapeño chili is long and hangs down with a round, firm, smooth flesh of wide. It can have a range of pungency, with Scovi ...
s, Thai peppers, chiltepin, and all forms of New Mexico chile
New Mexico chile or New Mexican chile (Scientific name: ''Capsicum annuum'' 'New Mexico Group'; es, chile de Nuevo México, ) is a cultivar group of the chile pepper from the US state of New Mexico, first grown by Pueblo and Hispano communitie ...
.
# ''Capsicum frutescens
''Capsicum frutescens'' is a wild chili pepper having genetic proximity to the cultivated pepper ''Capsicum chinense'' native to Central and South America. Pepper cultivars of ''C. frutescens'' can be annual or short-lived perennial plants. Fl ...
'' includes malagueta, tabasco
Tabasco (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tabasco ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Tabasco), is one of the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 17 municipalities and its capital city is Villahermosa.
It is located in ...
, piri piri
( , often hyphenated or as one word, and with variant spellings , ''piripiri'' or ) is a cultivar of ''Capsicum frutescens'' from the malagueta pepper. It was originally produced by Portuguese explorers in Portugal's former Southern African t ...
, and Malawian Kambuzi.
# '' Capsicum chinense'' includes the hottest peppers such as the naga
Naga or NAGA may refer to:
Mythology
* Nāga, a serpentine deity or race in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain traditions
* Naga Kingdom, in the epic ''Mahabharata''
* Phaya Naga, mythical creatures believed to live in the Laotian stretch of the Mekong Riv ...
, habanero
The habanero (; ) is a hot variety of chili. Unripe habaneros are green, and they color as they mature. The most common color variants are orange and red, but the fruit may also be white, brown, yellow, green, or purple. Typically, a ripe hab ...
, Datil and Scotch bonnet
Scotch bonnet (also known as Bonney peppers, or Caribbean red peppers) is a variety of chili pepper named for its supposed resemblance to a Scottish tam o' shanter bonnet. It is ubiquitous in West Africa as well as the Caribbean. Like the clos ...
.
# ''Capsicum pubescens
''Capsicum pubescens'' is a plant of the genus ''Capsicum'' (pepper). The species name, ''pubescens'', refers to the hairy leaves of this pepper. The hairiness of the leaves, along with the black seeds, make ''Capsicum pubescens'' distinguishab ...
'' includes the South American rocoto peppers.
# ''Capsicum baccatum
''Capsicum baccatum'' is a member of the genus ''Capsicum'', and is one of the five domesticated chili pepper species. The fruit tends to be very pungent, and registers 30,000 to 50,000 on the Scoville Heat Unit scale.
Chili pepper varieties in ...
'' includes the South American aji peppers.
Though there are only a few commonly used species, there are many cultivars and methods of preparing chili peppers that have different names for culinary use. Green and red bell peppers, for example, are the same cultivar of ''C. annuum''. Unripe peppers are green (although peppers that do not turn red on ripening have been bred). In the same species are the jalapeño, the poblano (which, when dried, is referred to as ancho), New Mexico
)
, population_demonym = New Mexican ( es, Neomexicano, Neomejicano, Nuevo Mexicano)
, seat = Santa Fe
, LargestCity = Albuquerque
, LargestMetro = Tiguex
, OfficialLang = None
, Languages = English, Spanish ( New Mexican), Navajo, Ke ...
, serrano, and other cultivars.
Peppers are commonly broken down into two groupings: bell peppers (UK: sweet peppers) and hot peppers. Most popular pepper varieties are seen as falling into one of these categories or a cross between them.
Intensity
The substances that give chili peppers their pungency
Pungency () refers to the taste of food commonly referred to as spiciness, hotness or heat, found in foods such as chili peppers. Highly pungent tastes may be experienced as unpleasant. The term piquancy () is sometimes applied to foods with a l ...
(spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin
Capsaicin (8-methyl-''N''-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) ( or ) is an active component of chili peppers, which are plants belonging to the genus ''Capsicum''. It is a chemical irritant for mammals, including humans, and produces a sensation of burnin ...
(8-methyl-''N''-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called ''capsaicinoids''. The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and on growing conditions. Water-stressed peppers usually produce stronger pods. When a habanero
The habanero (; ) is a hot variety of chili. Unripe habaneros are green, and they color as they mature. The most common color variants are orange and red, but the fruit may also be white, brown, yellow, green, or purple. Typically, a ripe hab ...
plant is stressed, by absorbing low water for example, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.
When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds with pain receptors
Nociception (also nocioception, from Latin ''nocere'' 'to harm or hurt') is the sensory nervous system's process of encoding noxious stimuli. It deals with a series of events and processes required for an organism to receive a painful stimulus, ...
in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus
The thalamus (from Greek θάλαμος, "chamber") is a large mass of gray matter located in the dorsal part of the diencephalon (a division of the forebrain). Nerve fibers project out of the thalamus to the cerebral cortex in all directions, ...
where heat and discomfort are perceived. However, birds are unable to perceive the hotness and so they can eat some of the hottest peppers. The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units
The Scoville scale is a measurement of the pungency (spiciness or "heat") of chili peppers, as recorded in Scoville heat units (SHU), based on the concentration of capsaicinoids, among which capsaicin is the predominant component.
The scale ...
(SHU), invented by American pharmacist Wilbur Scoville
Wilbur Lincoln Scoville (January 22, 1865 – March 10, 1942) was an American pharmacist best known for his creation of the "Scoville Organoleptic Test", now standardized as the Scoville scale. He devised the test and scale in 1912 while working ...
in 1912. Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating. The modern method is a quantitative analysis of SHU using high-performance liquid chromatography
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), formerly referred to as high-pressure liquid chromatography, is a technique in analytical chemistry used to separate, identify, and quantify each component in a mixture. It relies on pumps to pa ...
(HPLC) to directly measure the capsaicinoid content of a chili pepper variety. Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic
In chemistry, hydrophobicity is the physical property of a molecule that is seemingly repelled from a mass of water (known as a hydrophobe). In contrast, hydrophiles are attracted to water.
Hydrophobic molecules tend to be nonpolar and, t ...
, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature, and measures 16,000,000 SHU.
Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a defense against mammalian predators and microbes, in particular a fusarium
''Fusarium'' is a large genus of filamentous fungi, part of a group often referred to as hyphomycetes, widely distributed in soil and associated with plants. Most species are harmless saprobes, and are relatively abundant members of the soil mi ...
fungus carried by hemipteran insects that attack certain species of chili peppers, according to one study. Peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungal predation on the plant's seeds.[
]
Common peppers
A wide range of intensity is found in commonly used peppers:
Notable hot chili peppers
The top 8 world's hottest chili peppers (by country) are:
NOTE: SHU claims marked with an asterisk (*) have not been confirmed by Guinness World Records.
Uses
Culinary uses
Chili pepper pods are technically berries
A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit, although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples are strawberries, rasp ...
. When used fresh, they are most often prepared and eaten like a vegetable. Whole pods can be dried and then crushed or ground into chili powder
Chili powder (also spelled chile, chilli, or, alternatively, powdered chili) is the dried, pulverized fruit of one or more varieties of chili pepper, sometimes with the addition of other spices (in which case it is also sometimes known as chili p ...
that is used as a spice or seasoning. Chilies can be dried to prolong their shelf life. Chili peppers can also be preserved by brining, immersing the pods in oil, or by pickling
Pickling is the process of preserving or extending the shelf life of food by either anaerobic fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar. The pickling procedure typically affects the food's texture and flavor. The resulting food is cal ...
.
Many fresh chilies such as poblano have a tough outer skin that does not break down on cooking. Chilies are sometimes used whole or in large slices, by roasting, or other means of blistering or charring the skin, so as not to entirely cook the flesh beneath. When cooled, the skins will usually slip off easily.
The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible. Though almost all other Solanaceous
The Solanaceae , or nightshades, are a family of flowering plants that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and trees, and includes a number of agricultural crops, medicinal plants, spices, weeds, and orna ...
crops have toxins in their leaves, chili peppers do not. The leaves, which are mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruit, are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called ''dahon ng sili'' (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup ''tinola
Tinola is a Filipino soup usually served as a main entrée with white rice. Traditionally, this dish is cooked with chicken or fish, wedges of papaya, and leaves of the siling labuyo chili pepper in broth flavored with ginger, onions and fi ...
''. In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi
''Kimchi'' (; ko, 김치, gimchi, ), is a traditional Korean side dish of salted and fermented vegetables, such as napa cabbage and Korean radish. A wide selection of seasonings are used, including '' gochugaru'' (Korean chili powder), ...
. In Japanese cuisine, the leaves are cooked as greens, and also cooked in ''tsukudani
is small seafood, meat or seaweed that has been simmered in soy sauce and mirin. As a flavorful accompaniment to plain rice, tsukudani is made salty enough to not go bad, allowing high osmotic pressure to preserve the ingredients from microbial ...
'' style for preservation.
Many Mexican dishes, including variations on chiles rellenos, use the entire chili. Dried whole chilies may be reconstituted before grinding to a paste. The chipotle
A chipotle (, ; ), or ''chilpotle'', is a smoke-dried ripe jalapeño chili pepper used for seasoning. It is a chili used primarily in Mexican and Mexican-inspired cuisines, such as Tex-Mex and Southwestern United States dishes. It comes in dif ...
is the smoked, dried, ripe jalapeño
The jalapeño ( , , ) is a medium-sized chili pepper pod type cultivar of the species ''Capsicum annuum''. A mature jalapeño chili is long and hangs down with a round, firm, smooth flesh of wide. It can have a range of pungency, with Scovi ...
. In the northern Mexican states of Sinaloa and Sonora, chiltepin pepper
''Capsicum annuum'' var. ''glabriusculum'' is a variety of ''Capsicum annuum'' that is native to southern North America and northern South America. Common names include chiltepín, Indian pepper, chiltepe, and chile tepín, as well as turkey ...
s (a wild pepper) are used in cheeses and soups to add spiciness to dishes. In southern Mexico, mole sauce
Mole, from Nahuatl mōlli (), meaning "sauce", is a traditional sauce and marinade originally used in Mexican cuisine. In contemporary Mexico the term is used for a number of sauces, some quite dissimilar, including mole amarillo or amarillito ( ...
is made with dried chiles, such as ancho
The poblano (''Capsicum annuum'') is a mild chili pepper originating in the state of Puebla, Mexico. Dried, it is called ancho or chile ancho, from the Spanish word ''ancho'' ("wide"). Stuffed fresh and roasted it is popular in '' chiles relle ...
and chipotle peppers. Chiles are used in salsas
Salsas is a civil parish
In England, a civil parish is a type of administrative parish used for local government. It is a territorial designation which is the lowest tier of local government below districts and counties, or their combined f ...
. Mexican households usually grow chile plants to use in cooking.
In India, most households always keep a stock of fresh hot green chilies at hand, and use them to flavor most curries and dry dishes. It is typically lightly fried with oil in the initial stages of preparation of the dish. Some states in India, such as Rajasthan, make entire dishes only by using spices and chilies.
Chili is a staple fruit in Bhutan. Bhutanese call this crop ''ema'' (in Dzongkha) or ''solo'' (in Sharchop). The ''ema datshi
Ema datshi ( dz, ཨེ་མ་དར་ཚིལ་; Wylie: ) is among the most famous dishes in Bhutanese cuisine, recognized as a national dish of Bhutan. It is made from hot chili peppers and cheese; "ema" means "chili" and "datshi" means " ...
'' recipe is entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese.
Chilies are present in many cuisines. Some notable chili-forward dishes other than the ones mentioned elsewhere in this article include arrabbiata sauce
Arrabbiata sauce, or ''sugo all'arrabbiata'' in Italian (''arabbiata'' in Romanesco dialect), is a spicy sauce for pasta made from garlic, tomatoes, and dried red chili peppers cooked in olive oil. The sauce originates from the Lazio region, and ...
, paprikash
Chicken paprikash ( hu, paprikás csirke or ''csirkepaprikás'') or paprika chicken is a popular dish of Hungarian origin and one of the most famous variations on the ''paprikás'' preparations common to Hungarian tables. The name is derived fr ...
, chiles en nogada
''Chiles en nogada'' is a Mexican dish of poblano chiles stuffed with ''picadillo'' (a mixture usually containing shredded meat, aromatics, fruits and spices) topped with a walnut-based cream sauce called ''nogada'', pomegranate seeds and pars ...
, jerk chicken
Jerk, The Jerk, Jerks, or Jerking may refer to:
Arts and entertainment Film, stage, and television
* ''Jerk'' (play), a 2008 puppet play by Dennis Cooper
* ''Jerk'' (TV series), a 2019 British sitcom
* ''The Jerk'', a 1979 American film
* "Jerk ...
, mole poblano, nam phrik
''Nam phrik'' ( th, น้ำพริก, ) is a type of Thai spicy chili sauce typical of Thai cuisine. Usual ingredients for ''nam phrik'' type sauces are fresh or dry chilies, garlic, shallots, lime juice and often some kind of fish ...
, 'nduja
'Nduja () is a spicy, spreadable pork sausage from the region of Calabria in Southern Italy. It is similar to sobrassada from the Balearic Islands in Spain, and is loosely based on the French andouille. It is Calabria's contribution to the many ...
, ''sambal
Sambal is an Indonesian chilli sauce or paste, typically made from a mixture of a variety of chilli peppers with secondary ingredients, such as shrimp paste, garlic, ginger, shallot, scallion, palm sugar, and lime juice. ''Sambal'' is an ...
'', and som tam
Green papaya salad ( km, បុកល្ហុង, lo, ຕຳຫມາກຫຸ່ງ and th, ส้มตำ) is a spicy salad made from shredded unripe papaya. It was possibly created by the Lao people but is eaten throughout Continental ...
.
Fresh or dried chilies are often used to make hot sauce
Hot sauce is a type of condiment, seasoning, or salsa made from chili peppers and other ingredients. Many commercial varieties of mass-produced hot sauce exist.
History
Humans have used chili peppers and other hot spices for thousands of ye ...
, a liquid condiment
A condiment is a preparation that is added to food, typically after cooking, to impart a specific flavor, to enhance the flavor, or to complement the dish. A table condiment or table sauce is more specifically a condiment that is served separat ...
—usually bottled when commercially available—that adds spice to other dishes. Hot sauces are found in many cuisines including harissa
Harissa ( ar, هريسة ''harīsa'', from Maghrebi Arabic) is a hot chili pepper paste, native to the Maghreb. The main ingredients are roasted red peppers, Baklouti peppers (), spices and herbs such as garlic paste, caraway seeds, coriander ...
from North Africa, chili oil
Chili oil is a condiment made from vegetable oil that has been infused with chili peppers. Different types of oil and hot peppers are used, and other components may also be included. It is commonly used in Chinese cuisine, Southeast Asian cuisi ...
from China (known as rāyu in Japan), and sriracha
Sriracha ( or ; th, ศรีราชา, ) is a type of hot sauce or chili sauce made from a paste of chili peppers, distilled vinegar, garlic, sugar, and salt.
Use
In Thailand, sriracha is frequently used as a dipping sauce, particula ...
from Thailand. Dried chilies are also used to infuse cooking oil.
Ornamental plants
The contrast in color and appearance makes chili plants interesting to some as a purely decorative garden plant.
* Black pearl pepper
Black Pearl pepper is a cultivar of ''Capsicum annuum
''Capsicum annuum'' is a species of the plant genus ''Capsicum'' native to southern North America, the Caribbean, and northern South America. This species is the most common and extensively ...
: small cherry-shaped fruits and dark brown to black leaves
* Black Hungarian pepper: green foliage, highlighted by purple veins and purple flowers, jalapeño-shaped fruits
* Bishop's crown pepper, Christmas bell pepper: named for its distinct three-sided shape resembling a red bishop's crown or a red Christmas bell
Psychology
Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any significant risk of bodily harm.
Topical use and health research
Capsaicin
Capsaicin (8-methyl-''N''-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) ( or ) is an active component of chili peppers, which are plants belonging to the genus ''Capsicum''. It is a chemical irritant for mammals, including humans, and produces a sensation of burnin ...
, the pungent
Pungency () refers to the taste of food commonly referred to as spiciness, hotness or heat, found in foods such as chili peppers. Highly pungent tastes may be experienced as unpleasant. The term piquancy () is sometimes applied to foods with a l ...
chemical in chili peppers, is used as an analgesic in topical ointments, nasal spray
Nasal sprays are used to deliver medications locally in the nasal cavities or systemically. They are used locally for conditions such as nasal congestion and allergic rhinitis. In some situations, the nasal delivery route is preferred for syst ...
s, and dermal patch
A dermal patch or skin patch is a medicated adhesive patch that is placed on the skin to deliver a medication into the skin. This is in contrast to a transdermal patch, which delivers the medication through the skin and into the bloodstream.
...
es to relieve pain. A 2022 review of preliminary research indicated that regular consumption of chili peppers was associated with weak evidence for a lower risk of death from cardiovascular diseases and cancer
Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal b ...
.
Chemical irritants
Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in pepper spray
Pepper spray, oleoresin capsicum spray, OC spray, capsaicin spray, or capsicum spray is a lachrymatory agent (a compound that irritates the eyes to cause a burning sensation, pain, and temporary blindness) used in policing, riot control, ...
s and some tear gas
Tear gas, also known as a lachrymator agent or lachrymator (), sometimes colloquially known as "mace" after the early commercial aerosol, is a chemical weapon that stimulates the nerves of the lacrimal gland in the eye to produce tears. In ...
formulations as a chemical irritant, for use as less-lethal weapon
Non-lethal weapons, also called nonlethal weapons, less-lethal weapons, less-than-lethal weapons, non-deadly weapons, compliance weapons, or pain-inducing weapons are weapons intended to be less likely to kill a living target than conventiona ...
s for control of unruly individuals or crowds. Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death.[
]
Crop defense
Conflicts
Conflict may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Films
* ''Conflict'' (1921 film), an American silent film directed by Stuart Paton
* ''Conflict'' (1936 film), an American boxing film starring John Wayne
* ''Conflict'' (1937 film) ...
between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in African and Asian
Asian may refer to:
* Items from or related to the continent of Asia:
** Asian people, people in or descending from Asia
** Asian culture, the culture of the people from Asia
** Asian cuisine, food based on the style of food of the people from Asi ...
countries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin. Because the elephants have a large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system, the smell of the chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a few rows of the fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chili dung bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers' fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants.
Food defense
Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin, because it targets a specific pain receptor in mammals. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers, as a bird in flight can spread the seeds further away from the parent plant after they pass through its digestive system than any land or tree dwelling mammal could do so under the same circumstances, thus reducing competition for resources.
Nutritional value
Red hot chili peppers are 88% water, 9% carbohydrate
In organic chemistry, a carbohydrate () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula (where ''m'' may or m ...
s, 2% protein
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, res ...
, and 0.4% fat
In nutrition, biology, and chemistry, fat usually means any ester of fatty acids, or a mixture of such compounds, most commonly those that occur in living beings or in food.
The term often refers specifically to triglycerides (triple est ...
(table). In a 100 gram reference amount, chili peppers supply 40 calories, and are a rich source of vitamin C
Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits and vegetables, also sold as a dietary supplement and as a topical 'serum' ingredient to treat melasma (dark pigment spots) ...
and vitamin B6 (table).
Spelling and usage
The three primary spellings are ''chili'', ''chile'' and ''chilli'', all of which are recognized by dictionaries.
* ''Chili'' is widely used in English of the United States[; other spellings are listed as variants, with "chilli" described as "chiefly British"] and Canada. However, it is also commonly used as a short name for chili con carne
Chili con carne (also spelled chilli con carne or chile con carne and shortened to chili or chilli; ), meaning " chili with meat", is a spicy stew containing chili peppers (sometimes in the form of chili powder), meat (usually beef), tomatoes ...
(literally "chili with meat"), most versions of which are seasoned with chili powder
Chili powder (also spelled chile, chilli, or, alternatively, powdered chili) is the dried, pulverized fruit of one or more varieties of chili pepper, sometimes with the addition of other spices (in which case it is also sometimes known as chili p ...
, which in turn can refer to pure dried, ground chili peppers, or to a mixture containing other spices.
* ''Chile'' is the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries, as well as some parts of the United States and Canada, which refers specifically to this plant and its fruit. In the Southwest United States (particularly New Mexico), ''chile'' also denotes a thick, spicy, un-vinegared sauce made from this fruit, available in red and green varieties, and served over the local food, while ''chili'' denotes the meat dish. The plural is ''chile'' or ''chiles''.
* ''Chilli'' was the original Romanization
Romanization or romanisation, in linguistics, is the conversion of text from a different writing system to the Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, a ...
of the Náhuatl language word for the fruit (''chilli'') and is the preferred British spelling according to the ''Oxford English Dictionary
The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (''OED'') is the first and foundational historical dictionary of the English language, published by Oxford University Press (OUP). It traces the historical development of the English language, providing a co ...
'', although it also lists ''chile'' and ''chili'' as variants. ''Chilli'' (and its plural ''chillies'') is the most common spelling in India, Sri Lanka,[Usage example: ] Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Singapore and South Africa.
The name of the plant is unrelated to that of Chile
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
, the country, which has an uncertain etymology perhaps relating to local place names. Certain Spanish-speaking countries in South America
South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the sout ...
and the Caribbean, including Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Dominican Republic, Venezuela and Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and unincorporated ...
, call the peppers as ''ají'', a word of Taíno
The Taíno were a historic indigenous people of the Caribbean whose culture has been continued today by Taíno descendant communities and Taíno revivalist communities. At the time of European contact in the late 15th century, they were the pri ...
origin.
Though ''pepper'' originally referred to the genus ''Piper
Piper may refer to:
People
* Piper (given name)
* Piper (surname)
Arts and entertainment Fictional characters Comics
* Piper (Morlock), in the Marvel Universe
* Piper (Mutate), in the Marvel Universe
Television
* Piper Chapman, lea ...
'', not ''Capsicum'', the latter usage is included in English dictionaries, including the ''Oxford English Dictionary''[ (sense 2b of ''pepper'')] and Merriam-Webster. The word ''pepper'' is also commonly used in the botanical and culinary fields in the names of different types of pungent plants and their fruits.
Safety
The volatile oil
An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetheroleum, or simply as the o ...
in spicy peppers may cause skin irritation, requiring handwashing and care when touching the eyes or any sensitive body parts. Consuming hot peppers may cause stomach pain, hyperventilation, sweating, vomiting
Vomiting (also known as emesis and throwing up) is the involuntary, forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose.
Vomiting can be the result of ailments like food poisoning, gastroenteri ...
, and symptoms possibly requiring hospitalization.
Gallery
File:Leiden University Library - Seikei Zusetsu vol. 25, page 019 - 蕃椒 - Capsicum annuum L., 1804.jpg, Illustration from the Japanese agricultural encyclopedia ''Seikei Zusetsu'' (1804)
File:Habanero closeup edit2.jpg, The habanero
The habanero (; ) is a hot variety of chili. Unripe habaneros are green, and they color as they mature. The most common color variants are orange and red, but the fruit may also be white, brown, yellow, green, or purple. Typically, a ripe hab ...
pepper
File:Buds and flowers of chili plants.jpg, Buds and flowers
File:Chili pepper.jpg, Immature chilies in the field
File:Shan Hills, Myanmar, Red chili pepper plant.jpg, Ripe chilies in the field, Myanmar
File:Black pearl cultivar.jpg, The Black Pearl cultivar
File:Cubanelle Peppers.jpg, Cubanelle peppers
File:Chilli paper bd.jpg, Ripe chili pepper with seeds
File:HotPeppersinMarket.jpg, Scotch bonnet chili peppers in a Caribbean market
File:Chillies drying in Kathmandu.jpg, Chili peppers drying in Kathmandu, Nepal
File:Mujer chiles 3.JPG, Removing veins and seeds from dried chilies in San Pedro Atocpan
File:2014 Dried chilli flakes.jpg, Dried chili pepper flakes and fresh chilies
File:Chili pepper 01.JPG, Chili pepper dip in a traditional restaurant in Amman, Jordan
File:Phrik haeng.jpg, Dried Thai bird's eye chili
Bird's eye chili or Thai chili (Thai: ''prik ki nu'', พริกขี้หนู, literally "mouse dung chili" owing to its shape) is a chili pepper, a variety from the species ''Capsicum annuum'' native to Mexico. Cultivated across Southea ...
es
File:Aesthetic green Chillies.JPG, Green chilies
File:Andhra Chillies.jpg, Guntur chilli
Guntur chillies (Telugu: ) are a group of chilli cultivars from the Guntur and Prakasam districts of Andhra Pradesh, India. They are renowned globally and exported to Asia, Canada, and Europe. The Guntur district is the main producer and expor ...
drying in the sun, Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
, India
File:Sundried chilli.jpg, Sundried chili at Imogiri
Imogiri (ꦲꦶꦩꦒꦶꦫꦶ in Javanese script or ''Imagiri'' in standard Javanese spelling) is a royal graveyard complex in Yogyakarta, in south-central Java, Indonesia, as well as a subdistrict under the administration of Bantul Regency. Im ...
, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
File:Red chili peppers Mesilla NM.jpg, New Mexico chile
New Mexico chile or New Mexican chile (Scientific name: ''Capsicum annuum'' 'New Mexico Group'; es, chile de Nuevo México, ) is a cultivar group of the chile pepper from the US state of New Mexico, first grown by Pueblo and Hispano communitie ...
s dried on the plant in Mesilla, New Mexico
File:A bottle of chili pepper wine.jpg, Chili pepper wine from Virginia
File:Ristras Drying.jpg, alt=Chili peppers drying in hanging ristras, Ristra
A ristra () is an arrangement of drying chile pepper pods, garlic bulbs, or other vegetables for later consumption. In addition to its practical use, the ristra has come to be a trademark of decorative design in the state of New Mexico as well as ...
s of chili peppers drying in Arizona
Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Fou ...
.
File:White flower of chili paper plant.jpg, White flower of chili paper at night
File:Pimientos choriceros.jpg, Choricero peppers
File:Chilli pickle in a plate 2.jpg, Pickled chili in India
File:Capsicum -Chili - Peperoncino - Il Viagra Calabrese - Calabria - Italy - July 17th 2013 - 02.jpg, Peperoncino
Peperoncino (; plural peperoncini ) is the generic Italian name for hot chili peppers, specifically some regional cultivars of the species ''Capsicum annuum'' and '' C. frutescens'' (chili pepper and Tabasco pepper, respectively). The sweet pep ...
chili in Tropea
Tropea (; scn, label= Calabrian, Trupìa; la, Tropaea; grc, Τράπεια, Trápeia) is a municipality in the province of Vibo Valentia, in Calabria, Italy.
Tropea is a seaside resort with sandy beaches, located on the Gulf of Saint Euphe ...
, Italy with a sign saying "Il Viagra Calabrese" (the Calabrian viagra
Sildenafil, sold under the brand name Viagra, among others, is a medication used to treat erectile dysfunction and pulmonary arterial hypertension. It is unclear if it is effective for treating sexual dysfunction in women. It is taken by ...
).
File:Chili peppers cultivated in Myanmar.jpg, Chili peppers cultivated in Myanmar
File:Inle Lake, Dried red chili (chilli) pepper, Capsicum annuum, Myanmar.jpg, Dried chili pepper flakes, Myanmar
File:Green-chillies.jpg, Green Chillies from North India. They are used as spice in many Indian dishes.
See also
* Chili grenade, a type of weapon made with chili peppers
* Hatch, New Mexico
Hatch is a village in Doña Ana County, New Mexico, United States. The population was 1,648 at the 2010 census. The town is experiencing moderate growth, along with its outliers of Salem, Arrey, Derry, and Rincon. Hatch is widely known as the ...
, known as the "Chile Capital of the World"
* History of chocolate
The history of chocolate began in Mesoamerica. Fermented beverages made from chocolate date back to at least 1900 BC to 1500 BC. The Mexica believed that cacao seeds were the gift of Quetzalcoatl, the god of wisdom, and the seeds once had so muc ...
, which the Maya
Maya may refer to:
Civilizations
* Maya peoples, of southern Mexico and northern Central America
** Maya civilization, the historical civilization of the Maya peoples
** Maya language, the languages of the Maya peoples
* Maya (Ethiopia), a popul ...
drank with ground chili peppers
* International Connoisseurs of Green and Red Chile, organization for the promotion of chili peppers
* Peppersoup
* Ristra
A ristra () is an arrangement of drying chile pepper pods, garlic bulbs, or other vegetables for later consumption. In addition to its practical use, the ristra has come to be a trademark of decorative design in the state of New Mexico as well as ...
, an arrangement of dried chili pepper pods
* Salsa (sauce)
Salsa is a variety of sauces used as condiments for tacos and other Mexican and Mexican-American foods, and as dips for tortilla chips. They may be raw or cooked, and are generally served at room temperature.
Though the word ''salsa'' means any ...
* Sweet chili sauce, a condiment for adding a sweet, mild heat taste to food
* Food and drink prohibitions
Some people do not eat various specific foods and beverages in conformity with various religious, cultural, legal or other societal prohibitions. Many of these prohibitions constitute taboos. Many food taboos and other prohibitions forbid the mea ...
, which in some cultures includes chili peppers
References
Further reading
*
*
*
External links
Plant Cultures: Chilli pepper botany, history and uses
The Chile Pepper Institute of New Mexico State University
Chilli: La especia del Nuevo Mundo
(Article from Germán Octavio López Riquelme about biology, nutrition, culture and medical topics. In Spanish)
The Hot Pepper List
List of chili pepper varieties ordered by heat rating in Scoville Heat Units (SHU)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chili Pepper
Agriculture in Mesoamerica
Medicinal plants of Central America
Medicinal plants of South America
Crops originating from Ecuador
Crops originating from Mexico
Crops originating from Peru
Symbols of New Mexico
Leaf vegetables
New Mexican cuisine
Cuisine of the Southwestern United States
Crops originating from the Americas
Indian spices
Crops
Sri Lankan spices
Mesoamerican cuisine
Mexican cuisine
Fruits originating in North America