![Potęga Rzeczypospolitej u zenitu](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg)
Golden Liberty ( la, Aurea Libertas; pl, Złota Wolność, lt, Auksinė laisvė), sometimes referred to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles' Democracy or Nobles' Commonwealth ( pl,
Rzeczpospolita
() is the official name of Poland and a traditional name for some of its predecessor states. It is a compound of "thing, matter" and "common", a calque of Latin ''rés pública'' ( "thing" + "public, common"), i.e. ''republic'', in Engli ...
Szlachecka or ''Złota wolność szlachecka'') was a
political system
In political science, a political system means the type of political organization that can be recognized, observed or otherwise declared by a state.
It defines the process for making official government decisions. It usually comprizes the govern ...
in the
Kingdom of Poland
The Kingdom of Poland ( pl, Królestwo Polskie; Latin: ''Regnum Poloniae'') was a state in Central Europe. It may refer to:
Historical political entities
*Kingdom of Poland, a kingdom existing from 1025 to 1031
*Kingdom of Poland, a kingdom exist ...
and, after the
Union of Lublin
The Union of Lublin ( pl, Unia lubelska; lt, Liublino unija) was signed on 1 July 1569 in Lublin, Poland, and created a single state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest countries in Europe at the time. It replaced the pe ...
(1569), in the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and, after 1791, as the Commonwealth of Poland, was a bi-confederal state, sometimes called a federation, of Crown of the Kingdom of ...
. Under that system, all nobles (''
szlachta
The ''szlachta'' (Polish: endonym, Lithuanian: šlėkta) were the noble estate of the realm in the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth who, as a class, had the dominating position in the ...
''), regardless of rank, economic status or their ethnic background were considered to have equal legal status and enjoyed
extensive legal rights and privileges. The nobility controlled the legislature (the ''
Sejm
The Sejm (English: , Polish: ), officially known as the Sejm of the Republic of Poland (Polish: ''Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej''), is the lower house of the bicameral parliament of Poland.
The Sejm has been the highest governing body of t ...
'' — the
parliament
In modern politics, and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: Representation (politics), representing the Election#Suffrage, electorate, making laws, and overseeing ...
) and the Commonwealth's
elected king
An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by an elected monarch, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which the office is automatically passed down as a family inheritance. The manner of election, the nature of candidate qualifications, and th ...
.
Development
This political system, unique in Europe, stemmed from the consolidation of power by the ''
szlachta
The ''szlachta'' (Polish: endonym, Lithuanian: šlėkta) were the noble estate of the realm in the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth who, as a class, had the dominating position in the ...
'' (
noble class) over other social classes and over the
monarchical
A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, is head of state for life or until abdication. The political legitimacy and authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutional monarchy), ...
political system
In political science, a political system means the type of political organization that can be recognized, observed or otherwise declared by a state.
It defines the process for making official government decisions. It usually comprizes the govern ...
. In time, the
''szlachta'' accumulated enough privileges (established by the ''
Nihil novi
''Nihil novi nisi commune consensu'' ("Nothing new without the common consent") is the original Latin title of a 1505 act or constitution adopted by the Polish ''Sejm'' (parliament), meeting in the royal castle at Radom.
History
''Nihil novi'' ...
'' Act (1505),
King Henry's Articles
The Henrician Articles or King Henry's Articles (Polish: ''Artykuły henrykowskie'', Latin: ''Articuli Henriciani'') were a permanent contract between the "Polish nation" (the szlachta, or nobility, of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and a n ...
(1573), and various ''
Pacta conventa
''Pacta conventa'' (Latin for "articles of agreement") was a contractual agreement, from 1573 to 1764 entered into between the "Polish nation" (i.e., the szlachta (nobility) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and a newly elected king upon ...
'') that no monarch could hope to break the ''szlachta''s grip on power.
The political doctrine of the Commonwealth of the Two Nations was "our state is a republic under the presidency of the King".
Chancellor
Chancellor ( la, cancellarius) is a title of various official positions in the governments of many nations. The original chancellors were the of Roman courts of justice—ushers, who sat at the or lattice work screens of a basilica or law cou ...
Jan Zamoyski
Jan Sariusz Zamoyski ( la, Ioannes Zamoyski de Zamoscie; 19 March 1542 – 3 June 1605) was a Polish nobleman, magnate, and the 1st ''ordynat'' of Zamość. He served as the Royal Secretary from 1565, Deputy Chancellor from 1576, Grand Chance ...
summed up this doctrine when he said that "''Rex regnat et non gubernat''" ("The King reigns and does not govern"). The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a ''
Senat'' and an elected king. The king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in
King Henry's Articles
The Henrician Articles or King Henry's Articles (Polish: ''Artykuły henrykowskie'', Latin: ''Articuli Henriciani'') were a permanent contract between the "Polish nation" (the szlachta, or nobility, of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and a n ...
as well as in ''
pacta conventa
''Pacta conventa'' (Latin for "articles of agreement") was a contractual agreement, from 1573 to 1764 entered into between the "Polish nation" (i.e., the szlachta (nobility) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and a newly elected king upon ...
'' negotiated at the time of his election.
The monarch's power was limited, in favour of the sizable noble class. Each new king had to subscribe to King Henry's Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system and included almost unprecedented guarantees of
religious tolerance
Religious toleration may signify "no more than forbearance and the permission given by the adherents of a dominant religion for other religions to exist, even though the latter are looked on with disapproval as inferior, mistaken, or harmful". ...
. Over time, King Henry's Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From then on, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was always supervised by a group of
senators. The doctrine had ancient republican thought at its roots, which was then reapplied with varying success to an elective monarchy's political reality.
The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the "Golden Liberty" ( pl, Złota Wolność, a term used from 1573), included:
* the
election
An election is a formal group decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold public office.
Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has opera ...
of the king by all nobles wishing to participate, known as ''wolna elekcja'' (free election);
*
Sejm
The Sejm (English: , Polish: ), officially known as the Sejm of the Republic of Poland (Polish: ''Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej''), is the lower house of the bicameral parliament of Poland.
The Sejm has been the highest governing body of t ...
, the Commonwealth parliament, which the king was required to hold every two years;
* ''
pacta conventa
''Pacta conventa'' (Latin for "articles of agreement") was a contractual agreement, from 1573 to 1764 entered into between the "Polish nation" (i.e., the szlachta (nobility) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and a newly elected king upon ...
'' (
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
), "agreed-to agreements" negotiated with the king-elect, including a bill of rights, binding on the king, derived from the earlier
King Henry's Articles
The Henrician Articles or King Henry's Articles (Polish: ''Artykuły henrykowskie'', Latin: ''Articuli Henriciani'') were a permanent contract between the "Polish nation" (the szlachta, or nobility, of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and a n ...
;
* ''
rokosz
A rokosz () originally was a gathering of all the Polish ''szlachta'' (nobility), not merely of deputies, for a ''sejm''. The term was introduced to the Polish language from Hungary, where analogous gatherings took place at a field called Rákos. ...
'' (
insurrection
Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the open resistance against the orders of an established authority.
A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation and ...
), the right of ''szlachta'' to form a legal rebellion against a king who violated their guaranteed freedoms;
* ''
religious freedom
Freedom of religion or religious liberty is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance. It also includes the freedom ...
'' guaranteed by
Warsaw Confederation Act 1573,
* ''
liberum veto'' (
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
), the right of an individual land envoy to oppose a decision by the majority in a Sejm session; the voicing of such a "free veto" nullified all the legislation that had been passed at that session; during the crisis of the second half of the 17th century, Polish nobles could also use the
liberum veto in provincial
sejmik
A sejmik (, diminutive of ''sejm'', occasionally translated as a ''dietine''; lt, seimelis) was one of various local parliaments in the history of Poland and history of Lithuania. The first sejmiks were regional assemblies in the Kingdom of Pol ...
s;
* ''
konfederacja'' (from the
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
''
confederatio''), the right to form an organization to force through a common political aim.
The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as a mixture of:
*
confederation
A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a union of sovereign groups or states united for purposes of common action. Usually created by a treaty, confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issu ...
and
federation
A federation (also known as a federal state) is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central federal government (federalism). In a federation, the self-governin ...
, with regard to the broad
autonomy
In developmental psychology and moral, political, and bioethical philosophy, autonomy, from , ''autonomos'', from αὐτο- ''auto-'' "self" and νόμος ''nomos'', "law", hence when combined understood to mean "one who gives oneself one's ...
of its regions. It is, however, difficult to decisively call the Commonwealth either confederation or federation, as it had some qualities of both of them;
*
oligarchy
Oligarchy (; ) is a conceptual form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people. These people may or may not be distinguished by one or several characteristics, such as nobility, fame, wealth, education, or corporate, r ...
,
as only the male ''szlachta'', around 15% of the population, had political rights;
* democracy, as all of the ''szlachta'' were equal in rights and privileges, and the Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including
legislation
Legislation is the process or result of enrolled bill, enrolling, enactment of a bill, enacting, or promulgation, promulgating laws by a legislature, parliament, or analogous Government, governing body. Before an item of legislation becomes law i ...
(the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones). Also, the 10% of Commonwealth population who enjoyed those political rights (the ''szlachta'') were a substantially larger percentage than in any other European country, and the nobles extended from powerful princes to knights poorer than many peasants; in comparison, in France, only about 1% of the population had the right to vote in 1831, and in 1832, in the United Kingdom, only about 14% of male adults could vote;
*
elective monarchy
An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by an elected monarch, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which the office is automatically passed down as a family inheritance. The manner of election, the nature of candidate qualifications, and the ...
, as the monarch, elected by the ''szlachta'', was the head of state;
*
constitutional monarchy
A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in decision making. Constitutional monarchies dif ...
, as the monarch was bound by
pacta conventa
''Pacta conventa'' (Latin for "articles of agreement") was a contractual agreement, from 1573 to 1764 entered into between the "Polish nation" (i.e., the szlachta (nobility) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and a newly elected king upon ...
and other laws, and the ''szlachta'' could disobey any of the king's decrees that they deemed to be illegal.
Assessment
The "Golden Liberty" was a unique and controversial feature of Poland's political system. It was an exception, characterized by a strong aristocracy and a feeble king, in an age when
absolutism was developing in the stronger countries of Europe, but the exception, was characterized by a striking similarity to certain modern values.
[Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, , p.262] At a time that most European countries were headed toward
centralization
Centralisation or centralization (see spelling differences) is the process by which the activities of an organisation, particularly those regarding planning and decision-making, framing strategy and policies become concentrated within a particu ...
,
absolute monarchy
Absolute monarchy (or Absolutism as a doctrine) is a form of monarchy in which the monarch rules in their own right or power. In an absolute monarchy, the king or queen is by no means limited and has absolute power, though a limited constitut ...
and religious and dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with
decentralization
Decentralization or decentralisation is the process by which the activities of an organization, particularly those regarding planning and decision making, are distributed or delegated away from a central, authoritative location or group.
Conce ...
,
confederation
A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a union of sovereign groups or states united for purposes of common action. Usually created by a treaty, confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issu ...
and
federation
A federation (also known as a federal state) is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central federal government (federalism). In a federation, the self-governin ...
, democracy,
religious tolerance
Religious toleration may signify "no more than forbearance and the permission given by the adherents of a dominant religion for other religions to exist, even though the latter are looked on with disapproval as inferior, mistaken, or harmful". ...
and even
pacifism
Pacifism is the opposition or resistance to war, militarism (including conscription and mandatory military service) or violence. Pacifists generally reject theories of Just War. The word ''pacifism'' was coined by the French peace campaign ...
. Since the Sejm usually vetoed a monarch's plans for war, it was a notable argument for the
democratic peace theory
The democratic peace theory posits that democracies are hesitant to engage in armed conflict with other identified democracies. Among proponents of the democratic peace theory, several factors are held as motivating peace between democratic st ...
.
[ 2000. Especially pp9–11, 114, 181, 323.] The system was a precursor of the modern concepts of broader
democracy
Democracy (From grc, δημοκρατία, dēmokratía, ''dēmos'' 'people' and ''kratos'' 'rule') is a form of government in which the people have the authority to deliberate and decide legislation (" direct democracy"), or to choose gov ...
Maciej Janowski
Maciej Janowski (born 6 August 1991 in Wrocław, Poland[www.janowskiracing.com](_blank)
Retrieved on 2008-07-04.< ...
, ''Polish Liberal Thought'', Central European University Press, 2001, , Google Print
p3
p12
/ref> and constitutional monarchy
A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in decision making. Constitutional monarchies dif ...
Paul W. Schroeder
Paul W. Schroeder (February 23, 1927''International Who's Who 2000'', Vol. 63 (Europa, 1999: ), p. 1391. – December 6, 2020) was an American historian who was professor emeritus at the University of Illinois. He specialized in European interna ...
, ''The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848'', Oxford University Press, 1996,
Google print p84
/ref>[ Rett R. Ludwikowski, ''Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance'', Duke University Press, 1997, ]
Google Print, p34
/ref>[ George Sanford, ''Democratic Government in Poland: Constitutional Politics Since 1989'', Palgrave, 2002, ]
Google print p. 11 — constitutional monarchy
p.3 — anarchy
/ref> as well as federation
A federation (also known as a federal state) is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central federal government (federalism). In a federation, the self-governin ...
.Aleksander Gella
Alexander is a male given name. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great, the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedonia who created one of the largest empires in ancient history.
Variants li ...
, ''Development of Class Structure in Eastern Europe: Poland and Her Southern Neighbors'', SUNY Press, 1998,
Google Print, p13
/ref> The ''szlachta'' citizens of the Commonwealth praised the right of resistance, the social contract, the liberty of the individual, the principle of government by consent, the value of self-reliance, all widespread concepts found in the modern, liberal democracies. Just like liberal democrats of the 19th and 20th century, the Polish noblemen were concerned about the power of the state.[Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, ]
Google Print, p.283
/ref> The Polish noblemen were strongly opposed to the very concept of the authoritarian
Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in the rule of law, separation of powers, and democratic votin ...
state.[Jerzy Szacki, ''Liberalism After Communism'', Central European University, 1995, , Pres]
Google Print, p. 46
/ref>
Perhaps the closest parallels to Poland's 'Noble Democracy' can be found outside Europe altogether, in America, among the slave
Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
-owning aristocracy of The South, where slave-owning democrats and founding fathers of the US, such as Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, architect, philosopher, and Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father who served as the third president of the United States from 18 ...
or George Washington
George Washington (February 22, 1732, 1799) was an American military officer, statesman, and Founding Father who served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Appointed by the Continental Congress as commander of th ...
, had many values in common with the reformist noblemen of the Commonwealth.[Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, , p.282]
Others however criticize the Golden Liberty, pointing out it was limited only to the nobility, excluding peasants or townsfolk[Helmut Georg Koenigsberger, ''Monarchies, States Generals and Parliaments'', Cambridge University Press, 2001, ]
Google Print, p.336
/ref> and gave no legal system to grant freedom
Freedom is understood as either having the ability to act or change without constraint or to possess the power and resources to fulfill one's purposes unhindered. Freedom is often associated with liberty and autonomy in the sense of "giving on ...
and liberty
Liberty is the ability to do as one pleases, or a right or immunity enjoyed by prescription or by grant (i.e. privilege). It is a synonym for the word freedom.
In modern politics, liberty is understood as the state of being free within society fr ...
to the majority of the population, failing them by failing to protect them from the excesses of the nobility, resulting in the slow development of cities and the second serfdom
Like slavery, serfdom has a long history that dates to ancient times.
Origins
Social institutions similar to serfdom occurred in the ancient world. The status of the helots in the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta resembled that of medieval serf ...
among the peasants.[The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis](_blank)
, discussion and full online text of Evsey Domar
Evsey David Domar (russian: Евсей Давидович Домашевицкий, ''Domashevitsky''; April 16, 1914 – April 1, 1997) was a Russian American economist, famous as developer of the Harrod–Domar model.
Life
Evsey Domar was bor ...
(1970) "The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis," Economic History Review
''The Economic History Review'' is a peer-reviewed history journal published quarterly by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Economic History Society. It was established in 1927 by Eileen Power and is currently edited by Sara Horrell, Jaime Reis and ...
30:1 (March), pp18–32 The Commonwealth was called ''Noble's Paradise'', sometimes—''the Jewish Paradise'', but also ''Purgatory for the Townsfolk (Burghers)'' and ''Hell for the Peasants''.[Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, ]
Google Print, p.160
/ref> And even among the nobility (''szlachta''), the Golden Liberty became abused and twisted by the most powerful of them (magnates
The magnate term, from the late Latin ''magnas'', a great man, itself from Latin ''magnus'', "great", means a man from the higher nobility, a man who belongs to the high office-holders, or a man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or ot ...
).[Jerzy Lukowski, Hubert Zawadzki, ''A Concise History of Poland'', Cambridge University Press, 2006, ]
Google Print, p.88
/ref> However, this "''the Jewish Paradise, but also Purgatory for the Townsfolk and Hell for the Peasants''" was a statement of social satire, and it should be evaluated whether it reflected the fact of the age. A number of Russian peasants fled from their far more brutal lords to settle in liberal Poland,[Googleブック]
/ref> which might stand out as example of counterevidence to the "Hell for the Peasants" claim.
In its extreme, the Golden Liberty has been criticized as being responsible for "civil wars and invasions, national weakness, irresolution, and poverty of spirit".[Philip Pajakowski, in ''Michał Bobrzyński (1849-1935)'', Peter Brock, John D. Stanley, Piotr Wróbel (ed.), ''Nation And History: Polish Historians from the Enlightenment to the Second World War'', University of Toronto Press, 2006, ]
Google Print, p.150
/ref> Failing to evolve into the "modern
Modern may refer to:
History
* Modern history
** Early Modern period
** Late Modern period
*** 18th century
*** 19th century
*** 20th century
** Contemporary history
* Moderns, a faction of Freemasonry that existed in the 18th century
Phil ...
" system of an absolutist and national monarchy, the Commonwealth suffered a gradual decline down to the brink of anarchy
Anarchy is a society without a government. It may also refer to a society or group of people that entirely rejects a set hierarchy. ''Anarchy'' was first used in English in 1539, meaning "an absence of government". Pierre-Joseph Proudhon adopted ...
because of liberum veto and other abuses of the system
Gaming the system (also rigging, abusing, cheating, milking, playing, working, or breaking the system, or gaming or bending the rules) can be defined as using the rules and procedures meant to protect a system to, instead, manipulate the system ...
. With the majority of the ''szlachta'' believing that they lived in the perfect state, too few questioned the Golden Liberty and the Sarmatism
Sarmatism (or Sarmatianism; pl, Sarmatyzm; lt, Sarmatizmas) was an ethno-cultural ideology within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was the dominant Baroque culture and ideology of the nobility () that existed in times of the Renai ...
philosophy until it was too late.[Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, , p.279]] With the ''szlachta'' refusing to pay taxes for a larger and modern army and magnates bribed by foreign powers paralyzing the Commonwealth political system,[William Bullitt, ''The Great Globe Itself: A Preface to World Affairs'', Transaction Publishers, 2005, ]
Google Print, pp42–43
/ref>John Adams
John Adams (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, attorney, diplomat, writer, and Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father who served as the second president of the United States from 1797 to 1801. Befor ...
, ''The Political Writings of John Adams'', Regnery Gateway, 2001,
Google Print, p.242
/ref> the Commonwealth was unable to keep up with its increasingly militarized and efficient (through bureaucratization
The term bureaucracy () refers to a body of non-elected governing officials as well as to an administrative policy-making group. Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected offi ...
) neighbors,[Brian M. Downing, ''The Military Revolution and Political Change: Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe'', Princeton University Press, 1992, ]
Google Print, p.144
/ref> becoming a tempting target for foreign aggression. It was eventually partitioned and annexed by stronger absolutist neighboring countries in the late-18th-century partitions of Poland
The Partitions of Poland were three partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place toward the end of the 18th century and ended the existence of the state, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland and Lithuania for 12 ...
.[ Martin Van Gelderen, ]Quentin Skinner
Quentin Robert Duthie Skinner (born 26 November 1940) is a British intellectual historian. He is regarded as one of the founders of the Cambridge School of the history of political thought. He has won numerous prizes for his work, including th ...
, ''Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage'', Cambridge University Press, 2002,
Google Print: p54
/ref>
Similar systems
The Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its time, but somewhat similar political system
In political science, a political system means the type of political organization that can be recognized, observed or otherwise declared by a state.
It defines the process for making official government decisions. It usually comprizes the govern ...
s existed in other contemporary states, like the Republic of Venice
The Republic of Venice ( vec, Repùblega de Venèsia) or Venetian Republic ( vec, Repùblega Vèneta, links=no), traditionally known as La Serenissima ( en, Most Serene Republic of Venice, italics=yes; vec, Serenìsima Repùblega de Venèsia, ...
.[ Joanna Olkiewicz, ''Najaśniejsza Republika Wenecka'' (Most Serene Republic of Venice), Książka i Wiedza, 1972, Warszawa] (Both states were styled the "Most Serene Republic
Most Serene Republic ( la, Serenissima Respublica)
( it, Serenissima Repubblica) is a title attached to a number of European states through history. By custom, the appellation "Most Serene" is an indicator of sovereignty (see also Serene Highness ...
".Joseph Conrad
Joseph Conrad (born Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski, ; 3 December 1857 – 3 August 1924) was a Poles in the United Kingdom#19th century, Polish-British novelist and short story writer. He is regarded as one of the greatest writers in t ...
, ''Notes on Life and Letters: Notes on Life and Letters'', Cambridge University Press, 2004,
Google Print, p422 (notes)
/ref>)
A similar fate was averted by Italy; first due to a secular inability of the kings of France and Spain, and the Papacy, to come to terms on how to divide the country, then through the reaction against Habsburg
The House of Habsburg (), alternatively spelled Hapsburg in Englishgerman: Haus Habsburg, ; es, Casa de Habsburgo; hu, Habsburg család, it, Casa di Asburgo, nl, Huis van Habsburg, pl, dom Habsburgów, pt, Casa de Habsburgo, la, Domus Hab ...
domination which, as late as 1861, finally aligned most of the country's states in support of a national monarchy under King Victor Emmanuel II
Victor Emmanuel II ( it, Vittorio Emanuele II; full name: ''Vittorio Emanuele Maria Alberto Eugenio Ferdinando Tommaso di Savoia''; 14 March 1820 – 9 January 1878) was King of Sardinia from 1849 until 17 March 1861, when he assumed the title o ...
of the House of Savoy
The House of Savoy ( it, Casa Savoia) was a royal dynasty that was established in 1003 in the historical Savoy region. Through gradual expansion, the family grew in power from ruling a small Alpine county north-west of Italy to absolute rule of ...
, hitherto king of Sardinia
Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label=Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after ...
.
Notably, neither the Republic of Venice nor Italy had a '' liberum veto'' among their institutions.
Proverb
The ''szlachta
The ''szlachta'' (Polish: endonym, Lithuanian: šlėkta) were the noble estate of the realm in the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth who, as a class, had the dominating position in the ...
s rights and privileges became proverb
A proverb (from la, proverbium) is a simple and insightful, traditional saying that expresses a perceived truth based on common sense or experience. Proverbs are often metaphorical and use formulaic speech, formulaic language. A proverbial phra ...
ial:
—literally,
or, preserving the Polish original's rhyme
A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds (usually, the exact same phonemes) in the final stressed syllables and any following syllables of two or more words. Most often, this kind of perfect rhyming is consciously used for a musical or aesthetic ...
scheme:
To this day, in Poland, this means that a free man (a better sense, today, for ''szlachcic'') regards no man as his superior.
See also
* Executionist movement
The Executionist movement was a 16th-century political movement in the Kingdom of Poland and, later, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was popular among lesser, middle and even some higher nobility, and it also enjoyed the support of the Pol ...
* History of democracy
A democracy is a political system, or a system of decision-making within an institution or organization or a country, in which all members have an equal share of power. Modern democracies are characterized by two capabilities that differentiate ...
* "Poland is heaven for the nobility, purgatory for townspeople, hell for peasants, paradise for Jews"
References
{{reflist, 30em
External links
Golden Freedom ― 1632―1648
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Legal history of Belarus
Legal history of Lithuania
Legal history of Poland
Political history of Poland
Political systems