The Judicates (, or in
Sardinian, in
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
, or in
Italian
Italian(s) may refer to:
* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries
** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom
** Italian language, a Romance language
*** Regional Ita ...
), in
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
also referred to as Sardinian Kingdoms, Sardinian Judgedoms or Judicatures, were independent states that took power in
Sardinia
Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label=Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after ...
in the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
, between the ninth and fifteenth centuries. They were sovereign states with ''
summa potestas'', each with a ruler called judge ( in Sardinian), with the powers of a king.
Historical causes of the advent of the kingdoms
After a relatively brief
Vandal
The Vandals were a Germanic people who first inhabited what is now southern Poland. They established Vandal kingdoms on the Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean islands, and North Africa in the fifth century.
The Vandals migrated to the area betw ...
occupation (456–534), Sardinia was a province of the
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
from 535 until the eighth century.
After 705, with the rapid
Arab expansion,
Saracen
upright 1.5, Late 15th-century German woodcut depicting Saracens
Saracen ( ) was a term used in the early centuries, both in Greek and Latin writings, to refer to the people who lived in and near what was designated by the Romans as Arabia Pe ...
pirates from
North Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
began to raid the island and encountered no effective opposition by the
Byzantine army. In 815, Sardinian ambassadors requested military assistance from the
Carolingian Emperor
The Carolingian Empire (800–888) was a large Frankish-dominated empire in western and central Europe during the Early Middle Ages. It was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty, which had ruled as kings of the Franks since 751 and as kings of the Lom ...
Louis the Pious
Louis the Pious (german: Ludwig der Fromme; french: Louis le Pieux; 16 April 778 – 20 June 840), also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was King of the Franks and co-emperor with his father, Charlemagne, from 813. He was also King of Aqui ...
.
In 807, 810–812, and 821–822 the
Arabs of Spain and North Africa tried to invade the island but the Sardinians resisted several attacks. This defence was so effective that in a letter in 851
Pope Leo IV asked the ('judge of the province') of Sardinia, based in
Caralis
Cagliari (, also , , ; sc, Casteddu ; lat, Caralis) is an Italian municipality and the capital of the island of Sardinia, an autonomous region of Italy. Cagliari's Sardinian name ''Casteddu'' means ''castle''. It has about 155,000 inhabitant ...
, for aid in the defense of
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus (legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
. With the
fall
Autumn, also known as fall in American English and Canadian English, is one of the four temperate seasons on Earth. Outside the tropics, autumn marks the transition from summer to winter, in September (Northern Hemisphere) or March ( Southe ...
of the
Exarchate of Africa
The Exarchate of Africa was a division of the Byzantine Empire around Carthage that encompassed its possessions on the Western Mediterranean. Ruled by an exarch (viceroy), it was established by the Emperor Maurice in the late 580s and survive ...
, based in
Carthage
Carthage was the capital city of Ancient Carthage, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classi ...
, at the end of the seventh century, and especially with the emergence of the
Arab presence in Sicily (827), Sardinia remained disconnected from the core lands of the
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
and had, out of necessity, become economically and militarily independent.
The birth of the four kingdoms
The almost total absence of historical sources does not allow certainty surrounding the date of the passage from Byzantine central authority to self-government in Sardinia. It is believed that at some point the or
Archon
''Archon'' ( gr, ἄρχων, árchōn, plural: ἄρχοντες, ''árchontes'') is a Greek word that means "ruler", frequently used as the title of a specific public office. It is the masculine present participle of the verb stem αρχ-, mean ...
of Sardinia, residing in
Caralis
Cagliari (, also , , ; sc, Casteddu ; lat, Caralis) is an Italian municipality and the capital of the island of Sardinia, an autonomous region of Italy. Cagliari's Sardinian name ''Casteddu'' means ''castle''. It has about 155,000 inhabitant ...
, had complete control of the island. He appointed, in the most strategic area for the defense of the coast, the (
lieutenant
A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations.
The meaning of lieutenant differs in different militaries (see comparative military ranks), but it is often sub ...
), belonging to his family, the
Lacon-Gunale The Lacon-Gunale were an indigenous family of medieval Sardinia originally established in all the four thrones of the Judgedoms, the four Sardinian medieval kingdoms.
Origin
Probably the Lacon and Gunale descended respectively from the last ''dux' ...
, who became substantially autonomous from Caralis over time; this was probably the action that precipitated the birth of the kingdoms, or ''judgedoms''.
The first incontrovertible source that cites the existence of four kingdoms is the
epistle
An epistle (; el, ἐπιστολή, ''epistolē,'' "letter") is a writing directed or sent to a person or group of people, usually an elegant and formal didactic letter. The epistle genre of letter-writing was common in ancient Egypt as par ...
sent by
Pope Gregory VII from
Capua
Capua ( , ) is a city and ''comune'' in the province of Caserta, in the region of Campania, southern Italy, situated north of Naples, on the northeastern edge of the Campanian plain.
History
Ancient era
The name of Capua comes from the Etrus ...
on October 14, 1073 to the Sardinian judges
Orzocco of Cagliari,
Orzocco d'Arborea,
Marianus of Torres and
Constantine of Gallura; however their autonomy was already clear in a later letter of
Pope John VIII
Pope John VIII ( la, Ioannes VIII; died 16 December 882) was the bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 14 December 872 to his death. He is often considered one of the ablest popes of the 9th century.
John devoted much of his papacy ...
(872) in which he referred to them as ("princes of Sardinia").
The known medieval giudicati were:
*
Kingdom of Cagliari with capital in
Santa Igia
Santa Igia or Santa Ilia, modern Santa Gilla lagoon (''Santa Ilia'' being a contraction of ''Santa Cecilia''Corrado Zedda; p. 121.), was a city in Sardinia, in what is now Italy, which existed from the 9th century AD to 1258, when it was destroyed ...
*
Kingdom of Arborea with capital in
Oristano
Oristano (; sc, Aristanis ) is an Italian city and ''comune'', and capital of the Province of Oristano in the central-western part of the island of Sardinia. It is located on the northern part of the Campidano plain. It was established as the pr ...
,
*
Kingdom of Gallura
The Judicate of Gallura ( lat, Iudicatus Gallurae, sc, Judicadu de Gallura, it, Giudicato di Gallura) was one of four Sardinian judicates in the Middle Ages. These were independent states whose rulers bore the title ''iudex'', judge. Gallura, a ...
with capital in
Civita,
*
Kingdom of Torres with capital in
Porto Torres
Porto Torres ( sdc, Posthudorra, sc, Portu Turre) is a comune and a city of the Province of Sassari in north-west of Sardinia, Italy. Founded during the 1st century BC as ''Colonia Iulia Turris Libisonis'', it was the first Roman colony of the ...
,
Ardara and then
Sassari
Sassari (, ; sdc, Sàssari ; sc, Tàtari, ) is an Italian city and the second-largest of Sardinia in terms of population with 127,525 inhabitants, and a Functional Urban Area of about 260,000 inhabitants. One of the oldest cities on the island, ...
.
Each of the four States had fortified borders to protect their political and commercial interests, as well their own laws, administration and emblems.
Governments
The administrative organization of the ''judgedoms'' differed significantly from the feudal forms existing in the rest of
medieval Europe
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
as their institutions were closer to those of the territories of the Byzantine Empire, although with local peculiarities that some scholars consider of
Nuragic derivation.
In the international context of the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
, the ''judgedoms'' were characterized by semi-democratic institutions such as the which in turn elected their own representatives to the parliamentary assizes called .
The Corona de Logu and the central council
The central government and the entire Judiciary were ruled substantially by the judge. The king did not have possession of the land nor was he the repository of sovereignty since this was formally held by the , a council of elders (representatives of the administrative districts - ) and high priests. They appointed the ruler and attributed the supreme power to him, while maintaining the power to ratify acts and agreements related to the entire kingdom.
During (coronation ceremony) in the capital, a representative of each , members of the high clergy, the castle lords, two representatives of the capital elected by delegates from , came together. Then the was crowned with a mixed-elected hereditary system following the direct male line and, only in the alternative, the female line.
The judge ruled on the basis of a covenant with the people (the ). The sovereign could be dethroned and even, in cases of serious acts of tyranny and oppression, executed legitimately by the same people, without this prejudging the inheritance of the title within the same ruling dynasty.
Judges
The judge was not an absolute ruler in the sense of later
absolutism—at least in form: he could not declare war or sign a peace treaty without the consent of the . However, that was composed primarily of the nobility's relatives and, therefore, linked by common interests.
The succession to the throne was dynastic but in some case there was the possibility of election by the .
The judicial chancellery
In the government of the territory, the Judge was assisted by the Chancellery. The sovereign authority was in fact formalized with the drafting of official acts called paper, written by the statal chancellor, usually a bishop or at least a senior member of the clergy, assisted by other officials called .
Local administration
Curadorias
The territory of various kingdoms was divided into , administrative districts of varying sizes formed by urban and rural villages, dependent on a capital which housed the . These administrators, aided especially by (judges) and a council the , represented the judicial authority locally and tended to the public property of the Crown.
The appointed for each village was part of the a (the modern equivalent of a
mayor
In many countries, a mayor is the highest-ranking official in a municipal government such as that of a city or a town. Worldwide, there is a wide variance in local laws and customs regarding the powers and responsibilities of a mayor as well a ...
) with administrative and judicial powers, and direct responsibility for the successful actions of land management.
Law
Judicial army
The Sardinian ''judicial'' armies were composed of troops made up of soldiers and free citizens, subject to periodic rotation. In an emergency forced conscription was used. The
elite corps
In political and sociological theory, the elite (french: élite, from la, eligere, to select or to sort out) are a small group of powerful people who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a group. D ...
was made up of so-called , chosen riders who served under the command of the , the commander in charge of the security of the sovereign. The main armaments were the sword,
chain mail
Chain mail (properly called mail or maille but usually called chain mail or chainmail) is a type of armour consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. It was in common military use between the 3rd century BC and ...
, the shield, the helmet, and the , a weapon similar to the ancient , the Roman javelin.
The militias of the ground and the infantry () used a shorter version of this same weapon. Besides the use of spears and shields, another common weapon was the , a sword with a bone handle and curved blade, between 50 and 70 cm long which was still in use, in a more contained dimension, until the end of nineteenth century. In Sardinia a type of
longbow
A longbow (known as warbow in its time, in contrast to a hunting bow) is a type of tall bow that makes a fairly long draw possible. A longbow is not significantly recurved. Its limbs are relatively narrow and are circular or D-shaped in cross ...
was made, and over time the use of the
crossbow
A crossbow is a ranged weapon using an elastic launching device consisting of a bow-like assembly called a ''prod'', mounted horizontally on a main frame called a ''tiller'', which is hand-held in a similar fashion to the stock of a long fi ...
spread.
In case of conflict judges often used mercenary troops, such as the dreaded
Genoese crossbowmen
The Genoese crossbowmen ( it, Balestrieri genovesi) were a famous military corps of the Middle Ages, which acted both in defense of the Republic of Genoa and as a mercenary force for other Italian or European powers.
Armed with crossbows, they ...
.
Culture
Religion
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
spread throughout most of the island in the early centuries, excluding much of the
Barbagia
Barbagia (; sc, Barbàgia or ) is a geographical, cultural and natural region of inner Sardinia, contained for the most part in the province of Nuoro and Ogliastra and located alongside the Gennargentu massif.
The name comes from Cicero, wh ...
region. At the end of the sixth century
Pope Gregory I
Pope Gregory I ( la, Gregorius I; – 12 March 604), commonly known as Saint Gregory the Great, was the bishop of Rome from 3 September 590 to his death. He is known for instigating the first recorded large-scale mission from Rome, the Gregori ...
reached an agreement with
Hospito Hospito (''Hospiton'' in Latin, ''Ospitone'' in Sardinian) was a Sardinian chief of Barbagia (''dux Barbaricinorum'') who converted to Christianity in the late sixth century. Gregory the Great, in a letter dated to 594, commended Hospito for his C ...
, chief of the , that guaranteed the conversion of his people from
paganism
Paganism (from classical Latin ''pāgānus'' "rural", "rustic", later "civilian") is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christianity, early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions ot ...
to Christianity. Since Sardinia was in the political sphere of the Byzantine Empire, it developed an array of Greek and
Eastern Christianity
Eastern Christianity comprises Christian traditions and church families that originally developed during classical and late antiquity in Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Northeast Africa, the Fertile Crescent and ...
traits as a result of evangelisation by
Basilian monks
Basilian monks are Roman Catholic monks who follow the rule of Basil the Great, bishop of Caesarea (330–379). The term 'Basilian' is typically used only in the Catholic Church to distinguish Greek Catholic monks from other forms of monastic li ...
.
The Sardinian Church was an
autocephalous
Autocephaly (; from el, αὐτοκεφαλία, meaning "property of being self-headed") is the status of a hierarchical Christian church whose head bishop does not report to any higher-ranking bishop. The term is primarily used in Eastern O ...
institution for five centuries, independent from both the Byzantine and the
Roman Curia.
In the eleventh century, after the schism of 1054, the , according to
Pope Alexander II, began a policy for the development of
Western monasticism
Christian monasticism is the devotional practice of Christians who live Asceticism#Christianity, ascetic and typically cloistered lives that are dedicated to Christian worship. It began to develop early in the history of the Christian Church, m ...
on the island, with the aim of a wider dissemination of culture but also of new techniques for cultivating the land. The immigration of monastics to the island was fueled by donated funds, and local churches were built by the ''judicial'' aristocracy. However, there were still strong ties with the Eastern liturgy. In 1092 a
papal bull expressly abolished the autonomy and autocephaly of the Church of Sardinia, which was placed under the primacy of the
.
The_first_act_of_donation_was_made_in_1064_by_Barisone_I_of_Torres.html" ;"title="717, Pisan">708, Pisan); on 30–31 July 1716 [1717, Pisan and on 31 J ...
.
The first act of donation was made in 1064 by Barisone I of Torres">717, Pisan">708, Pisan); on 30–31 July 1716 [1717, Pisan and on 31 J ...