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The geometer moths are moths belonging to the
family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...
Geometridae of the insect
order Order, ORDER or Orders may refer to: * Categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood * Heterarchy, a system of organization wherein the elements have the potential to be ranked a number of d ...
Lepidoptera, the moths and butterflies. Their scientific name derives from the Ancient Greek ''geo'' γεω (derivative form of or "the earth"), and ''metron'' "measure" in reference to the way their larvae, or inchworms, appear to measure the earth as they move along in a looping fashion. A very large family, it has around 23,000 species of
moth Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, many of ...
s described, and over 1400 species from six subfamilies indigenous to North America alone. A well-known member is the peppered moth, ''Biston betularia'', which has been subject of numerous studies in
population genetics Population genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations, and is a part of evolutionary biology. Studies in this branch of biology examine such phenomena as adaptation, speciation, and pop ...
. Several other geometer moths are notorious
pests PESTS was an anonymous American activist group formed in 1986 to critique racism, tokenism, and exclusion in the art world. PESTS produced newsletters, posters, and other print material highlighting examples of discrimination in gallery represent ...
.


Adults

Many geometrids have slender abdomens and broad wings which are usually held flat with the hindwings visible. As such, they appear rather
butterfly Butterflies are insects in the macrolepidopteran clade Rhopalocera from the order Lepidoptera, which also includes moths. Adult butterflies have large, often brightly coloured wings, and conspicuous, fluttering flight. The group comprises ...
-like, but in most respects they are typical moths; the majority fly at night, they possess a
frenulum A frenulum (or frenum, plural: frenula or frena, from the Latin ''frēnulum'', "little bridle", the diminutive of ''frēnum'') is a small fold of tissue that secures the motion of a mobile organ in the body. In human anatomy Frenula on the ...
to link the wings, and the antennae of the males are often feathered. They tend to blend into the background, often with intricate, wavy patterns on their wings. In some species, females have reduced wings (e.g. winter moth and
fall cankerworm ''Alsophila pometaria'', the fall cankerworm, is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described in English by the KJV Bible oel 1:4 It is found in North America from Nova Scotia west to Alberta, south to Colorado and C ...
). Most are of moderate size, about in wingspan, but a range of sizes occur from , and a few (e.g., '' Dysphania'' species) reach an even larger size. They have distinctive paired tympanal organs at the base of the abdomen (lacking in flightless females). File:Selenia tetralunaria MHNT ventre.jpg, '' Selenia tetralunaria'' species from
Ennominae Ennominae is the largest subfamily of the geometer moth family (Geometridae) with some 9,700 described species in 1,100 genera. They are usually a fairly small moths, though some (such as the peppered moth) grow to be considerably large. This s ...
File:Unidentified Moth 0752.jpg, ''Scopula'' species File:Tetracis cachexiata 051712.jpg, ''Tetracis cachexiata'' in the US state of
Ohio Ohio () is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. Of the List of states and territories of the United States, fifty U.S. states, it is the List of U.S. states and territories by area, 34th-l ...


Caterpillars

The name "Geometridae" ultimately derives from Latin ' from Greek ("geometer", "earth-measurer"). This refers to the means of locomotion of the
larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. Th ...
e or caterpillars, which lack the full complement of prolegs seen in other caterpillars, with only two or three pairs at the posterior end instead of the usual five pairs. Equipped with appendages at both ends of the body, a caterpillar clasps with its front legs and draws up the hind end, then clasps with the hind end (prolegs) and reaches out for a new front attachment - creating the impression that it measures its journey. The caterpillars are accordingly called "loopers", "spanworms", or "inchworms" after their characteristic looping gait. The cabbage looper and
soybean looper ''Chrysodeixis includens'', the soybean looper, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is known as ''falso medidor'' in north-eastern Mexico. It is found from southern Quebec and southern Ontario through the eastern and southern part of the United ...
are not inchworms, but caterpillars of a different family. In many species of geometer moths, the inchworms are about long. They tend to be green, grey, or brownish and hide from predators by fading into the background or resembling twigs. Many inchworms, when disturbed, stand erect and motionless on their prolegs, increasing the resemblance. Some have humps or filaments, or cover themselves in plant material. They are
gregarious Sociality is the degree to which individuals in an animal population tend to associate in social groups (gregariousness) and form cooperative societies. Sociality is a survival response to evolutionary pressures. For example, when a mother w ...
and are generally smooth. Some eat lichen, flowers, or pollen, while some, such as the Hawaiian species of the genus '' Eupithecia'', are carnivorous. Certain destructive inchworms are called cankerworms. In 2019, the first geometrid caterpillar in Baltic amber was discovered by German scientists. Described under '' Eogeometer vadens'', it measured about , and was estimated to be 44 million years old, dating back to
Eocene The Eocene ( ) Epoch is a geological epoch that lasted from about 56 to 33.9 million years ago (mya). It is the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era. The name ''Eocene'' comes from the Ancient Greek (''ēṓs'', " ...
epoch. It was described as the earliest evidence for the subfamily of ''
Ennominae Ennominae is the largest subfamily of the geometer moth family (Geometridae) with some 9,700 described species in 1,100 genera. They are usually a fairly small moths, though some (such as the peppered moth) grow to be considerably large. This s ...
'', particularly the tribe of '' Boarmiini''. File:Geometridae-Dinakarr-10Jun11-DSC 0186.jpg, A geometrid caterpillar camouflaged as a broken twig File:Geometridae locomotion.jpg, Caterpillar locomotion File:Synchlora aerata caterpillar.jpg, ''
Synchlora aerata ''Synchlora aerata'', the wavy-lined emerald moth or camouflaged looper, is a species of moth of the family Geometridae. The species was described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1798. It is found in the United States and Canada. The wingspan is ...
'' caterpillar dressed with pieces of flowers as camouflage File:Fall Cankerworm Moth - Alsophila pometaria, Leesylvania State Park, Woodbridge, Virginia.jpg, ''
Alsophila pometaria ''Alsophila pometaria'', the fall cankerworm, is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described in English by the KJV Bible oel 1:4 It is found in North America from Nova Scotia west to Alberta, south to Colorado and Califo ...
'', wingless adult female


Systematics

The placement of the example species follows a 1990 systematic treatment; it may be outdated. Subfamilies are tentatively sorted in a
phylogenetic In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups o ...
sequence, from the most
basal Basal or basilar is a term meaning ''base'', ''bottom'', or ''minimum''. Science * Basal (anatomy), an anatomical term of location for features associated with the base of an organism or structure * Basal (medicine), a minimal level that is nec ...
to the most advanced. Traditionally, the Archiearinae were held to be the most ancient of the geometer moth lineages, as their caterpillars have well-developed prolegs. However, it now seems that the Larentiinae are actually older, as indicated by their numerous plesiomorphies and DNA sequence data. They are either an extremely
basal Basal or basilar is a term meaning ''base'', ''bottom'', or ''minimum''. Science * Basal (anatomy), an anatomical term of location for features associated with the base of an organism or structure * Basal (medicine), a minimal level that is nec ...
lineage of the Geometridae – together with the Sterrhinae –, or might even be considered a separate
family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...
of Geometroidea. As regards the Archiearinae, some species that were traditionally placed therein actually seem to belong to other subfamilies; altogether it seems that in a few cases, the prolegs which were originally lost in the ancestral geometer moths re- evolved as an atavism. Larentiinae – about 5,800 species, includes the pug moths, mostly temperate, might be a distinct family Sterrhinae – about 2,800 species, mostly tropical, might belong to same family as the Larentiinae * Birch mocha, ''Cyclophora albipunctata'' *
False mocha ''Cyclophora porata'', the false mocha, is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species can be found in southern Europe and England to Denmark, southern Sweden and the Caucasus. Description The wingspan is . The fore wings are reddish, warm oran ...
, ''Cyclophora porata'' * Maiden's blush, ''Cyclophora punctaria'' * Riband wave, ''Idaea aversata'' *
Small fan-footed wave The small fan-footed wave (''Idaea biselata'') is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Johann Siegfried Hufnagel in 1767. Distribution The species is widespread from the British Isles across western Europe and e ...
, ''Idaea biselata'' *
Single-dotted wave ''Idaea dimidiata'', the single-dotted wave, is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is a Holarctic species. Description The species has a wingspan of 13–18 mm. The ground colour of the wings is brownish yellow, brownish white to slight ...
, ''Idaea dimidiata'' *
Small scallop ''Idaea emarginata'', the small scallop, is a moth of the family Geometridae. It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' and it is found in Europe. The species has a wingspan of 22–25 mm. Th ...
, ''Idaea emarginata'' * ''
Idaea filicata ''Idaea filicata'' is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is found in Southern Europe and the Near East. The species has a wingspan The wingspan (or just span) of a bird or an airplane is the distance from one wingtip to the other wingtip. ...
'' *
Dwarf cream wave ''Idaea fuscovenosa'', the dwarf cream wave, is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is found in the Palearctic, Distribution The species is widespread in Central and southern Europe. In the North the range extends up to England and Ireland, Den ...
, ''Idaea fuscovenosa'' * Rusty wave, ''Idaea inquinata'' *
Purple-bordered gold ''Idaea muricata'', the purple-bordered gold, is a moth of the family Geometridae. It was first described by Johann Siegfried Hufnagel in 1767 and is found in the Palearctic. The species has a wingspan of 18–20 mm. The length of the for ...
, ''Idaea muricata'' *
Bright wave ''Idaea ochrata'', the bright wave, is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is found in Europe. The species has a wingspan of 21–24 mm. The adults fly at night from late June to early August in one generation . #''The flight season refe ...
, ''Idaea ochrata'' * Least carpet, ''Idaea rusticata'' * Small dusty wave, ''Idaea seriata'' *
Purple-barred yellow ''Lythria purpuraria'', the purple-barred yellow, is a species of moth of the family Geometridae. It is found from western Europe to Siberia, Russia, Ukraine, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan. ''L. purpuraria'' generally have two red-purple transver ...
, ''Lythria cruentaria'' (formerly in Larentiinae) * Vestal, ''Rhodometra sacraria'' * Common pink-barred, ''Rhodostrophia vibicaria'' *
Middle lace border ''Scopula decorata'', the middle lace border, is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is found throughout Europe. The wingspan is . The moth flies in two generations from the end of May to August. The larva feeds on thyme Thyme () is the her ...
, ''Scopula decorata'' *
Cream wave The cream wave (''Scopula floslactata'') is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Adrian Hardy Haworth in 1809. It is found in forest and woodland regions, feeding on grasses and small plants such as dandelion. D ...
, ''Scopula floslactata'' * Small blood-vein, ''Scopula imitaria'' *
Lewes wave ''Scopula immorata'', the Lewes wave, is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is found throughout Europe and the Near East. The wingspan is . The moth flies in two generations from the end of June to mid August in western Europe. The larva feeds ...
, ''Scopula immorata'' *
Lesser cream wave ''Scopula immutata'', the lesser cream wave, is a moth of the family Geometridae. It was described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae''. It is found throughout Europe. Distribution A typical temperate to boreal Palear ...
, ''Scopula immutata'' * Mullein wave, ''Scopula marginepunctata'' *
Zachera moth ''Chiasmia defixaria'' is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is found in Asia, including Japan, Korea and Taiwan. The wingspan The wingspan (or just span) of a bird or an airplane is the distance from one wingtip to the other wingtip. Fo ...
, ''Chiasmia defixaria'' * Blood-vein, ''Timandra comae'' *
Eastern blood-vein Eastern may refer to: Transportation *China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai * Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways * Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 1926 to 1991 *Eastern Air ...
, ''Timandra griseata'' Desmobathrinae – pantropical Geometrinae – emerald moths, about 2,300 named species, most tropical Archiearinae – 12 species; holarctic, southern Andes and Tasmania, though the latter some seem to belong to the Ennominae, larvae have all the prolegs except most are reduced. *
Infant An infant or baby is the very young offspring of human beings. ''Infant'' (from the Latin word ''infans'', meaning 'unable to speak' or 'speechless') is a formal or specialised synonym for the common term ''baby''. The terms may also be used t ...
, ''Archiearis infans'' (Möschler, 1862) *
Scarce infant ''Leucobrephos brephoides'', the scarce infant moth, is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Francis Walker in 1857. It is found in North America from Yukon to Labrador and south to New York and southern Alberta ...
, ''Leucobrephos brephoides'' (Walker, 1857) Oenochrominae – in some treatments used as a " wastebin taxon" for genera that are difficult to place in other groups Alsophilinae – a few genera, defoliators of trees, might belong in the Ennominae,
tribe The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide usage of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. This definition is contested, in part due to confl ...
Boarmiini * March moth, ''Alsophila aescularia'' *
Fall cankerworm ''Alsophila pometaria'', the fall cankerworm, is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described in English by the KJV Bible oel 1:4 It is found in North America from Nova Scotia west to Alberta, south to Colorado and C ...
, ''Alsophila pometaria''
Ennominae Ennominae is the largest subfamily of the geometer moth family (Geometridae) with some 9,700 described species in 1,100 genera. They are usually a fairly small moths, though some (such as the peppered moth) grow to be considerably large. This s ...
– about 9,700 species, including some defoliating pests, global distribution * †''Eogeometer vadens'' Geometridae genera ''
incertae sedis ' () or ''problematica'' is a term used for a taxonomic group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined. Alternatively, such groups are frequently referred to as "enigmatic taxa". In the system of open nomenclature, uncertain ...
'' include: * ''
Dichromodes ''Dichromodes'' is a genus of moth Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximat ...
'' * ''
Homoeoctenia ''Dalima'' is a genus of moths in the family Geometridae erected by Frederic Moore Frederic Moore FZS (13 May 1830 – 10 May 1907) was a British entomologist and illustrator. He produced six volumes of ''Lepidoptera Indica'' and a catalog ...
'' * '' Nearcha'' Fossil Geometridae taxa include: *
A dagger, obelisk, or obelus is a typographical mark that usually indicates a footnote if an asterisk has already been used. The symbol is also used to indicate death (of people) or extinction (of species). It is one of the modern descendan ...
'' Eogeometer'' Fischer, Michalski & Hausmann, 2019 * †'' Hydriomena? protrita'' Cockerell, 1922 ( Priabonian, Florissant Formation, Colorado) * †'' Geometridites'' Clark et al., 1971


References


Further reading

* * *


External links


"Family Geometridae"
at ''Insecta.pro''

on the
University of Florida The University of Florida (Florida or UF) is a public land-grant research university in Gainesville, Florida. It is a senior member of the State University System of Florida, traces its origins to 1853, and has operated continuously on its ...
/ Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences ''Featured Creatures'' website
Geometridae species in New Zealand

Geometridae species in Portugal
{{Authority control Taxa named by William Elford Leach Eocene insects Extant Eocene first appearances Priabonian first appearances