The geometer moths are moths belonging to the
family
Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
Geometridae of the insect
order
Order, ORDER or Orders may refer to:
* Categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood
* Heterarchy, a system of organization wherein the elements have the potential to be ranked a number of d ...
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...
, the moths and butterflies. Their scientific name derives from the Ancient Greek ''geo'' γεω (derivative form of or "the earth"), and ''metron'' "measure" in reference to the way their larvae, or inchworms, appear to measure the earth as they move along in a looping fashion.
A very large family, it has around 23,000 species of
moth
Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, many of w ...
s described,
and over 1400 species from six subfamilies indigenous to North America alone.
A well-known member is the
peppered moth
The peppered moth (''Biston betularia'') is a temperate species of night-flying moth. It is mostly found in the northern hemisphere in places like Asia, Europe and North America. Peppered moth evolution is an example of population genetics an ...
, ''Biston betularia'', which has been subject of numerous studies in
population genetics
Population genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations, and is a part of evolutionary biology. Studies in this branch of biology examine such phenomena as adaptation, speciation, and pop ...
. Several other geometer moths are notorious
pests
PESTS was an anonymous American activist group formed in 1986 to critique racism, tokenism, and exclusion in the art world. PESTS produced newsletters, posters, and other print material highlighting examples of discrimination in gallery represent ...
.
Adults
Many geometrids have slender
abdomens
The abdomen (colloquially called the belly, tummy, midriff, tucky or stomach) is the part of the body between the thorax (chest) and pelvis, in humans and in other vertebrates. The abdomen is the front part of the abdominal segment of the torso. ...
and broad wings which are usually held flat with the hindwings visible. As such, they appear rather
butterfly
Butterflies are insects in the macrolepidopteran clade Rhopalocera from the Order (biology), order Lepidoptera, which also includes moths. Adult butterflies have large, often brightly coloured wings, and conspicuous, fluttering flight. The ...
-like, but in most respects they are typical moths; the majority fly at night, they possess a
frenulum
A frenulum (or frenum, plural: frenula or frena, from the Latin ''frēnulum'', "little bridle", the diminutive of ''frēnum'') is a small fold of tissue that secures the motion of a mobile organ in the body.
In human anatomy
Frenula on the h ...
to link the wings, and the
antennae of the males are often feathered. They tend to blend into the background, often with intricate, wavy patterns on their wings. In some species, females have reduced wings (e.g.
winter moth
:''In North America, "winter moth" usually denotes the invasive species ''Operophtera brumata'', but may also mean refer to a native species, ''Erannis tiliaria'' (linden looper) or '' Operophtera bruceata'' (bruce spanworm).''
The winter moth (' ...
and
fall cankerworm
''Alsophila pometaria'', the fall cankerworm, is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described in English by the KJV Bible oel 1:4 It is found in North America from Nova Scotia west to Alberta, south to Colorado and Califor ...
).
Most are of moderate size, about in wingspan, but a range of sizes occur from , and a few (e.g., ''
Dysphania'' species) reach an even larger size. They have distinctive paired
tympanal organ
A tympanal organ (or tympanic organ) is a hearing organ in insects, consisting of a membrane ( tympanum) stretched across a frame backed by an air sac and associated sensory neurons. Sounds vibrate the membrane, and the vibrations are sensed by ...
s at the base of the abdomen (lacking in flightless females).
File:Selenia tetralunaria MHNT ventre.jpg, ''Selenia tetralunaria
The purple thorn (''Selenia tetralunaria'') is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Johann Siegfried Hufnagel in 1767. It is a species of northern and central Europe. It has a scattered distribution in Britain b ...
'' species from Ennominae
Ennominae is the largest subfamily of the geometer moth family (Geometridae) with some 9,700 described species in 1,100 genera. They are usually a fairly small moths, though some (such as the peppered moth) grow to be considerably large. This sub ...
File:Unidentified Moth 0752.jpg, ''Scopula'' species
File:Tetracis cachexiata 051712.jpg, ''Tetracis cachexiata'' in the US state
In the United States, a state is a constituent political entity, of which there are 50. Bound together in a political union, each state holds governmental jurisdiction over a separate and defined geographic territory where it shares its sover ...
of Ohio
Ohio () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States. Of the fifty U.S. states, it is the 34th-largest by area, and with a population of nearly 11.8 million, is the seventh-most populous and tenth-most densely populated. The sta ...
Caterpillars
The name "Geometridae" ultimately derives from Latin ' from Greek ("geometer", "earth-measurer"). This refers to the means of locomotion of the
larva
A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle.
The ...
e or
caterpillar
Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths).
As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Sym ...
s, which lack the full complement of
proleg
A proleg is a small, fleshy, stub structure found on the ventral surface of the abdomen of most larval forms of insects of the order Lepidoptera, though they can also be found on other larval insects such as sawflies and a few other types of in ...
s seen in other caterpillars, with only two or three pairs at the posterior end instead of the usual five pairs. Equipped with appendages at both ends of the body, a caterpillar clasps with its front legs and draws up the hind end, then clasps with the hind end (prolegs) and reaches out for a new front attachment - creating the impression that it measures its journey. The caterpillars are accordingly called "loopers", "spanworms", or "inchworms" after their characteristic looping gait. The
cabbage looper
The cabbage looper (''Trichoplusia ni'') is a medium-sized moth in the family Noctuidae, a family commonly referred to as owlet moths. Its common name comes from its preferred host plants and distinctive crawling behavior. Cruciferous vegetable ...
and
soybean looper are not inchworms, but caterpillars of a different family. In many species of geometer moths, the inchworms are about long. They tend to be green, grey, or brownish and hide from predators by fading into the background or resembling twigs. Many inchworms, when disturbed, stand erect and motionless on their prolegs, increasing the resemblance. Some have humps or filaments, or cover themselves in plant material. They are
gregarious
Sociality is the degree to which individuals in an animal population tend to associate in social groups (gregariousness) and form cooperative societies.
Sociality is a survival response to evolutionary pressures. For example, when a mother wasp ...
and are generally smooth. Some eat lichen, flowers, or pollen, while some, such as the Hawaiian species of the genus ''
Eupithecia
''Eupithecia'' is a large genus of moths of the family Geometridae. There are hundreds of described species, found in all parts of the world (with 45 in the British Isles alone), and new species are discovered on a regular basis.
''Eupithecia'' ...
'', are carnivorous. Certain destructive inchworms are called cankerworms.
In 2019, the first geometrid caterpillar in
Baltic amber
The Baltic region is home to the largest known deposit of amber, called Baltic amber or succinite. It was produced sometime during the Eocene epoch, but exactly when is controversial. It has been estimated that these forests created more than 1 ...
was discovered by German scientists. Described under ''
Eogeometer vadens
''Eogeometer'' is a prehistoric genus of Ennomine geometer moths in the tribe Boarmiini. The type and only species is ''Eogeometer vadens'', the specimen of which measured about , and was estimated to be 44 million years old, dating back to Eoce ...
'', it measured about , and was estimated to be 44 million years old, dating back to
Eocene
The Eocene ( ) Epoch is a geological epoch (geology), epoch that lasted from about 56 to 33.9 million years ago (mya). It is the second epoch of the Paleogene Period (geology), Period in the modern Cenozoic Era (geology), Era. The name ''Eocene' ...
epoch
In chronology and periodization, an epoch or reference epoch is an instant in time chosen as the origin of a particular calendar era. The "epoch" serves as a reference point from which time is measured.
The moment of epoch is usually decided by ...
. It was described as the earliest evidence for the subfamily of ''
Ennominae
Ennominae is the largest subfamily of the geometer moth family (Geometridae) with some 9,700 described species in 1,100 genera. They are usually a fairly small moths, though some (such as the peppered moth) grow to be considerably large. This sub ...
'', particularly the tribe of ''
Boarmiini
The Boarmiini (also often called ''Cleorini'') are a large tribe of geometer moths in the Ennominae subfamily.
Description and systematics
This family is sometimes massively expanded, with the closely related Bistonini, Bupalini, Erannini, Gno ...
''.
File:Geometridae-Dinakarr-10Jun11-DSC 0186.jpg, A geometrid caterpillar camouflaged
Camouflage is the use of any combination of materials, coloration, or illumination for concealment, either by making animals or objects hard to see, or by disguising them as something else. Examples include the leopard's spotted coat, the b ...
as a broken twig
File:Geometridae locomotion.jpg, Caterpillar locomotion
File:Synchlora aerata caterpillar.jpg, '' Synchlora aerata'' caterpillar dressed with pieces of flowers as camouflage
File:Fall Cankerworm Moth - Alsophila pometaria, Leesylvania State Park, Woodbridge, Virginia.jpg, ''Alsophila pometaria
''Alsophila pometaria'', the fall cankerworm, is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described in English by the KJV Bible oel 1:4 It is found in North America from Nova Scotia west to Alberta, south to Colorado and Califor ...
'', wingless adult female
Systematics
The placement of the example species follows a 1990 systematic treatment; it may be outdated. Subfamilies are tentatively sorted in a
phylogenetic
In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups o ...
sequence, from the most
basal to the most advanced. Traditionally, the
Archiearinae
Archiearinae is a subfamily of the geometer moth family (Geometridae). It was described by David Stephen Fletcher in 1953.
Genera
The subfamily contains the following genera:
*'' Acalyphes'' Turner, 1926
*'' Archiearides'' D. S. Fletcher, 1953 ...
were held to be the most ancient of the geometer moth lineages, as their
caterpillar
Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths).
As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Sym ...
s have well-developed
proleg
A proleg is a small, fleshy, stub structure found on the ventral surface of the abdomen of most larval forms of insects of the order Lepidoptera, though they can also be found on other larval insects such as sawflies and a few other types of in ...
s. However, it now seems that the
Larentiinae
Larentiinae is a subfamily of moths containing roughly 5,800 species that occur mostly in the temperate regions of the world. They are generally considered a subfamily of the geometer moth family (Geometridae) and are divided into a few large or ...
are actually older, as indicated by their numerous
plesiomorph
In phylogenetics, a plesiomorphy ("near form") and symplesiomorphy are synonyms for an ancestral character shared by all members of a clade, which does not distinguish the clade from other clades.
Plesiomorphy, symplesiomorphy, apomorphy, and ...
ies and
DNA sequence
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Th ...
data. They are either an extremely
basal lineage of the Geometridae – together with the
Sterrhinae
Sterrhinae is a large subfamily of geometer moths (family Geometridae) with some 3,000 described species, with more than half belonging to the taxonomically difficult, very diverse genera, ''Idaea'' and ''Scopula'' (Hausmann, 2004; Sihvonen, 2005 ...
–, or might even be considered a separate
family
Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
of
Geometroidea
The Geometroidea are the superfamily of geometrid moths in the order Lepidoptera. It includes the families Geometridae, Uraniidae, Epicopeiidae, Sematuridae, and the recently established family Pseudobistonidae.
The monotypic genus ''Apoprogones
...
. As regards the Archiearinae, some species that were traditionally placed therein actually seem to belong to other subfamilies; altogether it seems that in a few cases, the prolegs which were originally lost in the ancestral geometer moths re-
evolved
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes, which are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Variation t ...
as an
atavism
In biology, an atavism is a modification of a biological structure whereby an ancestral genetic trait reappears after having been lost through evolutionary change in previous generations. Atavisms can occur in several ways; one of which is when ...
.
Larentiinae
Larentiinae is a subfamily of moths containing roughly 5,800 species that occur mostly in the temperate regions of the world. They are generally considered a subfamily of the geometer moth family (Geometridae) and are divided into a few large or ...
– about 5,800 species, includes the pug moths, mostly temperate, might be a distinct family
Sterrhinae
Sterrhinae is a large subfamily of geometer moths (family Geometridae) with some 3,000 described species, with more than half belonging to the taxonomically difficult, very diverse genera, ''Idaea'' and ''Scopula'' (Hausmann, 2004; Sihvonen, 2005 ...
– about 2,800 species, mostly tropical, might belong to same family as the Larentiinae
*
Birch mocha
''Cyclophora albipunctata'', the birch mocha, is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Johann Siegfried Hufnagel in 1767. It is found in the Palearctic. The southern boundary runs westward along the French Atlanti ...
, ''Cyclophora albipunctata''
*
False mocha, ''Cyclophora porata''
*
Maiden's blush, ''Cyclophora punctaria''
*
Riband wave, ''Idaea aversata''
*
Small fan-footed wave, ''Idaea biselata''
*
Single-dotted wave, ''Idaea dimidiata''
*
Small scallop, ''Idaea emarginata''
* ''
Idaea filicata''
*
Dwarf cream wave, ''Idaea fuscovenosa''
*
Rusty wave
''Idaea inquinata'', the rusty wave, is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is found in Europe.
The species has a wingspan of 16–19 mm. The length of the forewings is 8–10 mm. The adults fly at night from June to July in Britain. ...
, ''Idaea inquinata''
*
Purple-bordered gold, ''Idaea muricata''
*
Bright wave
''Idaea ochrata'', the bright wave, is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is found in Europe.
The species has a wingspan of 21–24 mm. The adults fly at night from late June to early August in one generation .
#''The flight season refe ...
, ''Idaea ochrata''
*
Least carpet
''Idaea rusticata'', the least carpet, is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Michael Denis and Ignaz Schiffermüller in 1775.
Distribution
This species can be found in most of Europe, in the Near East and in ...
, ''Idaea rusticata''
*
Small dusty wave
The small dusty wave (''Idaea seriata'') is a moth of the family Geometridae first described by Franz von Paula Schrank in 1802. It is found throughout Western, Central and Northern Europe. In the north, its range extends as far as Denmark and so ...
, ''Idaea seriata''
*
Purple-barred yellow, ''Lythria cruentaria'' (formerly in Larentiinae)
*
Vestal, ''Rhodometra sacraria''
*
Common pink-barred
''Rhodostrophia vibicaria'', the common pink-barred, is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species can be found in the Palearctic realm.
The length of the forewings is 14–16 mm. The moths fly in one or two generations from the end of Ma ...
, ''Rhodostrophia vibicaria''
*
Middle lace border, ''Scopula decorata''
*
Cream wave, ''Scopula floslactata''
*
Small blood-vein
''Scopula imitaria'', the small blood-vein, is a moth of the family Geometridae. It was Species description, first described by Jacob Hübner in 1799 and it is found throughout Europe and in North Africa.
Description
The wingspan is 12–26 ...
, ''Scopula imitaria''
*
Lewes wave, ''Scopula immorata''
*
Lesser cream wave, ''Scopula immutata''
*
Mullein wave
''Scopula marginepunctata'', the mullein wave, is a moth of the family Geometridae. It was described by Johann August Ephraim Goeze in 1781. It is found throughout Europe.
Distribution
''Scopula marginepunctata'' occurs in Europe from the Iberian ...
, ''Scopula marginepunctata''
*
Zachera moth
''Chiasmia defixaria'' is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is found in Asia, including Japan, Korea and Taiwan.
The wingspan
The wingspan (or just span) of a bird or an airplane is the distance from one wingtip to the other wingtip. Fo ...
, ''Chiasmia defixaria''
*
Blood-vein
The blood-vein (''Timandra comae'') is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Anton Schmidt in 1931.
Distribution
It has a scattered distribution in western and central Europe north of the Alps. In the British Isle ...
, ''Timandra comae''
*
Eastern blood-vein, ''Timandra griseata''
Desmobathrinae
Desmobathrinae is a subfamily of the moth family Geometridae described by Edward Meyrick in 1886.
Recognized genera
;Tribe Desmobathrini:
* '' Alex'' Walker, 1863
* '' Antozola'' Herbulot, 1992
* '' Apatadelpha'' Prout, 1910
* '' Brachytrita'' Sw ...
– pantropical
Geometrinae
Geometrinae is the nominate subfamily of the geometer moth family (Geometridae). It is strongly split, containing a considerable number of tribes of which most are presently very small or monotypic. These small moths are often a light bluish gree ...
– emerald moths, about 2,300 named species, most tropical
Archiearinae
Archiearinae is a subfamily of the geometer moth family (Geometridae). It was described by David Stephen Fletcher in 1953.
Genera
The subfamily contains the following genera:
*'' Acalyphes'' Turner, 1926
*'' Archiearides'' D. S. Fletcher, 1953 ...
– 12 species; holarctic, southern Andes and Tasmania, though the latter some seem to belong to the Ennominae,
larvae have all the prolegs except most are reduced.
*
Infant
An infant or baby is the very young offspring of human beings. ''Infant'' (from the Latin word ''infans'', meaning 'unable to speak' or 'speechless') is a formal or specialised synonym for the common term ''baby''. The terms may also be used to ...
, ''Archiearis infans''
(Möschler, 1862)
*
Scarce infant, ''Leucobrephos brephoides''
(Walker, 1857)
Oenochrominae
Oenochrominae is a subfamily of the moth family Geometridae
The geometer moths are moths belonging to the family Geometridae of the insect order Lepidoptera, the moths and butterflies. Their scientific name derives from the Ancient Greek ' ...
– in some treatments used as a "
wastebin taxon
Wastebasket taxon (also called a wastebin taxon, dustbin taxon or catch-all taxon) is a term used by some taxonomists to refer to a taxon that has the sole purpose of classifying organisms that do not fit anywhere else. They are typically defined ...
" for genera that are difficult to place in other groups
Alsophilinae
Alsophilinae is a subfamily of the moth family Geometridae
The geometer moths are moths belonging to the family Geometridae of the insect order Lepidoptera, the moths and butterflies. Their scientific name derives from the Ancient Greek ''g ...
– a few genera, defoliators of trees, might belong in the Ennominae,
tribe
The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide usage of the term in English language, English is in the discipline of anthropology. This definition is contested, in p ...
Boarmiini
The Boarmiini (also often called ''Cleorini'') are a large tribe of geometer moths in the Ennominae subfamily.
Description and systematics
This family is sometimes massively expanded, with the closely related Bistonini, Bupalini, Erannini, Gno ...
*
March moth
''Alsophila aescularia'', the March moth, is a species of moth of the family Geometridae. It is found throughout Europe and can be a pest of fruit trees.
Distribution
It is a well-known species distributed throughout the western Palearctic r ...
, ''Alsophila aescularia''
*
Fall cankerworm
''Alsophila pometaria'', the fall cankerworm, is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described in English by the KJV Bible oel 1:4 It is found in North America from Nova Scotia west to Alberta, south to Colorado and Califor ...
, ''Alsophila pometaria''
Ennominae
Ennominae is the largest subfamily of the geometer moth family (Geometridae) with some 9,700 described species in 1,100 genera. They are usually a fairly small moths, though some (such as the peppered moth) grow to be considerably large. This sub ...
– about 9,700 species, including some defoliating pests, global distribution
* †''Eogeometer vadens''
Geometridae genera ''
incertae sedis
' () or ''problematica'' is a term used for a taxonomic group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined. Alternatively, such groups are frequently referred to as "enigmatic taxa". In the system of open nomenclature, uncertainty ...
'' include:
* ''
Dichromodes''
* ''
Homoeoctenia''
* ''
Nearcha
''Nearcha'' is a genus of moths in the family Geometridae described by Edward Guest in 1887. All species in the genus are known from Australia.
Species
*'' Nearcha ursaria'' (Guenée, 1857)
*'' Nearcha benecristata'' Warren, 1895
*'' Nearcha da ...
''
Fossil Geometridae taxa include:
*
†''
Eogeometer
''Eogeometer'' is a prehistory, prehistoric genus of Ennominae, Ennomine geometer moths in the Tribe (biology), tribe Boarmiini. The type and only species is ''Eogeometer vadens'', the Zoological specimen, specimen of which measured about , and w ...
''
Fischer, Michalski & Hausmann, 2019
* †''
Hydriomena? protrita
''Hydriomena''? ''protrita'' is an extinct species of moth in the family Geometridae, and possibly in the modern genus '' Hydriomena''. The species is known from late Eocene, Priabonian stage, lake deposits of the Florissant Formation in Teller ...
''
Cockerell, 1922 (
Priabonian
The Priabonian is, in the ICS's geologic timescale, the latest age or the upper stage of the Eocene Epoch or Series. It spans the time between . The Priabonian is preceded by the Bartonian and is followed by the Rupelian, the lowest stage of t ...
,
Florissant Formation
The Florissant Formation is a sedimentary geologic formation outcropping around Florissant, Teller County, Colorado. The formation is noted for the abundant and exceptionally preserved insect and plant fossils that are found in the mudstones and ...
, Colorado)
* †''
Geometridites
''Geometridites'' is an extinct genus of moths in the family Geometridae
The geometer moths are moths belonging to the family Geometridae of the insect order Lepidoptera, the moths and butterflies. Their scientific name derives from the An ...
''
Clark et al., 1971
References
Further reading
*
*
*
External links
"Family Geometridae"at ''Insecta.pro''
on the
University of Florida
The University of Florida (Florida or UF) is a public land-grant research university in Gainesville, Florida. It is a senior member of the State University System of Florida, traces its origins to 1853, and has operated continuously on its ...
/
Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences
The University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) is a teaching, research and Extension scientific organization focused on agriculture and natural resources. It is a partnership of federal, state, and county governmen ...
''Featured Creatures'' website
Geometridae species in New Zealand
Geometridae species in Portugal
{{Authority control
Taxa named by William Elford Leach
Eocene insects
Extant Eocene first appearances
Priabonian first appearances