Gb (digraph)

This is a list of digraphs used in various Latin alphabets. Capitalisation involves only the first letter (''ch'' becomes ''Ch'') unless otherwise stated (''ij'' becomes ''IJ'').

Letters with diacritics are arranged in alphabetic order according to their base: is alphabetised with , not at the end of the alphabet, as it would be in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish. Substantially-modified letters, such as (a variant of ) and (based on ), are placed at the end.

Apostrophe

(capital ) is used in Bari for .

(capital ) is used in Bari for .

is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for when it appears in a dark or ''yin'' tone. It is also often written as .

is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark

is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark

is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark

(capital ) is used in Bari and Hausa (in Nigeria) for , but in Niger, Hausa is replaced with .

A

is used in Taa, where it represents the glottalized or creaky-voiced vowel .

is used in Dutch, Finnish and other languages with phonemic long vowels for . It is also used in some English and Scots dialects, such as Northumbrian and Shetlandic, to represent . It was formerly used in Danish and Norwegian (and still is in some proper names) to represent a single vowel, which in Danish is often or , until it was replaced with the letter . There is a ligature . In Cantonese Romanisations such as Jyutping or Yale, this is used to represent , which contrasts with .

is used in Irish, where it represents between two "broad" (velarized) consonants, e.g. ''Gael'' ('a Gael').
: In Latin, originally represented the diphthong , before it was monophthongized in the Vulgar Latin period to ; in medieval manuscripts, the digraph was frequently replaced by the ligature .
: In Modern English, Latin loanwords with are generally pronounced with (e.g. ''Caesar''), prompting Noah Webster to shorten this to in his 1806 spelling reform for American English.
: In German, is a variant of found in some proper names or in contexts where is unavailable.
: In Dutch, is an old spelling variant of the digraph but now only occurs in names of people or (less often) places and in a few loanwords from Greek and Latin.
: In Zhuang, is used for ( is used for ).
: In Revised Romanization of Korean, is used for /ɛ/.

is used in Portuguese for .

is used in Taa, where it represents the breathy or murmured . In German and English it typically represents a long vowel .

is used in many languages, typically representing the diphthong . In English, as a result of the Great Vowel Shift, the vowel of has shifted from this value to as in ''pain'' and ''rain'', while it may have a sound of in unstressed syllables like ''bargain'' and ''certain(ly)'', or in the stressed syllable of ''again(st)'' (AmE), depending on the word; while in French, a different change, ''monophthongization'', has occurred, resulting in the digraph representing . A similar change has also occurred during the development of Greek, resulting in and the both having the same sound; originally , later . In German, it represents as in ''Kaiser'' (which derived from Latin ''caesar''). However, most German words use for . In the Kernowek Standard orthography of Cornish, it represents , mostly in loanwords from English such as ''paint''.

is used in Irish for between a broad and a slender consonant.

is used in French for , as in ''aînesse'' or ''maître'' .

is used in Irish for between a broad and a slender consonant.

is used in Portuguese for . It has, thus, the same value as , but the latter is much more common.

is used in Portuguese for at the end of a word, before a consonant, and before a vowel; and in French for ( before a vowel).

is used in Portuguese for a stressed before a consonant.

is used in many languages to write a nasal vowel. In Portuguese it is used for before a consonant, in French it represents , and in many West African languages it represents . In Breton this digraph represents .

is used in Portuguese for a stressed before a consonant.

is used in Tibetan Pinyin for . It is alternately written .

is used in Walloon, for the nasal vowel .

is used in Lakhota for the nasal vowel

is used in the Irish for or , depending on dialect, between broad consonants. In French, it is found in a few words such as ''paonne'' representing . In Malagasy, it represents , and in Piedmontese, . In Wymysorys, it represents (also spelt ). In Mandarin Pinyin, this is used to represent .

is used in Portuguese for .

is used in Taa, for the pharyngealized vowel .

in English is a result of various linguistic changes from Middle English, having shifted from to . In a number of dialects, this has merged with . It occasionally represents the diphthong , as in ''flautist''. Other pronunciations are in North American English ''aunt'' and ''laugh'', in ''gauge'', as in ''gauche'' and ''chauffeur'', and as in ''meerschaum'' and ''restaurant''. Due to historical reasons, this is used to transcribe in several Romanizations of Wu Chinese.

In German and Dutch, it is used for the diphthongs and respectively ( in some northern and in some southern Dutch and some Flemish dialects).

In French, represents or sometimes . It most frequently appears in the inflectional ending marking plurals of certain kinds of words like ''cheval'' ('horse') or ''canal'' ('channel'), respectively having a plural in ''chevaux'' and ''canaux''.

In Icelandic, it represents .

In the Kernowek Standard orthography of Cornish, stands for long or short , as in ''caul'' ('cabbage') or ''dauncya'' ('to dance').

is used in German for the diphthong in declension of native words with ''au''; elsewhere, is written as . In words where ä, u is separated in two syllables, mostly of Latin origin, is pronounced as , as in '' Matthäus'' (one German form for ''Matthew'').

was used in French but has been replaced by the trigraph eau.

is used in English in ways that parallel English , though it appears more often at the end of a word.
In Cornish, represents the diphthong or . In Welsh, represents the diphthong .

is used in English in ways that parallel English , though it appears more often at the end of a word. Unlike , functions almost the same as (the sound in ''key'') at the end of variant spellings of names like ''Lindsay'' and ''Ramsay''.

In French, it is usually used to represent /ɛj/ before a vowel (as in ''ayant'') and /ɛ.i/ before a consonant (as in ''pays'').

In Cornish, represents the sounds , , , or .

(a split digraph) indicates an English 'long a', historically but now most commonly realised as .

is used to notate in Hokkien Pe̍h-ōe-jī.

B

is used in Pinyin for in languages such as Yi, where ''b'' stands for . In Hungarian, it represents geminated . In English, doubling a letter indicates that the previous vowel is short (so ''bb'' represents ). In ISO romanized Korean, it is used for the fortis sound , otherwise spelled ; an example is hobbang. In Hadza it is the rare ejective . In several African languages it is implosive . In Cypriot Arabic it is .

is used in English for in a few words of Greek origin, such as ''bdellatomy.'' When not initial, it represents , as in ''abdicate.''

is used in Bavarian and several African languages for the .

is used in transcriptions of Indo-Aryan languages for a murmured voiced bilabial plosive (), and for equivalent sounds in other languages. In Juǀʼhoan, it's used for the similar prevoiced aspirated plosive . In Irish, it stands for the phonemes and , word-initially as the lenition of for example ('my boat'), ('would be'). In the orthography used in Guinea before 1985, was used in Pular (a Fula language) for the voiced bilabial implosive , whereas in Xhosa, Zulu, and Shona, represents the implosive and represents the plosive . In some orthographies of Dan, is and is .

is used in Cornish for an optionally pre-occluded ; that is, it is pronounced either or (in any position); (before a consonant or finally); or (before a vowel); examples are ''mabm'' ('mother') or ''hebma'' ('this').

is used in Sandawe and romanized Thai for , and in Irish it represents as the eclipsis of .

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the voiced labiodental affricate .

is used in Shona for a whistled sibilant cluster .

C

is used in Andean Spanish for loanwords from Quechua or Aymara with , as in ''Ccozcco'' (modern ''Qusqu)'' ('Cuzco'). In many European languages, before front vowels represents a sequence such as , e.g. English ''success'', French ''occire'', Spanish ''accidente'' (dialectally or ); this is not the case of Italian, where a before a front vowel represents a geminated , as in ''lacci'' . In Piedmontese and Lombard, represents the sound at the end of a word. In Hadza it is the glottalized click . In English internet slang, can sometimes replace the letters or at the ends of words, such as with ''thicc'', ''protecc'', ''succ'' and ''phucc''.

was used for or in Old English (''ecg'' in Old E and nglish sounded like 'edge' in Modern English, while ''frocga'' sounded like 'froga'), where both are long consonants. It is used for the click in Naro, and in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless dental click .

is used in several languages. In English, it can represent , , , or . See article.

is used in Manx for , as a distinction from which is used for .

is used in Romani and the Chechen Latin alphabet for . In the Ossete Latin alphabet, it was used for .

is used in the Italian for before the non-front vowel letters . In English, it usually represents whenever it precedes any vowel other than . In Polish, it represents whenever it precedes a vowel, and whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of ć appearing in other situations. In Romanian, it represents . The digraph is found at the end of a word (deci, atunci, copaci) or before the letters a, o, or u (ciorba, ciuleandra); the sound made by the letter c in front of the letters e or i becomes in front of the three aforementioned vowels, making the addition of the letter i necessary.

is used in Friulian for such as in words ''cjocolate'' . It's also used in local orthographies of Lombard to represent derived from Latin ⟨cl⟩.

is used in many Germanic languages in lieu of or to indicate either a geminated , or a with a preceding (historically) short vowel. The latter is the case with English ''tack'', ''deck'', ''pick'', ''lock'', and ''buck'' (compare ''backer'' with ''baker''). In German, indicates that the preceding vowel is short. Prior to the German spelling reform of 1996, it was replaced by for syllabification. The new spelling rules allow only syllabification of the as a whole:
:*Old spelling: ''Säcke'': ''Säk-ke'' ('sacks')
:*New spelling: ''Säcke'': ''Sä-cke''
:Among the modern Germanic languages, is used mainly in Alsatian, English, German, Luxembourgish, Scots, Swedish, and other West Germanic languages in Austria, Germany and Switzerland. Similarly, is used for the same purpose in Afrikaans, Danish, Dutch, Icelandic, Norwegian, and other West Germanic languages in the Netherlands and Belgium. Compare the word ''nickel'', which is the same in many of these languages except for the customary or spelling. The word is ''nickel'' in English and Swedish, ''Nickel'' in German, and ''nikkel'' in Afrikaans, Danish, Dutch, Icelandic and Norwegian.
:It was also used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless dental click (equivalent to ).
:It is also used in Cornish for at the end of a syllable after a short vowel; only in loanwords (mostly from English) in the Standard Written Form (SWF), more widely in Kernowek Standard.

is used in English for in a few words of Greek origin, such as ''cnidarian.'' When not initial, it represents , as in ''acne.''

is used in Seri for a labialized velar plosive, . It is placed between and in alphabetical order.

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for .

is used in the Hungarian for a voiceless postalveolar affricate, . It is considered a distinct letter, named ''csé'', and is placed between and in alphabetical order. Examples of words with cs include ''csak'' ('only'), ''csésze'' ('cup'), ''cső'' ('pipe'), ''csípős'' ('peppery').

is used in English for in a few words of Greek origin, such as ''ctenoid.'' When not initial, it represents , as in ''act''.

is used in languages such as Nahuatl (that is, based on Spanish orthography, Spanish or Portuguese orthography) for . In Nahuatl, is used before a vowel, whereas is used after a vowel.

is used in modern scholarly editions of Old English for the sound , which was spelled , or in manuscripts. In Middle English these were all replaced by Latin .

is used in Esperanto orthography, Esperanto as an unofficial surrogate of , which represents .

is used in Polish for as in ('hello'). In Kashubian language, Kashubian, represents . In French and Catalan language, Catalan, historical contracted to the Typographic ligature, ligature , and represents the sound . In Hungarian, it was formerly used for the sound , which is now written .

D

is used in Naro for the click , and in Juǀʼhoan for the prevoiced ejective .

is used in English to indicate a with a preceding (historically) short vowel (e.g. ''jaded'' has a "long a" while ''ladder'' has a "short a"). In Welsh, represents a voiced dental fricative . It is treated as a distinct letter, named ''èdd'', and placed between and in alphabetical order. In the ISO romanization of Korean, it is used for the fortis sound , otherwise spelled ; examples are ''ddeokbokki'' and ''bindaeddeok''. In Basque alphabet, Basque, it represents a voiced palatal plosive , as in ''onddo'', ('mushroom'). In several African languages it is implosive . Latin delta (ẟ, lowercase only) is represented by "dd" in Modern Welsh.

is used in English for in certain contexts, such as with ''judgement'' and ''hedge''

is used in the Albanian alphabet, Albanian, Swahili alphabet, Swahili, and revived Cornish for the voiced dental fricative . The first examples of this digraph are from the Oaths of Strasbourg, the earliest French text, where it denotes the same sound developed mainly from intervocalic Latin -''t''-.
In early traditional Cornish (yogh), and later , were used for this purpose. Edward Lhuyd is credited for introducing the grapheme to Cornish orthography in 1707 in his ''Archaeologia Britannica''. In Irish it represents the voiced velar fricative or the voiced palatal approximant ; at the beginning of a word it shows the Irish initial mutations, lenition of , for example ''mo dhoras'' ('my door' cf. ''doras'' 'door').
:In the Orthography for languages of Guinea (pre-1985), pre-1985 orthography of Guinea, was used for the voiced alveolar implosive in Pular. It is currently written . In the orthography of Shona it is the opposite: represents , and . In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages, represents a dental stop, .
:In addition, is used in various romanization systems. In transcriptions of Indo-Aryan languages, for example, it represents the murmured voiced dental plosive , and for equivalent sounds in other languages. In Juǀʼhoan, it's used for the similar prevoiced aspirated plosive . In the romanization of Arabic, it denotes , which represents in Modern Standard Arabic.

is used in Faroese alphabet, Faroese, French and many French-based orthographies for . In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri language, Warlpiri, Arrernte language, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara language, Pitjantjatjara, it represents a postalveolar stop such as or ; this sound is also written , , , or . It is also formerly used in Indonesian as .

is used in Hmong language, Hmong’s Romanized Popular Alphabet for . In Navajo language, Navajo, it represents , and in Xhosa it represents . In Hadza it is ejective .

is used in Tlingit alphabet, Tlingit for (in Alaska, is used instead).

is used in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye for double articulation, doubly articulated and nasal release, nasally released .

is used in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye for nasal release, nasally released . In Cornish, it is used for an optionally pre-occluded ; that is, it is pronounced either or (in any position); (before a consonant or finally); or (before a vowel); examples are ''pedn'' ('head') or ''pednow'' ('heads').

is used in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye for double articulation, doubly articulated .

is used for the click in Naro.

is used in Malagasy for . See . It is used in Fijian language, Fijian for 'ndr' nasalized ().

is used in Juǀʼhoan for the prevoiced ejective .

is used in German, Swedish, and Sandawe orthography as well as the romanization of Thai for . In Irish it represents as the eclipsis of .

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the voiced dental affricate .

is used in some Zapotecan languages for a voiced postalveolar fricative . (It is placed between and in alphabetical order.) In Juǀʼhoan it is used for the prevoiced uvularized plosive .

is used in Xhosa for . In Shona, it represents . In Tagalog language, Tagalog it is used for . In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri language, Warlpiri, Arrernte language, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara language, Pitjantjatjara, it represents a postalveolar stop such as or . This sound is also written , , , , or .

is used in several languages, often to represent . See article.

is used in the Polish alphabet, Polish and Sorbian alphabet, Sorbian alphabets for , the voiced alveolo-palatal affricate, as in ''dźwięk'' . is never written before a vowel ( is used instead, as in ''dziecko'' 'child').

is used in the Polish alphabet, Polish for a voiced retroflex affricate (e.g. 'jam').

is used in Serbo-Croatian, Slovak language, Slovak, Lithuanian language, Lithuanian, and Latvian language, Latvian to represent . See article.

E

is used in Taa, where it represents the glottalization, glottalised or creaky voice, creaky vowel .

is used in many languages. In English, usually represents the monophthong as in ''meat''; due to a Phonological history of English high front vowels#Bred–bread merger, sound change that happened in Middle English, it also often represents the vowel as in ''sweat''. Rare pronunciations occur, like in ''break'', ''great'', ''steak'', and ''yea'', and in the archaic ''ealdorman''. When followed by r, it can represent the standard outcomes of the previously mentioned three vowels in this environment: as in ''beard'', as in ''heard'', and as in ''bear'', respectively; as another exception, occurs in the words ''hearken'', ''heart'' and ''hearth''. It often represents two independent vowels, like (''seance''), (''reality''), (''create''), and or (''lineage''). Unstressed, it may represent (''ocean'') and or (''Eleanor''). In Romanian alphabet, Romanian, it represents the diphthong as in ''beată'' ('drunk female'). In Irish, represents between a slender and a broad consonant. In Old English, it represents the diphthong . is also the transliteration of the rune of the Anglo-Frisian Futhorc.

is used in Irish for between a slender and a broad consonant.

is used in Irish for between a slender and a broad consonant.

represents a long mid vowel in a number of languages. In English, represents as in ''teen''. In Dutch and German alphabet, German, represents (though it is pronounced in majority of northern Dutch dialects). In the Hong Kong Government Cantonese Romanisation, Cantonese Romanisation, it represents as in English, or for characters which might be pronounced as in Weitou dialect, other dialects. In Bouyei language, Bouyei, is used for plain , as stands for .

is used in Taa for the murmured vowel . In the Wade-Giles transliteration of Mandarin Chinese, it is used for after a consonant, as in ''yeh'' . In German alphabet, German, represents , as in ''Reh''.

This digraph was taken over from Middle High German, where it represented . It usually represents a diphthong. In Modern German, is predominant in representing , as in ''Einstein'', while the equivalent digraph appears in only a few words. In English, can represent many sounds, including , as in ''vein'', as in ''seize'', as in ''heist'', as in ''heifer'', as in ''enceinte'', and or as in ''forfeit''. See also I before e except after c. In southern and western Faroese language, Faroese dialects, it represents the diphthong , while in northern and eastern dialects, it represents the diphthong . In Portuguese, represents in Greater Lisbon, so do and , but or in Brazil, East Timor, Macau, rest of Portugal, and Portuguese-speaking African countries,

In Welsh alphabet, Welsh, represents . In Irish and Scottish Gaelic alphabet, Scottish Gaelic, it represents before a slender consonant. In Dutch and Afrikaans alphabet, Afrikaans, represents . In French, represents , as in ''seiche''.

is used In Hepburn romanization of the Japanese language to transcribe the sound .

is used in French for , as in ''reître'' .

is used in Irish for between slender consonants.

is used in Swedish orthography, Swedish in some short words, such as ''leja'' or ''nej'' .

is used in Portuguese for at the end of a word and before a consonant. In French orthography, it can represent /ɑ̃/.

is used in Portuguese for at the end of a word.

is used in Portuguese for at the end of a word and before a consonant.

is used in Portuguese for at the end of a word followed or not by an as in ''hífen'' or ''hifens''; and for before a consonant within a word. In French, it represents or .

is used in Portuguese for before a consonant.

is used in Portuguese for before a consonant.

is used in Irish for ( in 4 words) between a slender and a broad consonant. In the Jyutping romanization of Cantonese, it represents , an allophone of , while in the Hong Kong Government Cantonese Romanisation, Cantonese Romanisation, it represents . In the Revised Romanization of Korean, represents the open-mid back unrounded vowel , and in Piedmontese it is . In English is a rare digraph without a single pronunciation, representing in ''feoff'', ''jeopardy'', ''leopard'' and the given name ''Geoffrey'', in ''people'', in ''yeoman'' and in the archaic ''Vassal, feodary'', while in the originally Gaelic name MacLeod it represents . However, usually it represents two vowels, like in ''leotard'' and ''galleon'', in ''stereo'' and, in ''geodesy'', and, uniquely, in ''geoduck''.

is used in Taa for the pharyngealized vowel .

is found in many languages, most commonly for the diphthong . Additionally, in English, represents as in ''neuter'' ( in yod-dropping accents); however, the ''eu'' in "maneuver/manoeuvre" always represents even in most non yod-dropping accents. In German alphabet, German, it represents as in ''Deutsch''; and in French, Dutch, Breton, and Piedmontese, it represents . In Cornish, it represents either long and short or long and short . In Yale romanization of Cantonese it represents , while in the Hong Kong Government Cantonese Romanisation, Cantonese Romanisation, it represents . In Romanization of Wu Chinese, Wugniu romanization of Wu Chinese, it represents sounds ranging from to , depending on the lect. In Sundanese language, Sundanese and Acehnese language, Acehnese, it represents as in ''beureum'' ('red'). In the Revised Romanization of Korean, it represents .

is used in French for , as in ''jeûne'' .

is used in English for as in ''few'' and ''flew''. An exception is the pronunciation in ''sew'', leading to the Heteronym (linguistics), heteronym ''sewer'',(, 'drain') vs ''sewer'' (, 'one who sews'). In Cornish, it stands for .

is used in the Kernowek Standard orthography of Cornish to refer to a sound that can be either or . This distribution can also be written .

is used in English for a variety of sounds, including in ''they'', in ''key'', and in ''geyser''. In Faroese language, Faroese, it represents the diphthong . In Cornish, it represents the diphthong or .

(a split digraph) indicates an English Great Vowel Shift, 'long e', historically but now most commonly realised as .

is used for in Hokkien Pe̍h-ōe-jī.

F

which may be written as the single unit: ff, is used in English and Cornish for the same sound as single , . The doubling is used to indicate that the preceding vowel is (historically) short, or for etymology, etymological reasons, in latinisms. Very rarely, word-initial ff, may be found word-initially in English, such as in proper names (e.g., Rose ffrench, Jasper Fforde). In Welsh alphabet, Welsh, represents , while represents . In Welsh, is considered a distinct letter, and placed between and in alphabetical order. In medieval Breton, vowel nasalisation was represented by a following . This notation was reformed during the 18th century, though proper names retain the former convention, which leads to occasional mispronunciation. For ff as a single unit see: Typographic ligature and Unicode FB00 (U+FB00) in Latin script in Unicode and Unicode equivalence

is used in Irish and Scottish Gaelic orthography, Scottish Gaelic for the lenition of . This happens to be silent, so that in Gaelic corresponds to no sound at all. For example, the Irish phrase ('how long') is pronounced , where is the lenited form of ('long').

in used in Nambikwara language, Nambikwara for a Glottalization, glottalized .

G

is used in Uzbek language, Uzbek to represent .

is used in some African languages for a voiced labial-velar plosive, .

is used in languages, such as Xhosa and Zulu, for the click . In Irish, it indicates the Irish initial mutations, eclipsis of and represents .

is used in French for before as in ''geôle'' .

is used in English for before , and (exampleː ''doggy''). It is also used in Pinyin for in languages such as Yi. In Central Alaskan Yup'ik language, Central Alaskan Yup'ik, it represents . In Greenlandic language, Greenlandic , it represents . In the ISO romanization of Korean, it is used for the fortis sound , otherwise spelled (e.g. ''ggakdugi''). In Hadza it is ejective . In Italian, before a front vowel represents a geminated , as in ''legge'' . In Piedmontese and Lombard, is an etymological spelling representing an at the end of a word which is the unvoicing of an ancient .

is used in several languages. In English, it can be silent or represent or . See article.

is used in Vietnamese alphabet, Vietnamese for in northern dialects and in the southern ones. In Italian, it represents before the non-front vowel letters .

is used in Albanian alphabet, Albanian for the voiced palatal plosive , though for Gheg speakers it represents . In the Arbëresh language, Arbëresh dialect, it represents the voiced velar plosive . In Norwegian alphabet, Norwegian and Swedish alphabet, Swedish represents in words like ''gjorde'' ('did'). In Faroese language, Faroese, it represents . It is also used in the Romanization of Macedonian as a Latin equivalent of Macedonian alphabet, Cyrillic . Also, it's used in Friulian to represent (whilst is one of the pronunciations of the letter ⟨z⟩). It can be found in some local orthographies of Lombard to represent derived from Latin ⟨gl⟩. Before the letter Đ was introduced into Gaj's Latin alphabet in 1878, the digraph ⟨gj⟩ had been used instead; and it remained in use till the beginning of the 20th century.

is used in Sandawe and the romanization of Thai for ; in Limburgish language, Limburgish it represents . Modern Greek uses the equivalent digraph Gamma (letter), γKappa (letter), κ for , as Gamma (letter), γ is used for ~ .

is used in Italian and some African languages for .

is used in English for in a few words of Greek origin, such as ''phlegm'' and ''paradigm.'' Between vowels, it simply represents , as in ''paradigmatic.''

is used in Latin spelling and phonology, Latin, where it represented in the classical period. Latin velar consonant, velar-coronal consonant, coronal sequences like this (and also ) underwent a Palatalization (sound change), palatal mutation to varying degrees in most Italo-Western Romance languages. For most languages that preserve the spelling (such as Italian and French), it represents a palatal nasal , and is similarly used in Romanization schemes such as Romanization of Wu Chinese, Wugniu for . This was not the case in Dalmatian language, Dalmatian and the Eastern Romance languages where a different mutation changed the velar component to a labial consonant as well as the spelling to .

:In English, represents initially (see Phonological history of English consonant clusters#gn, /gn/ reduction) and finally (i.e. ''gnome, gnu, benign, sign''). When it appears between two syllables, it represents (e.g. ''signal''). In Norwegian alphabet, Norwegian and Swedish alphabet, Swedish, represents in monosyllabic words like ''agn'', and between two syllables, ''tegne''. Initially, it represents , e.g. Swedish ''gnista'' .

was used in several Spanish-derived orthographies of the Pacific for . It is one of several variants of the digraph , and is preserved in the name of the town of Sagñay, Camarines Sur, Sagñay, Philippines.

is used in Piedmontese for .

is used in languages, such as Xhosa and Zulu, for the click . In the Taa language, it represents .

is used in Xhosa for .

is used in English, Spanish orthography, Spanish, French, Portuguese and Catalan orthography, Catalan for before front vowels ( in English and French) where a "soft g" pronunciation (English ; Spanish ; French, Portuguese and Catalan ) would otherwise occur. In English, it can also be used to represent . In the Ossete Latin alphabet, it is used for .

is used in Spanish orthography, Spanish and Catalan orthography, Catalan for before front vowels where the digraph would otherwise represent .

is used for in Standard Zhuang and in Bouyei language, Bouyei. In the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is used for the labialized fricative .

is used in various languages for , and in Dene Suline language, Dene Suline it represents .

, capital (or ), is used in Tlingit language, Tlingit for (in Alaska); in Canada, this sound is represented by .

is used in languages, such as Xhosa and Zulu, for the click . In Esperanto orthography, Esperanto, it is an unofficial surrogate of , which represents .

is used in Hungarian for a voiced palatal plosive . In Hungarian, the letter's name is ''gyé.'' It is considered a single letter, and acronyms keep the digraph intact. The letter appears frequently in Hungarian words, such as the word for "Hungarian" itself: ''magyar''. In the old orthography of Bouyei language, Bouyei, it was used for .

is used in Juǀʼhoan for the voiced alveolar click .

is used in Juǀʼhoan for the voiced dental click .

is used in Juǀʼhoan for the voiced lateral click .

is used in Juǀʼhoan for the voiced palatal click .

H

is used in Xhosa to write the voiced glottal fricative, murmured glottal fricative , though this is often written ''h.'' In the Iraqw language, ''hh'' is the voiceless epiglottal fricative , and in Dene Suline language, Chipewyan it is a velar/uvular . In Esperanto orthography, it is an official surrogate of , which represents .

is used in the Arbëresh language, Italian dialect of Albanian for . In Faroese language, Faroese, it represents either or , and in Swedish, Danish and Norwegian, it represents . In Icelandic it is used to denote .

is used for or in various alphabets, such as the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong language, Hmong () and Icelandic (). See also Phonological history of English consonant clusters#HL, reduction of Old English /hl/.

is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong language, Hmong, where it represents the sound .

is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong language, Hmong, where it represents the sound . It is also used in Icelandic to denote the same phoneme. See also Phonological history of English consonant clusters#HL, reduction of Old English /hn/.

is used for in Bouyei language, Bouyei. In Icelandic it is used for . See also Phonological history of English consonant clusters#HL, reduction of Old English /hr/.

is used in the Wade-Giles transcription of Mandarin Chinese for the sound , equivalent to Pinyin ''x.''

is used primarily in the Classical Nahuatl language, in which it represents the sound before a vowel; for example, ''Wikipedia'' in Nahuatl is written ''Huiquipedia''. After a vowel, is used. In the Ossete Latin alphabet, ''hu'' was used for , similar to French ''roi.'' The sequence ''hu'' is also found in Spanish words such as ''huevo'' or ''hueso;'' however, in Spanish this is not a digraph but a simple sequence of silent ''h'' and the vowel ''u.''

is used Faroese language, Faroese and Icelandic for (often ), generally in Interrogative word, wh-words, but also in other words, such as Faroese ''hvonn''. In the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is used for the supposed fricative .

is used in modern editions of Old English for , originally spelled or (the latter with the wynn letter). In its descendants in modern English, it is now spelled (see there for more details). It is used in some orthographies of Cornish for .

is used in Pinyin for in languages such as Yi ( alone represents the fricative ), and in Nambikwara language, Nambikwara it is a glottalized . In Esperanto orthography, it is an unofficial surrogate of , which represents .

is used in Hepburn romanization of the Japanese language to transcribe the sound , which is the syllable ''hi'' before a ''y''-vowel, such as ''hya'', ''hyu'', and ''hyo'', which appear in Chinese loanwords.

I

is used in Taa to represent the glottalized or creaky voice, creaky vowel .

is used in Irish for the diphthong .

is used in English, where it usually represents the sound as in ''pries'' and ''allied'' or the sound as in ''priest'' and ''rallied''. Followed by an ''r'', these vowels follow the standard changes to and , as in ''brier'' and ''bier''. Unique pronunciations are in ''sieve'', in ''friend'' and in ''lingerie''. Unstressed it can represent , as in ''spaniel'' and ''conscience'', or or as in ''mischief'' and ''hurriedly''. It also can represent many vowel combinations, including in ''diet'' and ''client'', in ''diester'' and ''quiescent'', in ''alien'' and ''skier'', in ''oriental'' and ''hygienic'', and in British ''medieval''.

:In Dutch and Afrikaans, represents the Tenseness, tense vowel . In German, it may represent the lengthened vowel as in ''Liebe'' (love) as well as the vowel combination as in ''Belgien'' (Belgium). In Latvian language, Latvian and Lithuanian language, Lithuanian, the is considered two letters for all purposes and represents , commonly (although less precisely) transcribed as . In Maltese language, Maltese, is a distinct letter and represents a long close front unrounded vowel, or . In Pinyin it is used to write the vowel in languages such as Yi, where ''e'' stands for . In Old English was one of the common diphthongs, the Germanic umlaut, umlauted version of "ea" and "eo". Its value is not entirely clear, and in Middle English it had become /e/.

is used in Afrikaans for .

is used in Catalan language, Catalan for in the Syllable coda, coda.

, is used in Taa to represent the breathy or murmured vowel . It is also used in Tongyong Pinyin and Wade-Giles transcription for the fricative vowels of Mandarin Chinese, which are spelled ''i'' in Hanyu Pinyin.

is used in many languages such as Finnish (example:Riikka, Niinistö, Siitala, Riikkeli), Italian (example:Riina), Estonian (example:Riik), Scots (example:Auld Nii, Iisay), with phonemic long vowels for .

is used in Dutch orthography, Dutch for . See article.

is used in French for , historically , as in ''ail'' "garlic".

is used in Portuguese for .

is used in Portuguese for before a consonant.

is used in many languages to write a nasal vowel. In Portuguese before a consonant, and in many West African languages, it is , while in French it is .

is used in Portuguese for before a consonant.

is used in French to write a vowel sound that was once followed by a historical ''s'', as in ''vous vîntes'' "you came".

is used in Lakhota for the nasal vowel .

is used in Irish for , , and between a slender and a broad consonant.

is used in Irish for between a slender and a broad consonant.

is used in Taa to represent the pharyngealized vowel .

is used in Irish for between a slender and a broad consonant. In Mandarin pinyin, it is after a consonant. (In initial position, this is spelled ''you.'')

is used in Irish for between a slender and a broad consonant.

is used in Welsh language, Welsh and Cornish for the diphthong or .

is used in Catalan language, Catalan for (Eastern Catalan) or (Western Catalan) after a vowel.

(a split digraph) indicates an English Great Vowel Shift, 'long i', historically but now most commonly realised as .

J

is used in Walloon to write a consonant that is variously , or , depending on the dialect. In Tongyong pinyin, it represents , written ''zh'' in standard pinyin. ''Jh'' is also the standard transliteration for the Devanāgarī letter झ .
In Esperanto orthography, Esperanto, it is an official surrogate of , which represents .

is used in Pinyin for in languages such as Yi. In romanized Korean, it represents the fortis sound . In Hadza it is ejective .

is used as a letter of the Seri alphabet, where it represents a labialized voiceless velar fricative, velar fricative, . It is placed between J and L in alphabetical order.

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for .

is used in Esperanto orthography, Esperanto as an unofficial surrogate of , which represents .

K

is used for in southern African languages such as Tswana language, Setswana and Sotho language, Sotho. For instance, the Kalahari is spelled ''Kgalagadi'' in Setswana.

, in transcriptions of Indo-Aryan language, Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages, represents the Aspiration (phonetics), aspirated voiceless velar plosive (). For most other languages, it represents the voiceless velar fricative , for example in transcriptions of the letter () in standard Arabic, standard Persian, and Urdu, Cyrillic ''Х'', ''х'' (kha), Spanish ''j'', as well as the Hebrew letter kaph, kaf () in instances when it is Lenition, lenited. When used for transcription of the letter () in Sephardic Hebrew, it represents the voiceless pharyngeal fricative . In Canadian Tlingit language, Tlingit it represents , which in Alaska is written ''k.'' In the Ossete Latin alphabet, it was used for .

is used Swedish and Norwegian for or . See also . In Faroese language, Faroese, it represents .

is used in romanized Korean for the Fortis and lenis, fortis sound , in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for ejective , and in Cypriot Arabic for .

is used in Zulu to write a sound variously realized as or .

is used in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye double articulation, doubly articulated and nasal release, nasally released .

is used in English to write the word-initial sound (Phonological history of English consonant clusters#kn, formerly pronounced /kn/) in some words of Germanic origin, such as ''knee'' and ''knife.'' It is used in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye for nasal release, nasally released .

is used as a letter in some African languages, where it represents a voiceless labial-velar plosive .

is used in Xhosa for .

is used in Cornish for either or .

is used in Purépecha language, Purépecha for . It also had that value in the Ossete Latin alphabet.

is used for in some dialects of Zhuang languages, Zhuang.

is used in various languages for the labialized velar consonant , and in Dene Suline language, Dene Suline (Chipewyan) for . Used informally in English for phonemic spelling of ''qu (digraph), qu'', as in ''wikt:kwik, kwik'' (from ''quick''), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European .

is used in Alaskan Tlingit language, Tlingit for , which in Canada is written ''Khw (trigraph), khw.''

in used in Nambikwara language, Nambikwara for a glottalized , and in Juǀʼhoan for the ejective .

is used in Tibetan Pinyin for .

is used in Esperanto for , equivalent to Polish .

L

, in Occitan language, Occitan, Gallo language, Gallo, and Portuguese language, Portuguese, represents a palatal lateral approximant . In many Indigenous languages of the Americas it represents a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative . In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages it represents a dental lateral, . In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, initial indicates an even tone on a syllable beginning in , which is otherwise spelled . In Middle Welsh it was sometimes used to represent the sound as well as , in Welsh language, modern Welsh it has been replaced by . In Classical Tibetan, Tibetan, it represents the voiceless alveolar lateral approximant , as in ''Lhasa''.

is a letter in some Slavic languages, such as the Latin orthographies of Serbo-Croatian, where it represents a palatal lateral approximant . For example, the word ''ljiljan'' is pronounced . Ljudevit Gaj first used the digraph in 1830; he devised it by analogy with a Cyrillic script, Cyrillic digraph, which developed into the typographic ligature, ligature . In Swedish it represents /j/ such as in Ljus.
:The sound is written in Italian, in Castilian Spanish and Catalan as , in Portuguese as , in some Hungarian dialects as , and in Latvian language, Latvian as . In Czech language, Czech and Slovak language, Slovak, it is often transcribed as ; it is used more frequently in the latter language. While there are dedicated Unicode codepoints, U+01C7 (LJ), U+01C8 (Lj) and U+01C9 (lj), these are included for backwards compatibility (with legacy encodings for Serbo-Croatian which kept a one-to-one correspondence with Cyrillic Љљ) and modern texts use a sequence of Basic Latin characters.

and are used in several languages. See article.

is used in Asturian language, Asturian for a sound that was historically but which is now an affricate, .

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for .

is used in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye for double articulation, doubly articulated .

is used for in Arrernte language#Orthography, Arrernte.

in used in Nambikwara language, Nambikwara for a glottalized .

is used in Hungarian. See article.

M

, in many African languages, represents or . It is used in Irish to indicate the Irish initial mutations, eclipsis of and represents ; for example 'our boat' (cf. 'boat'). The Irish digraph is capitalized mB, for example 'in Dublin'. In English, ''mb'' represents when final, as in ''lamb'' (see -mb, reduction of /mb/). In Standard Zhuang and in Bouyei language, Bouyei, is used for .

is used in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye for double articulation, doubly articulated and prenasalized .

, in many African languages, represents or .

is used in Pinyin for in languages such as Yi, where the more common digraph is restricted to . It is used in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye for double articulation, doubly articulated and prenasalized .

, in Irish, stands for the Irish initial mutations, lenition of and represents or ; for example or 'my mother' (cf. 'mother'). In Welsh language, Welsh it stands for the Welsh morphology, nasal mutation of and represents the voicelessness, voiceless ; for example 'my head' (cf. 'head'). In both languages it is considered a sequence of the two letters and for purposes of alphabetization. In Shona, Juǀʼhoan and several other languages, it is used for a murmured . In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, initial ''mh-'' indicates an even tone on a syllable beginning in , which is otherwise spelled ''m-.'' In several languages, such as Gogo language, Gogo, it's a voiceless .

is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong language, Hmong, where it represents the sound .

is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized . It is used in Cornish for an optionally pre-occluded ; that is, it is pronounced either or (in any position); (before a consonant or finally); or (before a vowel); examples are ('mother') or ('this').

is used in English to write the word-initial sound in a few words of Greek origin, such as ''mnemonic.'' When final, it represents , as in ''damn'' or as in ''hymn'', and between vowels it represents /m/ as in ''damning'', or as in ''damnation'' (see Phonological history of English consonant clusters#mb, /mn/-reduction). In French it represents , as in and .

, in many African languages, represents or . Modern Greek uses the equivalent digraph Mu (letter), μPi (letter), π for , as Beta (letter), β is used for . In Mpumpong language, Mpumpong of Cameroon, is a plain .

is used in Juǀʼhoan for a pharyngealized or perhaps creaky .

is used in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye for double articulation, doubly articulated and prenasalized .

, in many African languages, represents or .

is used for in Arrernte language#Orthography, Arrernte.

is used in Nambikwara language, Nambikwara for a glottalized .

N

is used in Xhosa and Shona for . Since is not a letter in either language, is not technically a digraph.

is used in Pinyin for in languages such as Yi. It is also used in Fula language, Fula in Guinea for (written as mb in other countries).

is used in various alphabets. In the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong language, Hmong, it represents the sound . In Tharaka language, Tharaka it is . In Xhosa and Zulu it represents the click .

, in many African languages, represents or , and capitalized . It is used in Irish for the Irish initial mutations, eclipsis of , and represents , for example in ''ár ndoras'' "our door" (cf. ''doras'' "door"). In this function it is capitalized , e.g. ''i nDoire'' "in Derry". In Standard Zhuang and in Bouyei language, Bouyei, is used for .

, equivalent to for or . In Rangi language, Rangi ''nf'' is while ''mf'' is .

, in Sino-Tibetan languages, as in English and several other European and derived orthographies (for example Vietnamese language, Vietnamese), generally represents the velar nasal . It is considered a single letter in many Austronesian languages (Māori language, Māori, Tagalog language, Tagalog, Tongan language, Tongan, Gilbertese language, Gilbertese, Tuvaluan language, Tuvaluan, Indonesian language, Indonesian, Chamorro language, Chamorro), Welsh Language, Welsh, and Rheinische Dokumenta, for velar nasal ; and in some African languages (Lingala language, Lingala, Bambara language, Bambara, Wolof language, Wolof) for prenasalization, prenasalized ().

:For the development of the pronunciation of this digraph in English, see NG-coalescence and G-dropping.

:Finnish language, Finnish uses the digraph 'ng' to denote the phonemically long velar nasal in contrast to 'nk' , which is its "strong" form under consonant gradation, a type of lenition. Weakening produces an archiphoneme, archiphonemic "velar fricative", which, as a velar fricative does not exist in Standard Finnish, is assimilated to the preceding , producing . (No is involved at any point, despite the spelling 'ng'.) The digraph 'ng' is not an independent letter, but it is an exception to the Phonemic orthography, phonemic principle, one of the few in standard Finnish.

:In Irish ''ng'' is used word-initially as the Irish initial mutations, eclipsis of and represents , e.g. ''ár ngalar'' "our illness" (cf. ). In this function it is capitalized ''nG'', e.g. ''i'' nG''aillimh'' "in Galway".

:In Tagalog and other Philippine languages, ''ng'' represented the prenasalized sequence during the Spanish era. The velar nasal, , was written in a variety of ways, namely "n͠g", "ñg", "gñ" (as in Sagñay, Camarines Sur, Sagñay), and—after a vowel—at times "g̃". During the standardization of Tagalog in the early part of the 20th century, ''ng'' became used for the velar nasal , while prenasalized came to be written ''Ngg (trigraph), ngg.'' Furthermore, ''ng'' is also used for a common genitive case, genitive particle pronounced , to differentiate it from an adverbial particle ''nang.''

:In Uzbek language, Uzbek, it is considered as a separate letter, being the last (twenty-ninth) letter of the Uzbek alphabet. It is followed by the apostrophe (''tutuq belgisi'').

is used in Central Alaskan Yup'ik language, Central Alaskan Yup'ik to write the voiceless nasal sound .

, or more precisely , was a digraph in several Spanish-derived orthographies of the Pacific, such as Tagalog language, Tagalog and Chamorro language, Chamorro, where it represented the sound , as opposed to ''ng'', which originally represented . An example is Chamorro ''agan͠gñáijon'' (modern ''agangñaihon)'' "to declare". Besides ''ñg'', variants of ''n͠g'' include ''gñ'' (as in Sagñay, Camarines Sur, Sagñay), ''ng̃'', and a ''g̃'', that is preceded by a vowel (but not a consonant). It has since been replaced by the trigraph or (see above).

is used for in Swahili and languages with Swahili-based orthographies. Since is not a letter in Swahili, is technically a digraph, not a trigraph (orthography), trigraph.

is used in several languages. See article.

in Polish, it usually represents whenever it precedes a vowel, and whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of ń appearing in other situations. (In some cases it may represent also before a vowel; for a better description, when, see Polish orthography#Other issues with i and j, the relevant section in the article on Polish orthography).

is a letter in the Latin orthographies of Albanian language, Albanian, Serbo-Croatian. Ljudevit Gaj, a Croat, first used this digraph in 1830. In all of these languages, it represents the palatal nasal . For example, the Croatian and Serbian word ''konj'' (''horse'') is pronounced . The digraph was created in the 19th century by analogy with a digraph of Cyrillic script, Cyrillic, which developed into the typographic ligature, ligature . While there are dedicated Unicode codepoints, U+01CA (NJ), U+01CB (Nj) and U+01CC (nj), these are included for backwards compatibility (with legacy encodings for Serbo-Croatian which kept a one-to-one correspondence with Cyrillic Њњ) and modern texts use a sequence of Basic Latin characters.

:In Faroese language, Faroese, it generally represents , although in some words it represent , like in ''banjo''. It is also used in some languages of Languages of Africa, Africa and Languages of Oceania, Oceania where it represents a Prenasalized consonant, prenazalized voiced postalveolar affricate or Voiced postalveolar fricative, fricative, or . In Malagasy, it represents .

:Other letters and digraphs of the Latin alphabet used for spelling this sound are (in Polish language, Polish), (in Czech language, Czech and Slovakian language, Slovakian), (in Spanish language, Spanish), (in Portuguese language, Portuguese and Occitan language, Occitan), (in Italian and French), and (in Hungarian, among others).

is used in many Bantu languages like Lingala, Tshiluba, and Kikongo, for or . In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri language, Warlpiri, Arrernte language, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara language, Pitjantjatjara, it distinguishes a prenasalized velar stop, , from the nasal .

is used in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye for double articulation, doubly articulated .

is used in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye for double articulation, doubly articulated .

is used in Irish for the Old Irish language, Old Irish "Irish phonology#Fortis and lenis sonorants, fortis sonorants" ("broad", i.e. non-palatalized or velarized) and ("slender", i.e. Palatalization (phonetics), palatalized) in non-initial position. In modern Irish, the "broad" sound is , while the slender sound can be any of , , or , depending on dialect and position in the word. In Spanish language, Spanish historical has contracted to the Typographic ligature, ligature and represents the sound . In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, final ''-nn'' indicates a falling tone on a syllable ending in , which is otherwise spelled ''-n.'' It is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized . In Piedmontese, it is in the middle of a word, and at the end. In Cornish, it is used for an optionally pre-occluded ; that is, it is pronounced either or (in any position); (before a consonant or finally); or (before a vowel); examples are ''penn'' ('head') or ''pennow'' ('heads').

is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong language, Hmong, where it represents the sound .

is used in various alphabets. In the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong language, Hmong, it represents the sound . In Xhosa and Zulu it represents the click . In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, final ''-nq'' indicates a falling tone on a syllable ending in , which is otherwise spelled ''-ng.''

is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong language, Hmong, where it represents the sound . In the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is .

, in many African languages, represents or .

is a letter present in many African languages where it represents or . Modern Greek uses the equivalent digraph Nu (letter), νTau (letter), τ for , as Delta (letter), δ is used for .

, equivalent to for or .

is used in Igbo language, Igbo for , and in Arrernte language#Orthography, Arrernte for .

is used for the click in Xhosa and Zulu, and in Nambikwara language, Nambikwara for a glottalized .

is used in several languages for . See article.

, in many African languages, represents ~ , ~ , ~ , or ~ .

is used in Juǀʼhoan for the alveolar nasal click .

is used in Juǀʼhoan for the dental nasal click .

is used in Juǀʼhoan for the lateral nasal click .

is used in Juǀʼhoan for the palatal nasal click .

is used for medial in Piedmontese.

Ŋ

⟨ŋm⟩, a letter was used in Anii language, Anii.

O

is used for and in Uzbek language, Uzbek, with the preferred typographical form being (Cyrillic ). Technically it is not a digraph in Uzbek, since is not a letter of the Uzbek alphabet, but rather a typographic convention for a diacritic. In handwriting the letter is written as .

It is also used in Taa, for the glottalized or creaky voice, creaky vowel .

is used in English, where it commonly represents the sound as in ''road'', ''coal'', ''boast'', ''coaxing'', etc. In Middle English, where the digraph originated, it represented , a pronunciation retained in the word ''broad'' and derivatives, and when the digraph is followed by an "r", as in ''soar'' and ''bezoar''. The letters also represent two vowels, as in ''koala'' , ''boa (disambiguation), boas'' , ''coaxial'' , ''oasis'' , and ''doable'' . In Malagasy, it is occasionally used for .

is found in many languages. In English, it represents the sound as in ''hoe'' and sometimes the sound as in ''shoe''. It may also represent the sound in American English, AmE pronunciation of ''Oedipus'', ''(o)esophagus'' (also in British English, BrE), and ''(o)estrogen'', in ''boehmite'' (AmE) and surnames like ''John Boehner, Boehner'' and ''Matt Groening, Groening'' (as if spelled ''Bayner'' and ''Gray/Greyning'' respectively), and in ''foetus'' (BrE and Commonwealth English, CoE) and some speakers' pronunciation of ''Oedipus'' and ''oestrogen''. Afrikaans and Dutch ''oe'' is , as in ''doen''; it also represented the same phoneme in the Indonesian language before the Ejaan Yang Disempurnakan, 1972 spelling reform. ligature (typography), Ligatured to in French, it stands for the vowels (as in ) and (as in ). It is an alternative way to write or in German or Scandinavian languages when this character is unavailable. In Cantonese Pinyin it represents the vowel , while in the Jyutping romanisation of Cantonese it represents , and in Zhuang it is used for ( is used for ). In Piedmontese, it is . In the Kernewek Kemmyn orthography of Cornish, it is used for a phoneme which is long, mid-length, and short.

is used in French to write the vowel sound in a few words before what had historically been an ''s'', mostly in words derived from ' "stove". The diacriticless variant, , rarely represents this sound except in words related to ' (rarely spelt ).

is used in Afrikaans for the vowel .

is used in Portuguese for . It is used in plural forms of some words ended in , such as ''wiktionary:anão, anão–anões'' and ''wiktionary:campeão, campeão–campeões.''

is used in Taa, for the breathy or murmured vowel .

is used in various languages. In English, ''oi'' represents the sound as in ''coin'' and ''join''. In French, it represents , which was historically – and still is in some cases – written "oy." In Irish it is used for between a broad and a slender consonant. In Piedmontese, it is .

is used in Irish for between a broad and a slender consonant.

is used in French to write before what had historically been an ''s'', as in ''boîtier'' or ''cloître.''

is used in Irish for between a broad and a slender consonant.

is used in Piedmontese for .

is used in Portuguese for , and in French to write .

is used in Portuguese orthography, Brazilian Portuguese for before a consonant.

is used in Portuguese for before a consonant, and in French to write .

is used in Portuguese for before a consonant.

is used in Tibetan Pinyin for . It is alternately written Oin (trigraph), oin.

is used in many languages. In English, ''oo'' commonly represents sounds which historically descend from the Middle English phonology, Middle English pronunciation . After the Great Vowel Shift, this came to typically represent as in "m''oo''n" and "f''oo''d". Subsequently, in a handful of common words like "g''oo''d" and "fl''oo''d" the vowel was shortened to /u/, and after the Phonological history of English close back vowels#FOOT–STRUT split, Middle English – split, these became and respectively. Like in Middle English, the digraph's pronunciation is in most other languages. In German and Dutch, the digraph represents . In Cornish, it represents either or .

Is used in Taa,for the pharyngealized vowel .

, in Daighi tongiong pingim, represents mid central vowel or close-mid back rounded vowel in Taiwanese Hokkien.董峰政, "Taiwanese Tong-iong Pingim Dictionary", 臺南市寧南語言文化協會, Tainan City, Jul 2006.

is used in English for the diphthong , as in ''out'' . This spelling is generally used before consonants, with being used instead before vowels and at the ends of words. Occasionally ''ou'' may also represent other vowels – as in ''trouble'', as in ''soul'', as in ''would'', as in ''group'', or as in the alternate American pronunciation of ''coupon''. The ''ou'' in ''out'' originally represented , as in French, and its pronunciation has mostly changed as part of the Great Vowel Shift. However, the sound was kept before p.

In Dutch represents in the Netherlands or in Flanders. In Cornish, it represents , , or . In French, it represents the vowel , as in ''vous'' "you", or the approximant consonant , as in ''oui'' "yes".

In Portuguese language, Portuguese this digraph stands for the close-mid back rounded vowel or for the falling diphthong , according to dialect.

is used In Hepburn romanization of the Japanese language to transcribe the sound .

is used in French to write the vowel sound before what had historically been an ''s'', as in ''soûl'' "drunk" (also spelt ''soul'').

, in English, usually represents the sound as in ''coward'', ''sundowner'', and ''now'' or the sound, as in ''froward'', ''landowner'', and ''know''. An exceptional pronunciation is in ''knowledge'' and ''rowlock''. There are many English Heteronym (linguistics), heteronyms distinguished only by the pronunciation of this digraph, like: ''bow'' (front of ship or weapon), ''bower'' (a dwelling or string player), ''lower'' (to frown or drop), ''mow'' (to grimace or cut), ''row'' (a dispute or line-up), ''shower'' (rain or presenter), ''sow'' (a pig or to seed), ''tower'' (a building or towboat). In Cornish, this represents the diphthong or ; before vowels, it can also represent .

is used in the Kernowek Standard orthography of Cornish to refer to a sound that can be either or . This distribution can also be written .

is found in many languages. In English and Faroese language, Faroese, oy represents the diphthong . Examples in English include ''toy'' and ''annoy''. In Cornish, it represents the diphthong ; in the words ''oy'' ('egg') and ''moy'' ('much'), it can also be pronounced .

is an obsolete digraph once used in French.

is used in Norwegian for .

(a split digraph) indicates an English Great Vowel Shift, 'long o', historically but now most commonly realised as .

P

in German represents a labial affricate . It can be initial (''Pferd'', 'horse'), medial (''Apfel'', 'apple'), or final (''Knopf'', 'button'). Where it appears in English, usually in names or words recently derived from German, it is ordinarily simplified to such as Pfizer.

, in English and some other languages, represents , mostly in words derived from Greek language, Greek. The Ancient Greek letter phi originally represented (an aspiration (phonetics), aspirated ''p'' sound), and was thus transcribed into Latin orthography as , a convention that was transferred to some other Western European languages. The Greek pronunciation of later changed to /f/, and this was also the sound adopted in other languages for the relevant loanwords. Exceptionally, in English, represents in the name ''Stephen'' and some speakers' pronunciations of ''nephew''.

In Irish and Welsh language, Welsh it reprsents the Irish initial mutations, Lenition/Colloquial Welsh morphology, Aspirate mutation of .

is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound .

is used for in Arrernte language#Orthography, Arrernte.

is used in English for an initial sound in words of Greek origin such as ''pneumatic.'' When not initial, it represents the sequence , as in ''apnea.''

is used in romanized Korean for the fortis sound , and in Cypriot Arabic for .

is used in English for an initial sound in words of Greek origin such as ''psyche.'' When not initial, it represents the sequence , as in ''ellipse.'' It is also used in Shona to write a whistled sibilant cluster .

is used in several languages for in words of Greek origin, where it was . An example in English is ''pterosaur'' , and an exception is ''ptarmigan'' , which is Scottish Gaelic, Gaelic, not Greek. When not initial, ''pt'' represents the sequence , as in ''apt.''

is used for in Arrernte language#Orthography, Arrernte.

is used in Cypriot Arabic for .

Q

is used to write the click in Naro. It was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless alveolar click .

is used in various alphabets. In Quechua and the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong language, Hmong, it represents the sound . In Xhosa, it represents the click .

was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless alveolar click (equivalent to ).

is used in Piedmontese for .

is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for ejective . In Hadza it is the glottalized click .

is used in Catalan orthography, Catalan, French, Galician language, Galician, Occitan language, Occitan, Portuguese and Spanish orthography, Spanish for before the vowel letters ''e, i'', where the letter ''c'' represents the sound (Castilian Spanish and most of Galician language, Galicia) or (Catalan language, Catalan, French, Spanish language in the Americas, American Spanish, Occitan language, Occitan and Portuguese language, Portuguese). This dates to Latin ''qu'', and ultimately the Proto-Indo-European labialized velar consonant ; in English this sound instead became written primarily as wh (digraph), ''wh'', due to Grimm's law changing > (written ''hw''), and Middle English spelling change switching ''hw'' to ''wh''. In English, it represents in words derived from those languages (e.g., ''wikt:quiche, quiche''), and in other words, including borrowings from Latin (e.g., ''wikt:quantity, quantity''). In German, where the /w/ sound evolved into /v/, it is used to represent /kv/ in both native Germanic words and Latin borrowings. In the Ossete Latin alphabet, it was used for . In Vietnamese alphabet, Vietnamese it is used to represent the or sound. In Cornish, it represents the sound.

is used for glottalized in Bouyei language, Bouyei.

is used in some languages for the sound . In Mi'kmaq language, Mi'kmaq it is used for . In the Kernowek Standard and Standard Written Form orthographies for Revived Cornish, and in William Jordan (writer), William Jordan's 1611 ''Creation of the World'', it is used for .

is used for glottalized in Bouyei language, Bouyei.

R

is used in the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri language, Warlpiri, Arrernte language, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara language, Pitjantjatjara for a retroflex stop, . In Norwegian and Swedish it represents voiced retroflex plosive, .

is used in English for Greek language, Greek words transliteration, transliterated through Latin language, Latin. Examples include "rhapsody", "rhetoric" and "rhythm". These were pronounced in Ancient Greek with a voiceless "r" sound, , as in Old English . The digraph may also be found within words, but always at the start of a word component, e.g., "polyrhythmic". German, French, and Interlingua use ''rh'' in the same way. is also found in Welsh language, Welsh where it represents a voiceless alveolar trill (), that is a voiceless "r" sound. It can be found anywhere; the most common occurrence in English from Welsh is in the slightly respelled given name "Rhonda". In Wade-Giles transliteration, is used for the syllable-final rhotic of Mandarin Chinese. In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, initial ''rh-'' indicates an even tone on a syllable beginning in , which is otherwise spelled ''r-.'' In Purépecha language, Purépecha, it is a retroflex flap, .

is used in the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri language, Warlpiri, Arrernte language, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara language, Pitjantjatjara, as well in Norwegian and Swedish, for a retroflex lateral, written in the International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA. In Greenlandic language, Greenlandic, it represents as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component.

is used in Inuktitut for .

represents the retroflex nasal in Warlpiri language, Warlpiri, Arrernte language, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara language, Pitjantjatjara (see transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages), as well in Norwegian and Swedish. In Greenlandic language, Greenlandic, it represents . In Inuktitut, it represents .

is used in Greenlandic language, Greenlandic for as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component.

is used in English for . It normally appears in words of Latin or Romance languages, Romance origin, and "rrh" in words of ancient Greek language, Greek origin. It is quite a common digraph. Some words with "rr" are relatively recent loanwords from other languages; examples include ''burro'' from Spanish language, Spanish. It is often used in impromptu pronunciation guides to denote either an alveolar tap or an alveolar trill. It is a letter in the Albanian alphabet.

In several European languages, such as Catalan language, Catalan, Spanish language, Spanish, Portuguese language, Portuguese or Albanian language, Albanian, "rr" represents the alveolar trill (or the voiced uvular fricative in Portuguese language, Portuguese) and contrasts with the single "r", which represents the alveolar tap (in Catalan and Spanish a single "r" also represents the alveolar trill at the beginning of words or syllables). In Italian and Finnish, "rr" is a geminate consonant, geminated (long) consonant . In Central Alaskan Yup'ik language, Central Alaskan Yup'ik it is used for . In Cornish, it can represent either , , or .

was equivalent to and stood for (modern ''ř'') in medieval Czech language, Czech. In Greenlandic language, Greenlandic, it represents as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component. In Norwegian and Swedish, it represents voiceless retroflex fricative, .

is used in Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri language, Warlpiri, Arrernte language, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara language, Pitjantjatjara, as well in Norwegian and Swedish, for a retroflex stop .

is used for in Arrernte language#Orthography, Arrernte.

is used in Polish alphabet, Polish and Kashubian alphabet, Kashubian for a voiced retroflex fricative , similar to English ''/ʒ/, zh'' as in ''Zhivago''. Examples from Polish are ' "March" and ' "river". represents the same sound as , but they have a different origin. used to be pronounced the same way as Czech () in older Polish, but the sounds phonetic merger, merged, and the Polish orthography, orthography still follows etymology. When preceded by a voiceless consonant (''ch'', ''k'', ''p'', ''t'') or final-obstruent devoicing, end of a word, consonant voicing and devoicing, devoices to , as in ' ("before", ).

S

is used in Italian orthography, Italian for before the front vowel letters ''e, i''. It is used for in Catalan, Spanish, French, English, Occitan and Brazilian Portuguese (e.g. French/English ''reminiscence'', Spanish ''reminiscencia'', Brazilian Portuguese ''reminiscência'', Catalan ''reminiscència'', Occitan ''reminiscéncia''); in European Portuguese this changed to in the early 20th century, although in careful speech it can be . However, it represents in modern pronunciations of ''crescent'' in British English, British and non-Canadian English, Canadian English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English. In Old English orthography, Old English it usually represented .

is used in French for in a few verb forms such as simple past ''acquiesça'' . It is also used in Portuguese as in the imperative/conjunctive form of verbs ending with ''scer'': ''crescer'' ''cresça''. Still pronounced in Brazilian Portuguese, in European Portuguese this changed to in the early 20th cent.ury, although in careful speech it can be

is used in Piedmontese for .

is used in several languages. In English, it represents . See Sh (digraph), separate article. See also ſh #Other letters, below, which has the capitalized forms SH and ŞH.

is used in English for in words such as ''fusion'' (see yod-coalescence). In Polish, it represents whenever it precedes a vowel, and whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of ś appearing in other situations. In Welsh language, Welsh is used for the sound as in ''siocled'' ('chocolate').

is used Swedish to write the Voiceless palatal-velar fricative, ''sje'' sound (see also ) and in Faroese language, Faroese, Danish, Norwegian and Dutch to write Voiceless postalveolar fricative .

is used in Swedish to write the Voiceless palatal-velar fricative, ''sje'' sound . It takes by rule this sound value before the front vowels (''e, i, y, ä'' and ''ö'') word or root initially (as in ''sked'' (spoon)), while normally representing in other positions. In Norwegian and Faroese, it is used to write voiceless postalveolar fricative (only in front of ''i'', ''y'', ''ei'' and ''øy''/''oy'').

is used in Iraqw language, Iraqw and Bouyei language, Bouyei to write the lateral fricative . ''(Sl'' is used in the French tradition to transcribe in other languages as well, as in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages.)

is used in German for as in ''Spaß'' instead of using schp.

is used in Kosraean language, Kosraean for .

is used in Pinyin for in languages such as Yi. For its use in the Wade–Giles system of Romanization of Chinese, see Wade–Giles#Syllabic consonants, Wade–Giles → Syllabic consonants. In English, typically represents in the first ''ss'' of ''possess'' and its derivatives ''possessed'', ''possesses'', ''possession'', ''possessive'' and '' possessor'', ''brassiere'', ''dessert'', ''dissolution'' and its derivatives ''dissolved'', ''dissolves'' and ''dissolving'', ''Missoula, Montana, Missoula (Missoula County, Montana, County)'', ''Missouri(an)'', ''scissors'', and pronunciations of ''Aussie'' outside the United States. In other languages, such as Catalan language, Catalan, Cornish, French, Italian, Occitan language, Occitan, Portuguese language, Portuguese and Central Alaskan Yup'ik language, Central Alaskan Yup'ik, where transcribes between vowels (and elsewhere in the case of Yup'ik), is used for in that position ( in Italian and also in some cases in Cornish). In romanized Korean, it represents the fortis sound . In Cypriot Arabic it is used for .

Also to note, there are spellings of words with as opposed to them with just one , varied in different types of English. For the word ''focus'', in British English the 3rd person singular, the past participle and the present participle are spelled with (i.e. ''focusses'', ''focussed'' and ''focussing'') whereas in American English and usually Canadian and Australian English they are spelled with one (i.e. ''focuses'', ''focused'' and ''focusing'').

is used in German for as in ''Stadt'' instead of using scht (or cht). In some parts of northern Germany, the pronunciation (as in English) is still quite common in the local dialect.

is used in Shona to write the whistled sibilant . This was written ȿ from 1931 to 1955.

in used in Nambikwara language, Nambikwara for a glottalized , and in Esperanto orthography it is an unofficial surrogate of , that represents .

is used to write the sound in Malay language, Malay and Tagalog language, Tagalog.

is used in several languages. See article.

and are used in Piedmontese for the sequence .

and are used in Piedmontese for the sequence .

T

is used for the palatal click in Naro, and to write the affricate in Sandawe, Hadza and Juǀʼhoan.

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the voiceless dental affricate

is used for in Naro. In Catalan orthography, Catalan, it represents .

is used in several languages. In English, it can represent , or . See article. See also: Pronunciation of English th.

, before a vowel, is usually pronounced in French and in German.

is used in Norwegian and Faroese language, Faroese words like ''tjære''/''tjøra'' ('tar') for (Norwegian) and (Faroese). In the closely related Swedish alphabet, it represents , as in ''tjära'' . It is also the standard written form of the sound in Dutch and was likewise used in Dutch-based orthographies that used to apply for languages in Indonesia and Surinam. In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri language, Warlpiri, Arrernte language, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara language, Pitjantjatjara, it represents a postalveolar stop, phonetic transcription, transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet as or depending on voicing. This sound is also written , , , , or . In Catalan it represents .
In Juǀʼhoan it is used for the ejective affricate .

is used in Juǀʼhoan for the uvularized ejective .

is used in various orthographies for the affricate .

is used in the transcription of Athabascan languages for a lateral affricate or .

is used in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye for double articulation, doubly articulated and nasal release, nasally released . In Catalan, it's used to represent , that can result not geminated as well, , as in ''setmana'' (pronounced in standard Catalan and in Valencian).

is used for a prestopped nasal in Arrernte language, Arrernte, and for the similar in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye.

is used in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye for double articulation, doubly articulated .

generally represents a sound like a retroflex consonant, retroflex version of English "ch" in areas of German influence, such as Truk Lagoon, ''Truk'' lagoon, now spelled . For instance, in Malagasy it represents . In southern dialects of Vietnamese language, Vietnamese, represents a voiceless retroflex affricate . In the northern dialects, this sound is pronounced , just like what represents. was formerly considered a distinct letter of the Vietnamese alphabet, but today is not.

is used in the Basque alphabet, Basque, where it represents an apical consonant, apical voiceless alveolar affricate . It contrasts with , which is laminal consonant, laminal . In Hausa, represents an alveolar ejective fricative or affricate ), depending on dialect. It is considered a distinct letter, and placed between and in alphabetical order. It is also used in Catalan orthography, Catalan for . It is also used in Hausa language#Boko .28Latin.29, Hausa Boko.

The Wade-Giles and Yale romanization of Mandarin, Yale romanizations of Chinese language, Chinese use for an aspiration (phonetics), unaspirated voiceless alveolar affricate . Wade-Giles also uses for the aspirated equivalent . These are equivalent to Pinyin and , respectively. The Hepburn romanization of Japanese language, Japanese uses for a voiceless alveolar affricate ). In native Japanese words, this sound only occurs before , but it may occur before other vowels in loanwords. Other romanization systems write as . in Tagalog language, Tagalog is used for . The sequence occurs in English, but it has no special function and simply represents a sequence of and . It occurs word-initially only in some loanwords, such as ''tsunami'' and ''tsar''. Most English-speakers do not pronounce a in such words and pronounce them as if they were spelled and or , respectively.

was used in medieval Basque language, Basque for a voiceless postalveolar affricate ; this is now represented by .

is used in Basque language, Basque for , and in romanized Kabyle language, Kabyle for . In romanized Korean, it represents the fortis sound , in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) it is ejective , and in Cypriot Arabic, it represents .

is used for in Arrernte language, Arrernte.

is used in Basque language, Basque, Catalan language, Catalan and some indigenous languages of South America, for a voiceless postalveolar affricate . In Nambikwara language, Nambikwara it represents a glottalized . In Juǀʼhoan it is used for the uvularized-release .

is used in the Hungarian alphabet for , a voiceless palatal affricate; in Hungarian, digraphs are considered single letters, and acronyms keep them intact. In Xhosa, represents and the similar in the Algonquian Massachusett orthography. In Shona, it represents . In Tagalog it represents . In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri language, Warlpiri, and Arrernte language, Arrernte, it represents a postalveolar stop, either voiceless or voiced . (This sound is also written , , , , and ). In Cypriot Arabic, it represents .

is used in Basque language, Basque, German and Nahuatl for the voiceless alveolar affricate ). In Basque, this sound is laminal and contrasts with the apical consonant, apical affricate represented by . It is also used in Catalan to represent the voiced alveolar affricate .
In Juǀʼhoan it is used for the ejective affricate .
For its use in the Wade–Giles system of Romanization of Chinese, see Wade–Giles#Syllabic consonants, Wade–Giles → Syllabic consonants.

U

is used in Taa for the glottalized or creaky voice, creaky vowel .

is used in Nahuatl for before a consonant. Before a vowel, is used.

is found in many languages. In English, represents /ju/ or /u/ as in ''cue'' or ''true'', respectively. In German, it is equivalent to Ü, and as such may appear in proper names of people, representing or . In the Hong Kong Government Cantonese Romanisation, Cantonese Romanisation, it represents in a non-initial position.

is used in Afrikaans to represent .

is used in Central Alaskan Yup'ik language, Central Alaskan Yup'ik for .

is used in Taa for the breathy or murmured vowel . In Nahuatl, it is used for before a consonant. Before a vowel, is used.

in Dutch stands for the diphthong . In Irish and Scottish Gaelic language, Scottish Gaelic, it is after a velarized (broad) consonant, and in Irish, it is used for between a broad and a slender consonant. In German, it represents the diphthong , which appears only in interjections such as ''"pfui!"''. In English, it represents the sound in ''fruit'', ''juice'', ''suit'' and ''pursuit''. However, in many English words, this does not hold. For example, it fails in words where the ''u'' in ''ui'' functions as a modifier of a preceding ''g'' (forcing ''g'' to remain rather than shifting to in ''guild'', ''guilt'', ''guilty'', ''sanguine'', ''Guinea'', etc.), doing the same with ''c'' (in words like ''circuit'' and ''biscuit''), or in cases of unusual etymological spelling or syllable separation (e.g. ''build'', ''suite'', and ''intuition''). It represents /ai/ in ''guide''. In Mandarin pinyin, it is after a consonant. (In initial position, this is spelled ''wei.'') In Hong Kong Government Cantonese Romanisation, Cantonese Romanisation, it represents or . In French, it is not a digraph, but a predictable sequence , as in ''h''ui''t'' "eight". In Scots orthography, Scots it represents the vowel in words such as bluid (blood), duin (done), muin (moon) and spuin (spoon) and is used similarly in Northumbrian and Cumbrian.

is used in Irish for between a broad and a slender consonant.

is used in Irish for between a broad and a slender consonant.

is used in Portuguese for , and in French to write (only before a consonant and at the end of a word).

is used in Portuguese for before a consonant.

is used in many languages to write a nasal vowel. In Portuguese before a consonant, and in many West African languages, it is , while in French it is , or among the younger generation . In pinyin, is spelled ''un'' after a consonant, ''wen'' initially.

is used in Portuguese for before a consonant.

is used in Tibetan Pinyin for .

is used in Lakhota for the nasal vowel .

is used in Pinyin to write the vowel in languages such as Yi, where ''o'' stands for .

is used in Taa, for the pharyngealized vowel .

is used in Central Alaskan Yup'ik language, Central Alaskan Yup'ik for , and in Pinyin to write the trill consonant, trilled vowel in languages such as Yi.

is used in Dutch for . In languages with phonemic long vowels, it may be used to write .

occurs in Dutch, as in (''yours''), duwen (''to push'') . It is used in Cornish for the sound or .

is used in Afrikaans for .

is used in Esperanto orthography, Esperanto as an unofficial surrogate of , which represents .

(a split digraph) indicates an English Great Vowel Shift, 'long u', historically , also .

V

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the labiodental flap .

was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless palatal click .

represents in Shona. It was also used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the aspirated consonant, aspirated palatal click .

was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless palatal click (equivalent to ).

was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the palatal nasal click .

is used in Central Alaskan Yup'ik language, Central Alaskan Yup'ik for .

is used in Quechuan languages, Quechua.

W

is used in English to represent Proto-Germanic , the continuation of the PIE Labialized velar consonant, labiovelar (which became in Latin and the Romance languages). Most English question words begin with this digraph, hence the terms ''wh-word'' and ''wh-question''. In Old English, /hw/ was spelled or , and only the former was retained during the Middle English period, becoming during the gradual development of the letter during the 14th-17th centuries. In most dialects it is now pronounced , but a distinct pronunciation realized as a voiceless labio-velar approximant, voiceless w sound, [ʍ], is retained in some areas: Scotland, central and southern Ireland, the southeastern United States, and (mostly among older speakers) in New Zealand. In a few words (''who'', ''whose'', etc.) the pronunciation used among almost all speakers regardless of geography is /h/. For details, see Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩.

In Māori language, Māori, represents or more commonly , with some regional variations approaching or . In the Taranaki Region, Taranaki region, for some speakers, this represents a glottalized . In Xhosa, it represents , a murmured variant of found in loan words. In Cornish, it represents .

is used in English for words which formerly began , now Phonological history of English consonant clusters#wr, reduced to /r/ in virtually all dialects.

is used in Mandarin pinyin to write the vowel in initial position, as in the name ''Wuhan.'' It is sometimes found with this value in Romanized Korean as well, as in hanwu. In Hong Kong Government Cantonese Romanisation, Cantonese Romanisation, it is used to represent in an initial position or in a non-initial position.

is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized .

is used in Nambikwara language, Nambikwara for a glottalized .

X

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the labialized fricative .

is used to write the click in Naro. It was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless lateral click .

, in Albanian language, Albanian, represents the sound of the voiced postalveolar affricate consonant , as in the surname ''Hoxha'' . In Zulu and Xhosa it represents the aspiration (phonetics), voiceless aspirated alveolar lateral click , for example in the name of the language ''Xhosa'' . In Walloon to write a consonant that is variously , , , depending on the dialect. In Canadian Tlingit language, Tlingit it represents , which in Alaska is written ''x̱.''

is used in English for in words such as ''flexion''. (It is equivalent to plus the digraph , as in ''action''.)

was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless lateral click (equivalent to ).

is used as a letter of the Seri alphabet, where it represents a labialized voiceless uvular fricative, uvular fricative, . It is placed between X and Y in alphabetical order.

is used in Portuguese in the word ''exsudar'' in Brazilian Portuguese. In European Portuguese this digraph changed to in the early 20th century and the word came to be pronounced as

was used in the Ossete Latin alphabet for .

is used in the Kurdish language, Kurdish and the Tlingit language for .

is used in Alaskan Tlingit language, Tlingit for , which in Canada is written ''Xhw (trigraph), xhw.''

is used in Hadza for the glottalized click , and in Cypriot Arabic for .

is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong language, Hmong, where it represents the sound .

Y

used in various languages. In some languages such as English it is used as an such as in bye or dye. In most languages, it is used as an sound, such as in yellow.

was used in the Orthography for languages of Guinea (pre-1985), pre-1985 orthography of Guinea, for the "ejective y" or Palatalization (sound change), palatalized glottal stop () in Pular (a Fula language). In the current orthography it is now written ƴ. In Xhosa it is used for the sound . In a handful of Australian languages, it represents a "dental semivowel".

is used in Mandarin pinyin to write the vowel when it forms an entire syllable.

is used in Yanyuwa language, Yanyuwa for a pre-velar consonant, velar stop, .

is used in French to write the vowel sound ( before another vowel), as in ''thym'' "thyme".

is used in French to write the vowel sound in some words of Greek origin, such as ''syncope'' "syncope".

is used in Pinyin to write the trill consonant, trilled vowel in languages such as Yi.

is used in romanized Chinese to write the vowel . In Mandarin pinyin it is used for in initial position, whereas in Cantonese Jyutping it is used for in non-initial position. In the Yale romanization of Cantonese and Hong Kong Government Cantonese Romanisation, Cantonese Romanisation, it represents in an initial position and in a non-initial position. (See jyu (trigraph), jyu.)

is used for in Arrernte language#Orthography, Arrernte and for double articulation, doubly articulated in Yélî Dnye language, Yélî Dnye. It is used in Cornish for the diphthongs , , or .

in used in Nambikwara language, Nambikwara for a glottalized .

is used in some languages such as Finnish language, Finnish to write the long vowel . In Haida (Bringhurst orthography) it is glottalized .

(a split digraph) indicates an English Great Vowel Shift, 'long y' (equivalent to ).

Z

represents the voiced postalveolar fricative (), like the in ''pleasure'', in Albanian language, Albanian and in Native American languages, Native American orthographies such as Navajo language, Navajo. It is used for the same sound in some English-language dictionaries, as well as to transliterate the sound when represented by Cyrillic and Persian alphabet, Persian into English, but is rarely seen in English words, appearing primarily in foreign borrowings (eg ''muzhik'') and slang (eg ''zhoosh''). as a digraph is rare in European languages using the Latin alphabet; in addition to Albanian it is found in Breton in words that are pronounced with in some dialects and in others. In Hanyu Pinyin, represents the voiceless retroflex affricate . When Malayalam and Tamil language, Tamil are transliterated into the Latin script, represents a retroflex approximant (Malayalam ഴ and Tamil ழ, ḻ, [ɻ]).

in Polish represents whenever it precedes a vowel, and whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of ź appearing in other situations.

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the voiced lateral fricative

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for .

is the last (forty-fourth) letter of the Hungarian alphabet. Its name is "zsé" and represents , a voiced postalveolar fricative, similar to ''J'' in ''Jacques'' and ''s'' in ''vision''. A few examples are ''rózsa'' "rose" and ''zsír'' "fat".

is used in Shona to write the whistled sibilant . This was written ɀ from 1931 to 1955.

is used in Dutch to represent the Labialization, labialized voiced alveolar fricative ().

is used in Pinyin for in languages such as Yi. It is also used with that value in romanized Kabyle language, Kabyle. In medieval Czech language, Czech, it stood for . In Hadza it is ejective .

Other

, capital , is used in many West African languages for the nasal vowel . ''Ɛ'' is an "Latin epsilon, open e".

, capital , is used in many West African languages for the nasal vowel . ''Ɔ'' is an "open o".

, capitalized , is used in French for the vowels and . The first element of the digraph, ''œ'', is itself is a ligature of ''o'' and ''e'', and may also be written as the trigraph (orthography), trigraph .

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for .

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for .

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the labial-velar nasal .

, capitalized , was used for in the old orthography of Zhuang and Bouyei language, Bouyei; this is now spelled with the trigraph (orthography), trigraph .

is used in Adzera for the prenasalized glottal stop .

, capitalized or sometimes , was a digraph used in the Slovene Bohorič alphabet for . The first element, , the long s, is an archaic non-final form of the letter .

are used in Juǀʼhoan for its four glottalized nasal clicks, .

are used in Khoekhoe for its four tenuis click consonant, clicks, .

are used in Khoekhoe for its four aspirated nasal clicks, , and in Juǀʼhoan for its plain aspirated clicks, .

are used in Juǀʼhoan for its four affricate ejective-contour clicks, .

are used in Khoekhoe for its four plain nasal clicks, .

are used in Juǀʼhoan for its four affricate pulmonic-contour clicks, .

See also

* List of Latin-script trigraphs
* List of Latin-script tetragraphs
* Pentagraph
* Hexagraph
* Heptagraph
* List of Latin letters
* List of Cyrillic digraphs

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:List Of Latin Digraphs

Latin-script digraphs,