![Gallowglass - Dürer](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Gallowglass_-_D%C3%BCrer.png)
Gaelic warfare was the type of
warfare
War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular ...
practiced by the
Gaelic peoples (the
Irish,
Scottish
Scottish usually refers to something of, from, or related to Scotland, including:
*Scottish Gaelic, a Celtic Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family native to Scotland
*Scottish English
*Scottish national identity, the Scottish ide ...
, and
Manx), in the pre-modern period.
Indigenous Gaelic Warfare
Weaponry
Irish warfare was for centuries centered on the ''Ceithearn'', or
Kern in English (and so pronounced in Gaelic), light
skirmishing infantry who harried the enemy with missiles before charging. John Dymmok, serving under
Elizabeth I
Elizabeth I (7 September 153324 March 1603) was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death in 1603. Elizabeth was the last of the five House of Tudor monarchs and is sometimes referred to as the "Virgin Queen".
El ...
's
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, described the kerns as:
"... A kind of footman, slightly armed with a sword, a
targe
Targe (from Old Franconian ' 'shield', Proto-Germanic ' 'border') was a general word for shield in late Old English. Its diminutive, ''target'', came to mean an object to be aimed at in the 18th century.
The term refers to various types of shie ...
t (round shield) of wood, or a bow and sheaf of arrows with barbed heads, or else three darts, which they cast with a wonderful facility and nearness..."
![Three irish kerns Albert Durer 1521](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Three_irish_kerns_Albert_Durer_1521.png)
For centuries the backbone of any Gaelic Irish army were these lightly armed
foot soldiers
Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and marine i ...
.
Ceithearn were usually armed with a
spear
A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with fire hardened spears, or it may be made of a more durable material fasten ...
(''gae'') or
sword
A sword is an edged, bladed weapon intended for manual cutting or thrusting. Its blade, longer than a knife or dagger, is attached to a hilt and can be straight or curved. A thrusting sword tends to have a straighter blade with a pointed ti ...
(''claideamh''),
long dagger (''scian''),
bow (''bogha'') and a set of
javelin
A javelin is a light spear designed primarily to be thrown, historically as a ranged weapon, but today predominantly for sport. The javelin is almost always thrown by hand, unlike the sling, bow, and crossbow, which launch projectiles with th ...
s, or
darts (''gá-ín'').
The use of
armored infantry in
Gaelic Ireland
Gaelic Ireland ( ga, Éire Ghaelach) was the Gaelic political and social order, and associated culture, that existed in Ireland from the late prehistoric era until the early 17th century. It comprised the whole island before Anglo-Normans co ...
from the 9th century on, came as a counter to the mail-clad
Vikings
Vikings ; non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway and Sweden),
who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded and se ...
. The arrival of the heavily armored
Norse-Gaelic mercenary
Gallowglasses in the early 13th century, was in response to the
Norman invasion of Ireland
The Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland took place during the late 12th century, when Anglo-Normans gradually conquered and acquired large swathes of land from the Irish, over which the kings of England then claimed sovereignty, all allegedly sanc ...
and the
Anglo-Normans
The Anglo-Normans ( nrf, Anglo-Normaunds, ang, Engel-Norðmandisca) were the medieval ruling class in England, composed mainly of a combination of ethnic Normans, French, Anglo-Saxons, Flemings and Bretons, following the Norman conquest. A sm ...
use of heavily armored
Men-at-arms
A man-at-arms was a soldier of the High Medieval to Renaissance periods who was typically well-versed in the use of arms and served as a fully-armoured heavy cavalryman. A man-at-arms could be a knight, or other nobleman, a member of a knig ...
and
Knights
A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the Christian denomination, church or the country, especially in a military capacity. Knighthood ...
.
These adaptations and developments brought regular use of other weapons such as
lances,
poleaxes like the
dane axe,
lochaber axe
The Lochaber axe ( Gaëlic: tuagh-chatha) is a type of poleaxe that was used almost exclusively in Scotland. It was usually mounted on a staff about five feet long.
Specifics of the weapon
The Lochaber axe is first recorded in 1501, as an "old ...
,
sparth axe
A polearm or pole weapon is a close combat weapon in which the main fighting part of the weapon is fitted to the end of a long shaft, typically of wood, thereby extending the user's effective range and striking power. Polearms are predominantly ...
and swords like the
arming sword and
two-handed swords similar to the Scottish
Claymore
A claymore (; from gd, claidheamh- mòr, "great sword") is either the Scottish variant of the late medieval two-handed sword or the Scottish variant of the basket-hilted sword. The former is characterised as having a cross hilt of forward-sl ...
.
Many of the medieval swords found in Ireland today are unlikely to be of native manufacture given many of the pommels and cross-guard decoration is not of Gaelic origin.
![07 Brian on the Morning of Clontarf](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/07_Brian_on_the_Morning_of_Clontarf.jpg)
By the time of
''Brian Bóruma'' and
''Máel Sechnaill'',
Irish kings
This page serves as an index of lists of kings of the Gaelic kingdoms of Ireland of the Early Medieval period.
*List of High Kings of Ireland
*Kings of Ailech
*Kings of Airgíalla
*Kings of Brega
*Kings of Breifne
*Kings of Connacht
*Kings of Dá ...
were taking large armies on
campaign over long distances and using
naval forces
A navy, naval force, or maritime force is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions. It inc ...
in tandem with
land forces. From the 11th century on, kings maintained small permanent fighting forces known as ''lucht tighe'' "troops of the household", who were often given houses and land on the
king's mensal land. These were well-trained and equipped professional soldiers made up of
infantry
Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and marine i ...
and
cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry ...
.
Aside from
Hobelars
Hobelars were a type of light cavalry, or mounted infantry, used in Western Europe during the Middle Ages for skirmishing. They originated in 13th century Ireland, and generally rode hobbies, a type of light and agile horse.
Origins
According ...
, who were highly mobile, lightly armored, cavalry
skirmishers and
archers, used primarily for
scouting
Scouting, also known as the Scout Movement, is a worldwide youth movement employing the Scout method, a program of informal education with an emphasis on practical outdoor activities, including camping, woodcraft, aquatics, hiking, backpacking ...
and
ambush
An ambush is a long-established military tactics, military tactic in which a combatant uses an advantage of concealment or the element of surprise to attack unsuspecting enemy combatants from concealed positions, such as among dense underbru ...
es, the main Gaelic
cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry ...
was usually made up of a
king
King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen, which title is also given to the consort of a king.
*In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the tit ...
or
chieftain and
his close relatives. They usually
rode without saddles but wore
armor and
iron helmets and wielded
swords
A sword is a cutting and/or thrusting weapon.
Sword, Swords, or The Sword may also refer to:
Places
* Swords, Dublin, a large suburban town in the Irish capital
* Swords, Georgia, a community in the United States
* Sword Beach, code name for ...
,
skenes and long
spear
A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with fire hardened spears, or it may be made of a more durable material fasten ...
s or
lances. A fully outfitted medieval Irish army would have included
light infantry
Light infantry refers to certain types of lightly equipped infantry throughout history. They have a more mobile or fluid function than other types of infantry, such as heavy infantry or line infantry. Historically, light infantry often fought ...
,
heavy infantry and mixed
cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry ...
.
Gaelic Warfare was anything but stagnant and was adaptive and ever changing. By the time of the
Tudor reconquest of Ireland and the beginning of the end of the Gaelic era, the Irish had adopted continental "
pike and shot" formations like those used by the continental armies of the
Spanish,
Swiss
Swiss may refer to:
* the adjectival form of Switzerland
* Swiss people
Places
* Swiss, Missouri
* Swiss, North Carolina
*Swiss, West Virginia
* Swiss, Wisconsin
Other uses
*Swiss-system tournament, in various games and sports
*Swiss Internation ...
and
Germans
, native_name_lang = de
, region1 =
, pop1 = 72,650,269
, region2 =
, pop2 = 534,000
, region3 =
, pop3 = 157,000
3,322,405
, region4 =
, pop4 = ...
. With formations consisting of
pikemen mixed with
musketeer
A musketeer (french: mousquetaire) was a type of soldier equipped with a musket. Musketeers were an important part of early modern warfare particularly in Europe as they normally comprised the majority of their infantry. The musketeer was a pre ...
s and
swordsmen
Swordsmanship or sword fighting refers to the skills and techniques used in combat and training with any type of sword. The term is modern, and as such was mainly used to refer to smallsword fencing, but by extension it can also be applied to an ...
. Indeed, from 1593 to 1601, the
Gaelic Irish fought with the most up-to-date methods of
warfare
War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular ...
, including full reliance on
firearm
A firearm is any type of gun designed to be readily carried and used by an individual. The term is legally defined further in different countries (see Legal definitions).
The first firearms originated in 10th-century China, when bamboo tubes ...
s and modern military tactics.
Gaelic raid culture
![Cuinbattle](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Cuinbattle.jpg)
The
Gaelic Irish preferred
hit-and-run tactics
Hit-and-run tactics are a tactical doctrine of using short surprise attacks, withdrawing before the enemy can respond in force, and constantly maneuvering to avoid full engagement with the enemy. The purpose is not to decisively defeat the ene ...
and
shock tactics like
ambush
An ambush is a long-established military tactics, military tactic in which a combatant uses an advantage of concealment or the element of surprise to attack unsuspecting enemy combatants from concealed positions, such as among dense underbru ...
es and
raids (''the crech''), which involved catching the enemy unaware. One of the most common causes of conflict in Gaelic Ireland was cattle raiding.
Cattle
Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, cloven-hooved, herbivores. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus ''Bos''. Adult females are referred to as cows and adult mal ...
were the main form of wealth in Gaelic Ireland, as it was in many parts of Europe, as currency had not yet been introduced, and the aim of most wars was the capture of the enemy's cattle. If this worked, the raiders would then seize any valuables (mainly
livestock
Livestock are the domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to provide labor and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to animals ...
) and potentially valuable hostages, burn the crops, and escape.
Indeed,
cattle raiding
Cattle raiding is the act of stealing cattle. In Australia, such stealing is often referred to as duffing, and the perpetrator as a duffer.Baker, Sidney John (1945) ''The Australian language : an examination of the English language and English ...
was a
social institution
Institutions are humanly devised structures of rules and norms that shape and constrain individual behavior. All definitions of institutions generally entail that there is a level of persistence and continuity. Laws, rules, social conventions a ...
within Gaelic culture and newly crowned
kings
Kings or King's may refer to:
*Monarchs: The sovereign heads of states and/or nations, with the male being kings
*One of several works known as the "Book of Kings":
**The Books of Kings part of the Bible, divided into two parts
**The ''Shahnameh'' ...
would carry out raids on traditional rivals upon coronation. The
Gaelic
Gaelic is an adjective that means "pertaining to the Gaels". As a noun it refers to the group of languages spoken by the Gaels, or to any one of the languages individually. Gaelic languages are spoken in Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man, and Ca ...
term ''creach rígh'', or "king's raid", was used to describe the event, implying it was a customary tradition.
The cattle raid was often called a ''
Táin Bó
The ''Táin Bó'', or cattle raid (literally "driving-off of cows"), is one of the genres of early Irish literature. The medieval Irish literati organised their work into genres such as the Cattle Raid (''Táin Bó''), adventure ('' Echtra''), the ...
'' and was an important aspect of
Gaelic literature
Gaelic literature ( ga, Litríocht na Gaeilge; gd, Litreachas na Gàidhlig) is literature in the vernacular Gaelic languages of Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.
Gaelic literature is recognised as the third oldest literature tradition of Eu ...
and
culture
Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups.Tyl ...
, with the ''
Táin Bó Cúailnge'' and ''
Táin Bó Flidhais'' as important examples.
Gaelic warfare was
anything but static, as
Gaelic
Gaelic is an adjective that means "pertaining to the Gaels". As a noun it refers to the group of languages spoken by the Gaels, or to any one of the languages individually. Gaelic languages are spoken in Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man, and Ca ...
soldiers frequently
looted or bought the newest and most effective weaponry.
Although hit-and-run raiding was the preferred Gaelic tactic in
medieval times
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
, there were also
pitched battles to settle larger disputes.
Especially
following the arrival of the
Vikings
Vikings ; non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway and Sweden),
who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded and se ...
from
Lochlann
In the modern Gaelic languages, () signifies Scandinavia or, more specifically, Norway. As such it is cognate with the Welsh name for Scandinavia, (). In both old Gaelic and old Welsh, such names literally mean 'land of lakes' or 'land of sw ...
, who brought their own style of
warfare
War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular ...
,
raiding
Raiding may refer to:
* The present participle of the verb Raid (disambiguation), which itself has several meanings
* Raid (military)
* Raid (video games), a group of video game players who join forces
* Raiding, Austria, a town in Austria
* Par ...
and
settlements. Over time these
newcomers founded their own
kingdom
Kingdom commonly refers to:
* A monarchy ruled by a king or queen
* Kingdom (biology), a category in biological taxonomy
Kingdom may also refer to:
Arts and media Television
* ''Kingdom'' (British TV series), a 2007 British television drama s ...
, began a
dynastic line and developed a distinct
culture
Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups.Tyl ...
of their own.
Armor
![O'Donovan's Shield](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/O%27Donovan%27s_Shield.png)
For the most part, the Gaelic Irish fought without armor, instead wearing saffron coloured belted
tunic
A tunic is a garment for the body, usually simple in style, reaching from the shoulders to a length somewhere between the hips and the knees. The name derives from the Latin ''tunica'', the basic garment worn by both men and women in Ancient Rome ...
s called ''léine'' (pronounced 'laynuh'), the plural being ''léinte'' (pronounced 'layntuh/laynchuh'). According to
Gerald of Wales (in the early 12th century), the Gaels preferred to not wear armor, as they deemed it burdensome to wear and one to be "brave and honourable" to fight without it.
Armor was usually a simple affair: the poorest might have worn
padded coats, the wealthier might have worn boiled leather armor called ''
cuir bouilli'', and the wealthiest might have had access to
bronze chest plates,
padded textile armor or maybe perhaps
mail
The mail or post is a system for physically transporting postcards, letter (message), letters, and parcel (package), parcels. A postal service can be private or public, though many governments place restrictions on private systems. Since the mid ...
or
scale armors (though they did exist in Ireland, they were quite rare).
Gallowglass mercenaries of the early 13th century have been depicted as having worn Hauberk, mail tunics and steel burgonet helmets but the overall majority of Kern (soldier), Gaelic warriors would have been protected only by a targe, small shield. Gaelic Shield, shields were usually round, with a spindle shaped Shield boss, boss, though later the regular iron boss models were introduced by the Anglo-Saxons,
Vikings
Vikings ; non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway and Sweden),
who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded and se ...
and Normans. A few shields were also oval in shape or square, but most of the native shields were small and round, like bucklers, to better enable agility and a quick escape.
Customs
![Ferdiafalls](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Ferdiafalls.jpg)
Celtic_warfare#Continuation_in_Ireland, Clan warfare was an important aspect of life in
Gaelic Ireland
Gaelic Ireland ( ga, Éire Ghaelach) was the Gaelic political and social order, and associated culture, that existed in Ireland from the late prehistoric era until the early 17th century. It comprised the whole island before Anglo-Normans co ...
, especially before the Viking age. When
Vikings
Vikings ; non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway and Sweden),
who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded and se ...
brought Viking Age arms and armour, new forms of technology, Norsemen, culture,
warfare
War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular ...
and
settlements to Ireland.
Before the Viking Age, there was a heavy importance placed on Irish clans, Gaelic clan wars and ritual combat.
Another very important aspect of Gaelic ritual warfare at this time was single combat. In order to settle a dispute or merely to measure one's prowess, it was customary to challenge another individual warrior from the other army to ritual single combat to the death, while being cheered on by the opposing hosts.
Champion warfare was an important aspect of Irish mythology, Early Irish literature, literature and Gaelic Ireland , culture, particularly in the Ulster cycle with Cú Chulainn and ''the
Táin Bó Cúailnge'', where the hero from Ulster defeats an entire army from Connacht one by one. Such single combats were common before a
pitched battle, and for ritual purposes they tended to occur at Ford (crossing), river fords.
The spirit and traditions of single combat would live on and manifest itself in other ways in Modern Gaelic cultures.
In Scotland with events like Scottish Backhold, Scottish Wrestling, the Highland Games and Scottish Martial Arts like the dueling of the 18th century. Where the victor was determined by who made the first-cut. However, this was not always observed, and at times the duel would continue to the death.
In Ireland, the spirit of ritual combat has also manifested itself as single combat style combat sport, sporting events and Irish martial arts such as Irish martial arts#Boxing, Irish boxing (''Dornálaíocht''), Barróg, Irish wrestling (''Barróg''), Bataireacht, stick fighting (''Bataireacht'') and Collar-and-elbow, scuffling (''Coiléar agus Uille'').
Urban Defense
![Griahan of aileach](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Griahan_of_aileach.jpg)
Many of the towns in Gaelic Ireland had some type of defense in the form of walls or ditches. For most of the Gaelic period, dwellings and buildings were Roundhouse (dwelling), circular with conical thatched roofs. Many towns and dwellings in Gaelic Ireland were often surrounded by a circular rampart called a "ringfort". There were very few nucleated settlements, but after the 5th century some List of monastic houses in Ireland, monasteries became the heart of small "monastic towns", many of the Irish round towers were built after this period.
![Irish tower house](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Irish_tower_house.jpg)
Following the
Norman invasion of Ireland
The Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland took place during the late 12th century, when Anglo-Normans gradually conquered and acquired large swathes of land from the Irish, over which the kings of England then claimed sovereignty, all allegedly sanc ...
, the Normans built motte-and-bailey castles in the areas they occupied, some of which were converted from ringforts. Within Gaelic Ireland, many of the areas conquered by
Anglo-Normans
The Anglo-Normans ( nrf, Anglo-Normaunds, ang, Engel-Norðmandisca) were the medieval ruling class in England, composed mainly of a combination of ethnic Normans, French, Anglo-Saxons, Flemings and Bretons, following the Norman conquest. A sm ...
often had defense walls due to the frontier type of lifestyle. Some had these walls built assuming that the town had no adequate defense with only using a ditch. The masonry walls on some towns had not been completed due to the economics of the time. While many of the towns often constructed what looks to be a defensive walls, this can sometimes not be the case. Towns constructed walls and town gates at times as merely a symbol of lordly wealth; or as a physical expression of power, the defensive aspects of some of these walls and gates would become a secondary role.
By the 12th century, "some mottes, especially in frontier areas, had almost certainly been built by the Gaelic Irish in imitation" of the Normans.
The Hiberno-Normans gradually replaced these wooden motte-and-baileys with Fortified house, stone castles and tower houses. Square and rectangle-shaped buildings gradually became more common, and by the 14th or 15th century they had replaced round buildings completely.
![RockOfCashel](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/RockOfCashel.jpg)
Starting in the late 16th century, an era of Siege warfare began in Ireland. During this period, urban defense came to the forefront of Gaelic warfare and became increasingly important. Following shocking atrocities at the Sack of Cashel and Oliver Cromwell’s Siege of Drogheda, Siege and massacre at Drogheda. Gaelic Irish rebels, realizing that they could not expect or trust any quarter to be given upon surrender, began to improvise and set traps for armies besieging their towns.
At both the Siege of Clonmel and Siege of Charlemont, Gaelic Ireland, Irish rebel defenders were able exact a heavy toll on Commonwealth of England, English forces. During Clonmel, Cromwell's New Model Army and 8,000 men eventually took the town from its 2,000 Irish defenders, but not before suffering heavy losses of around 2,000 soldiers or a quarter of their total force, their largest ever loss in a single action. At Charlemont, a small force of less than 200 defenders and townsfolk was able to hold off the New Model Army for two months through heavy fighting after arming the entire town's populace including women. In both engagements, the English, with overwhelming forces, surrounded the fortifications and created a breach in the defenses using cannon fire and then assaulted the breach. Both times, the town’s people and defenders set a trap within. At Clonmel, they built a coupure within the breach and lined it with artillery, muskets, and pikemen, thus creating a killing field just inside the walls. In both instances, Irish defenders were able to compel the superior English forces into granting surrender agreements with generous terms through heavy fighting and attrition to the besieging armies.
Tactics and organisation
![The Image of Irelande - plate02](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/The_Image_of_Irelande_-_plate02.jpg)
Initially kern (soldier), Kern or ''ceithern'' were members of individual tribes, but later, when the
Vikings
Vikings ; non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway and Sweden),
who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded and se ...
and Anglo-Normans, English came to Ireland, they introduced new systems of billeting soldiers, the kern became billeted soldiers and mercenary, mercenaries who served the highest bidder. Because Kern were equipped and trained as light
skirmishers, they faced a severe disadvantage in
pitched battle. In battle, the kern and lightly armed Light cavalry, horsemen would charge the enemy line after intimidating them with
shock tactics, Battle cry, war cries, Carnyx, horns and Wind instrument, pipes.
If the kern failed to break an enemy line after the charge, they were liable to flee. If the enemy formation did not break under the kern's charge, then heavily armed and armored Irish soldiers were moved forward and would advance from the rear lines and attack, these units were replaced in the late 13th century by the
Gallowglass or ''Gallóglaigh'', who at first were Norse-Gael, Norse-Gaelic mercenaries but by the 15th century most large túatha in Ireland had fostered and developed their own hereditary forces of Gallowglass. The primary function of Gaelic Heavy infantry was so lighter combatants such as Kern and Hobelars caught in thick fighting could strike, break free, re-group and tactically retreat behind the newly formed Line (formation), battle line if they needed to.
By the time of Tudor conquest of Ireland, the Tudor reconquest of Ireland, the forces under Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone had adopted Mainland Europe, Continental pike-and-shot tactics. Indeed, from the 16th century on, the Gaelic Irish fought with the most up-to-date methods of warfare, including full reliance on firearms and modern tactics. Their formations consisted of a mix of Pikemen, musketeers and Gallowglass, Gaelic swordsmen who began Basket-hilted sword#Scottish broadsword, to be equipped and fight more like the continental units like the Holy Roman Empire, German Landsknecht or the
Spanish Rodelero. They used these tactics to fight the Kingdom of England, invading English forces, however these formations proved vulnerable without adequate
cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry ...
support. Muskets and other Firearms were widely used in combination with traditional Gaelic shock tactics, shock and hit and run tactics, often in
ambush
An ambush is a long-established military tactics, military tactic in which a combatant uses an advantage of concealment or the element of surprise to attack unsuspecting enemy combatants from concealed positions, such as among dense underbru ...
es against enemy Column (formation), columns on the march.
Adaptations
![Britain](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Britain.Deisi.Laigin.jpg)
As time went on, the Gaels Great Conspiracy, began intensifying End of Roman rule in Britain, their raids and colonies in Roman Britain (c. 200–500 AD). Naval forces were necessary for this, and, as a result, large numbers of small boats, called currachs, were employed. Gaelic forces were so frequently at sea (especially the Dál Riata Gaels), weaponry had to change. Javelins and sling (weapon), slings became more uncommon, as they required too much space to launch, which the small currachs did not allow. Instead, more and more Gaels were armed with Bow and arrow, bows and arrows.
The Dál Riata, for example, after colonizing Scottish Highlands, the west of Scotland and becoming a maritime power, became an army composed completely of Archery, archers. Slings also went out of use, replaced by both bows and a very effective naval weapon called the ''crann tabhaill'', a kind of catapult.
Later, when the Gaels came into contact with the
Vikings
Vikings ; non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway and Sweden),
who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded and se ...
, they realized the need for heavier weaponry, so as to make hacking through the much larger Viking shield, Norse shields and heavy mail-coats possible.
Heavier hacking-swords and polearm weapons became more frequent, as did Iron Bascinet, helmets and hauberk, mail-coats. Gaels began to regularly use the double-handed "Dane Axe", wielded by the
Vikings
Vikings ; non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway and Sweden),
who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded and se ...
. Irish and Warfare in Medieval Scotland, Scottish infantry troops fighting with the
Claymore
A claymore (; from gd, claidheamh- mòr, "great sword") is either the Scottish variant of the late medieval two-handed sword or the Scottish variant of the basket-hilted sword. The former is characterised as having a cross hilt of forward-sl ...
, polearm, axes and Chainmail, heavier armor, in addition to their own dart (missile), native darts and History of archery#Medieval history, bows. These heavy troops became known as the ' (
Gallowglass), or "Norse-Gaels, foreign soldiers", and formed an important part of Gaelic armies in the future.
The Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland, coming of the Normans into Ireland Norman Conquest, and Britain several hundred years later also forced the Gaelic Ireland, Irish and Kingdom of Alba, Scots to use an increasingly large number of more heavily armored Gallowglass, warriors combined quick
skirmisher hobelars, cavalry in order to effectively deal with the mail-clad Normans.
During the Scottish Wars of Independence, the Kingdom of Scotland, Scots had to develop a means to counter the Anglo-Normans, Anglo-Norman Kingdom of England, English and their devastating combined use of heavy cavalry and the Longbow. Which had dominated almost every battlefield in Great Britain since the battle of hastings, Hastings.
The Scottish rebels Andrew de Moray, William Wallace and Scottish King Robert the Bruce can all be credited with the development of the Schiltron as a counter to the Normans and their early use of combined arms warfare. English Chroniclers of the era said of the warriors in the Schiltrons:
*"They were all on foot; picked men they were, enthusiastic, armed with keen axes, and other weapons, and with their shields closely locked in front of them, they formed an impenetrable phalanx ..."
* "They had axes at their sides and lances in their hands. They advanced like a thick-set hedge and such a phalanx could not easily be broken."
![Battle_of_Bannockburn_-_Bruce_addresses_troops](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Battle_of_Bannockburn_-_Bruce_addresses_troops.jpg)
Andrew de Moray is credited with using the Schiltron early on in Scottish Wars of Independence, the campaign but he died shortly after sustaining a mortal injury at the Battle of Stirling Bridge.
In early engagements, like when Schiltrons were used by William Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk, the immobile Phalanx-like formations proved vulnerable to the English Longbowmen without adequate
cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry ...
support. But the Scots learned from this and by the time Edward II of England, Edward II met the Scots at Bannockburn, Robert the Bruce had adapted the Schiltron and turned it into a more mobile offensive formation (much like the later Pike Square of Battle of Nancy, continental fame). With these tight mobile formations and adequate
cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry ...
support. The Scots were able to use this innovative adaptation to pin the Heavy cavalry, English heavy horse against the Bannock Burn, Bannockburn on the second day of the Battle of Bannockburn and routed the army of Edward II of England paving the way for eventual Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton, Scottish Independence.
Standards and Music
![Derrickepiper](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Derrickepiper.jpg)
Many Gaelic clans each had their own distinct Irish clans, cultures, coat of arms, symbols, heraldic flag, heraldry, banner, flags and War flag, battle standards. Wind instruments such as hollowed-out bull horns were often carried into battle by Chief of the Name, Chieftains or War leaders and used as a means to rally men into combat. Bagpipes would eventually gain popularity among Gaelic clans and replaced other rallying instruments such as the blowing horn or carnyx, it can be attributed as being used from as early on as the 14th century. Most notably the Great Irish Warpipes which would go on to be used by Gallowglass, Gaelic mercenaries in European conflicts and would eventually develop into ceremonial instruments. Bagpipes have since become an important symbol of Gaels, Gaelic culture as a whole. With both the Uilleann pipes and the Great Highland Bagpipe playing important roles in the culture of their respective nations.
Exported Gaelic Warfare
Gallowglass
![Roscommon St](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Roscommon_St._Mary%27s_Priory_Choir_Tomb_2014_08_28_crop_2.jpg)
The most prolific Norsemen, Norse legacy in Gaelic warfare was the introduction of the
Gallowglass, ''gallóglaigh'' (Irish language, Irish) or ''gallòglaich'' (Scottish Gaelic), a kind of
heavy infantry, Shock troops, shock troop and Bodyguards, elite bodyguard for the Gaelic nobility of Ireland, Gaelic Nobility. Similar in function to the Housecarls of the House of Wessex, English nobility or the Varangian Guard of Byzantine Empire, Constantinople. The original Gallowglass were Norse–Gaels, Norse–Gaelic mercenaries who came from the Hebrides and Kingdom of the Isles, the Isles. They appeared in Ireland in the 13th century, following the Wars of Scottish Independence and Bruce campaign in Ireland, the Bruce campaign but by the 15th century most large túatha had their own hereditary force of Gallowglass. They fought and trained in a combination of
Gaelic
Gaelic is an adjective that means "pertaining to the Gaels". As a noun it refers to the group of languages spoken by the Gaels, or to any one of the languages individually. Gaelic languages are spoken in Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man, and Ca ...
and Norsemen, Norse techniques, and were highly valued; they were hired throughout the British Isles at different times, though most famously in Gaelic Ireland, Ireland.
![MacDonald of the Isles (MacIan)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/MacDonald_of_the_Isles_%28MacIan%29.jpg)
One of the first battles believed to have to included Gallowglass was the Battle of Ath an Chip, Battle of Connacht. As Áed na nGall, Áed na nGall Ó Conchobair, the List of kings of Connacht, King of Connacht who defeated the
Anglo-Normans
The Anglo-Normans ( nrf, Anglo-Normaunds, ang, Engel-Norðmandisca) were the medieval ruling class in England, composed mainly of a combination of ethnic Normans, French, Anglo-Saxons, Flemings and Bretons, following the Norman conquest. A sm ...
, was known to travel with a retinue of 160 Gallowglass that he received as a dowry. Gallowglass usually wore
mail
The mail or post is a system for physically transporting postcards, letter (message), letters, and parcel (package), parcels. A postal service can be private or public, though many governments place restrictions on private systems. Since the mid ...
and basinet, iron helmets and wielded heavy weaponry such as the Dane axe, Sparth axes, Lochaber axes, Oakeshott typology, Longswords, Claymore#Two-handed (Highland) claymore, Claymores and sometimes
spear
A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with fire hardened spears, or it may be made of a more durable material fasten ...
s or
lances. These Gallowglass, Gallóglaigh furnished the retreating Gaels with a "moving Defense line, line of defense from which the horsemen could make short, sharp charges, and behind which they could retreat when pursued". Their heavy armor made them less nimble than Kern (soldier), kern, so they were sometimes placed at strategic spots along the Withdrawal (military), line of retreat.
Gallowglasses were frequently hired and served as mercenaries in Mainland Europe, continental armies and units, such as the Dutch Blue Guards, Swiss Guard, the Kingdom of France, French Scottish Guard, and the forces of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in his invasion of Livonia during the Thirty Years' War. Gallowglass later became a caste of warrior rather than a indicator of a norse gaelic origin, with Irish Gallowglass clans producing their own.
Despite the increased usage of
firearm
A firearm is any type of gun designed to be readily carried and used by an individual. The term is legally defined further in different countries (see Legal definitions).
The first firearms originated in 10th-century China, when bamboo tubes ...
s in Irish warfare following the 16th century, Gallowglass remained an integral part of Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, Hugh Ó Neill's forces during the Nine Years' War (Ireland), Nine Years' War. Following the combined Irish defeat at the Battle of Kinsale in 1601, the recruitment of the heavily armored warriors finally waned.
Hobelars
Hobelars
Hobelars were a type of light cavalry, or mounted infantry, used in Western Europe during the Middle Ages for skirmishing. They originated in 13th century Ireland, and generally rode hobbies, a type of light and agile horse.
Origins
According ...
were a mounted, highly mobile
skirmisher unit. Some were Mounted archery, mounted archers, some were merely light cavalry. These Gaelic horsemen were utilitarian and could fill multiple roles on the battlefield, including as mobile skirmisher
infantry
Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and marine i ...
used to Flanking maneuver, outmaneuver enemy units or that of skirmisher
cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry ...
, used for Hit-and-run tactics, quick and abrupt attacks.
![Connemara pony](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Connemara_pony.jpg)
Early Hobelars wore little armor, they typically rode on smaller quicker unarmored Irish Hobby, hobby horses and pony, ponies rather than the full sized horses that
Men-at-arms
A man-at-arms was a soldier of the High Medieval to Renaissance periods who was typically well-versed in the use of arms and served as a fully-armoured heavy cavalryman. A man-at-arms could be a knight, or other nobleman, a member of a knig ...
rode. Hobelars would typically dismount to fight, harry their opponents and then utilize their mounts as a quick getaway. As time went on, Hobelars began to be utilized for more and more cavalry tasks and functions.
During his Warfare in Medieval Scotland, conflicts with the English crown, Robert the Bruce deployed the irish hobby, hobby for his campaign of guerilla warfare and mounted raid (military), raids to great success, covering 60 to 70 miles (100 to 110 km) a day. They were so successful that Edward I of England prevented Irish exports of Irish hobby, hobbies to Kingdom of Scotland, Scotland in order to gain an advantage in the conflict.
Hobelars were highly proficient at Reconnaissance, scouting, patrolling and
ambush
An ambush is a long-established military tactics, military tactic in which a combatant uses an advantage of concealment or the element of surprise to attack unsuspecting enemy combatants from concealed positions, such as among dense underbru ...
ing in areas typically unreachable by cavalry units such a mountainous areas, thick forests and boggy swamps. Within Ireland and Great Britain Mainland Europe, and beyond, the skirmisher cavalry were a well-known and highly valued as a light and mobile unit.
After the successful and effective deployment of these horsemen by both the English and Scottish during the Scottish Wars of Independence. Belligerents in 100 Years War, continental conflicts also began to hire
Irish and
Scottish
Scottish usually refers to something of, from, or related to Scotland, including:
*Scottish Gaelic, a Celtic Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family native to Scotland
*Scottish English
*Scottish national identity, the Scottish ide ...
Gaels as mercenary troops for their armies. Both the Angevin Empire, English and Kingdom of France, French hired these Gaelic horsemen and both eventually duplicated the concept themselves. Hobelars were principally utilized in engagements during the Scottish Wars of Independence and Hundred Years War. After time the Hobelars slowly adapted from mounted
skirmishers much like Kern (soldier), kern into a more basic form of light cavalry. On Continental Europe, the continent, from 1311 on continental Hobelars became more and more armored and less distinguishable from other
cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry ...
units.
In Scotland, Hobelars served as the offensive arm of castle garrisons. Hobelars were utilized as raiders across the border by both the Angevin Empire, English and Kingdom of Scotland, Scots, they can be viewed as early predecessors to Border reivers, the reivers and moss-troopers of the Anglo-Scottish border, Scottish borderlands.
Later Weaponry
![Two-handed Highland sword](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Two-handed_Highland_sword.JPG)
During the late Middle Ages and Renaissance period, weapon imports from Mainland Europe, Europe influenced Gaelic weapon design. Take for example the German Zweihänder sword, a long Classification of swords#Great sword, double-handed weapon used for quick, powerful cuts and thrusts. Irish swords were copied from these models, which had unique furnishings. Many, for example, often featured Hilt#Hilt ring, open rings on the Hilt, pommel. On any locally designed Irish sword in the Middle Ages, this meant you could see the end of the Tang (tools), tang go through the pommel and cap the end. These swords were often of very fine construction and quality. Claymore, Scottish swords continued to use the more traditional "V" cross-guards that had been on pre-Norse Gaelic swords, culminating in such pieces as the now famous "claymore" design. This was an outgrowth of numerous earlier designs, and has become a symbol of Scotland. The claymore was used together with the typical dane axe, axes of the
Gallowglass until the 18th century, but began to be replaced by pistols, muskets and basket-hilted swords, which were shorter versions of the claymore which were used with one hand in conjunction with a shield.
These Basket-hilted sword#Scottish broadsword, basket-hilted broadswords are still a symbol of Scotland to this day, as is the typical small round shield known as a "
targe
Targe (from Old Franconian ' 'shield', Proto-Germanic ' 'border') was a general word for shield in late Old English. Its diminutive, ''target'', came to mean an object to be aimed at in the 18th century.
The term refers to various types of shie ...
."
Redshanks
![Mac_Laurin_(R](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Mac_Laurin_%28R._R._McIan%29.jpg)
Redshank (soldier), Redshank was a nickname for Scottish or Ulster mercenaries from the Scottish Highlands, Highlands and Outer Hebrides, Western Isles contracted to fight in Ireland; they were a prominent feature of Irish armies throughout the 16th century. They were called redshanks because similarly to the Irish they went dressed in plaids and waded bare-legged through rivers in the coldest weather. The term was not derogatory however, as the English people, English were in general impressed with the redshanks' qualities as soldiers.
![Scottish mercenaries in the Thirty Years War](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Scottish_mercenaries_in_the_Thirty_Years_War.jpg)
The redshanks were usually armed alike, principally with Bow and arrows, bows (the short bow of Scotland and Ireland, rather than the longbow of Wales and England) and, initially, two-handed weapons like claymores, battle axes or Lochaber axes. English people, English observers reported that some Scottish Highlands, Highlanders fighting in Ireland wore chain mail, long obsolete elsewhere.
Later in the period, they may have adopted the
targe
Targe (from Old Franconian ' 'shield', Proto-Germanic ' 'border') was a general word for shield in late Old English. Its diminutive, ''target'', came to mean an object to be aimed at in the 18th century.
The term refers to various types of shie ...
and Basket-hilted sword, single-handed broadsword, a style of weaponry originally fashionable in early Hapsburg Spain, 16th-century Spain from where its use could have spread to Ireland. Combined with the use of muskets, this could have influenced the development of what was later referred to as the "''highland charge''", a tactic of firing a single coordinated musket volley before closing at a run with Basket-hilted sword, sword and
targe
Targe (from Old Franconian ' 'shield', Proto-Germanic ' 'border') was a general word for shield in late Old English. Its diminutive, ''target'', came to mean an object to be aimed at in the 18th century.
The term refers to various types of shie ...
. Many Scottish clan, Gaelic clan levies, called Caterans, would have remained relatively poorly armed.
![The Battle of Culloden](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/The_Battle_of_Culloden.jpg)
By the mid-17th century, a large number of Scottish Highlanders, also often called "Redshank (soldier), redshanks", fought in the Irish Confederate Wars, notably the clansmen serving under Alasdair Mac Colla, himself a member of a minor Hebridean branch of Clan Donald (a cadet family of Clan MacDonald of Dunnyveg). However, the Highlanders who fought at the Battle of Dungan's Hill and Battle of Knocknanuss were to be the last of the redshanks.
[Carlton, Charles (2002). Going to the Wars: The Experience of the British Civil Wars 1638–1651. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-84935-2., page 135]
The subsequent Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, Cromwellian conquest and Williamite War in Ireland, Williamite War brought an end to Irish employment of Scottish Highland mercenaries through the destruction of their employers, the Gaelic nobility of Ireland, Gaelic nobility and by the pacification of the Scottish Highlands, Scottish Gaels with the Statutes of Iona and the Act of Proscription 1746, Highland clearances.
List of Gaelic conflicts and battles
This is a list of battles or conflicts in which the Gaels had a leading or crucial role.
See also
*Gaels
*
Gaelic Ireland
Gaelic Ireland ( ga, Éire Ghaelach) was the Gaelic political and social order, and associated culture, that existed in Ireland from the late prehistoric era until the early 17th century. It comprised the whole island before Anglo-Normans co ...
*Celtic warfare
*Kern (soldier), ''Ceithearn'' (Kern)
*Cateran, ''Ceathairne'' (Cateran)
*Gallowglass, ''Gallóglaigh ''(Gallowglass)
*Hobelar
*Fianna
*Redshank (soldier), Redshank
*Military History
*Warfare in Medieval Scotland
Notes
References
* G. A. Hayes-McCoy, "Strategy and Tactics in Irish Warfare, 1593–1601". ''Irish Historical Studies'', Vol. 2, No. 7 (Mar. 1941), pp. 255–279
* Fergus Cannan, "'HAGS OF HELL': late medieval Irish kern". ''History Ireland'', Vol. 19, No. 1 (January/February 2011), pp. 14–17
* The Barbarians, Terry Jones
*Julius Caesar, "De Bello Gallico"
*"Tain Bo Cuailnge", From the Book of Leinster
*Geoffrey Keating, "History of Ireland"
*"The Wars of the Gaels with the Foreigners"
*http://www.myarmoury.com/feature_armies_irish.html
*http://www.myarmoury.com/feature_armies_scots.html
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gaelic Warfare
Celtic warfare
Gaels, Warfare
Warfare of the Middle Ages
Military history of Ireland