French Romanesque architecture

Romanesque architecture appeared in France at the end of the 10th century, with the development of feudal society and the rise and spread of monastic orders, particularly the Benedictines, who built many important abbeys and monasteries in the style. It continued to dominate religious architecture until the appearance of French Gothic architecture in the Île-de-France between about 1140 and 1150.

Distinctive features of French Romanesque architecture include thick walls with small windows, rounded arches; a long nave covered with barrel vaults; and the use of the groin vault at the intersection of two barrel vaults, all supported by massive columns; a level of tribunes above the galleries on the ground floor, and small windows above the tribunes; and rows of exterior buttresses supporting the walls. Churches commonly had a cupola over the transept, supported by four adjoining arches; one or more large square towers, and a semi-circular apse with radiating small chapels. Decoration usually included very ornate sculpted capitals on columns and an elaborate semi-circular sculpted tympanum, usually illustrating the Last Judgement, over the main portal. Interior decoration often included murals covering the walls, colored tiles, and early stained glass windows. Late in the 12th century, the rib vault began to appear, particularly in churches in Normandy and Paris, introducing the transition to the Gothic style.

Characteristics

Plan

At the beginning of the eleventh century, inspired by the appearance of the style in northern Italy, Romanesque architecture spread west across southern France as far as Catalonia and Spain, and then north up the valley of the Rhône
river. In the early Romanesque period, churches followed the traditional form of a Roman basilica, particularly the plan of the Byzantine Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna. They had a single long nave, usually without a transept, which ended in a hemispherical apse. They usually had at least one bell tower, sometimes separated from the nave.

In the later Romanesque period, in the last third of the 11th century, new building techniques were introduced which allowed taller and wider churches. Two new plans became common. The first was the Benedictine plan, used in Cluny Abbey and the other new Benedictine monasteries. It featured three naves, with a transept at the crossing, and ranks of small chapels on either side of the apse on the east end. A modified plan appeared in the new abbeys and churches designed to welcome pilgrims traveling to shrines in Spain. These new churches were designed to accommodate large numbers of visitors, and included an ambulatory, or walkway, leading to several small chapels radiating in a semicircle from the apse. The ambulatory allowed visitors to easily access any of the chapels, without disturbing the service in the nave. They often had multiple towers over the entrance and wings of the transept, and sometimes a dome over the crossing point of the transept and nave. Saint-Front de Périgueux, modeled after St Mark's Basilica in Venice, is an example.

File:Cluny Grundriss.jpg, Plan of Cluny Abbey, with portal and pre-nave (avant-nave) and two towers, on the west, two transepts with towers, and an apse with radiating chapels on the east.
File:Plan.eglise.Saint.Front.Perigueux.png, A pilgrimage church. Plan of Saint-Front de Périgueux, a cruciform with five cupolas, modeled after St Mark's Basilica in Venice
File:Souillac, Abbaye Sainte-Marie-PM 15812.jpg, Apse of Abbaye Saint-Marie in Souillac, with radiating chapels

Arches and vaults

Rounded arches were the most common and most distinctive feature of the Romanesque style, though near the end of the period, pointed arches began to appear, particularly in Normandy. Builders began to experiment with vaulted ceilings, first in the crypt below the church, and then in the nave. The earliest types were the simple barrel vault, which rested upon rows of massive columns. Later churches used the ''voute d'arête'' or groin vault, two barrel vaults combined at right angles, which were stronger but required great skill to construct. Later in the period, the ''voute en berceau briséé'' or rib vault was introduced, which carried the thrust of the weight of the roof outwards and downwards, through thin ribs, to supporting columns and buttresses.

As the naves became higher and higher, with the weight pressing down and outward on the walls, the walls had to be supported by massive masonry buttresses on the outside. Because of the need for thick, solid walls, the windows were few and small in size. The ground floor had rows of massive columns, which supported the vaults of the roof. The walls were divided by thin colonettes, which also provided support to the roof.

The domes were either supported by an octagonal base (''Sur trompes'') or a circular base (''Sur pendentifs''), composed of barrel arches meeting at right angles.

The six-part rib vault, a key innovation in the transition to Gothic architecture, had been introduced in England in about 1100, and made its first appearance in France in the reconstruction of the naves of the church of the Abbey of Saint-Étienne, Caen, The Abbey of Sainte-Trinité, Caen, in about 1120. It also appeared in Burgundy and in an experimental version at the Abbey of Vézelay at about the same time. These vaults allowed ceilings that were lighter and stronger, and carried the weight outwards to columns and buttresses, so the supporting walls could be higher and thinner, with larger windows.

File:Bayeux cathedrale Notre-Dame crypte.jpg, Groin vaults in the crypt of Bayeux Cathedral (1077)
File:F10 51 Abbaye Saint-Martin du Canigou.0180.JPG, Early vaults of Saint-Martin-du-Canigou (11th century)
File:San Filiberto a Tournus volta.JPG, Vaulted ceiling of Saint-Philibert de Tournus (11th century)
File:Abbatiale Conques Nef.JPG, Vaulted ceiling of Abbey Church of Sainte-Foy (end of 11th century)
File:Voûte d'arêtes abbatiale Conques.JPG, Groin vaults at Abbey Church of Sainte-Foy (end of 11th century)
File:Abbaye Fontfroide 47.jpeg, Vaults of Chapter House of Fontfroide Abbey
File:Nave - Basilique Saint-Sernin - Alt1.jpg, Nave of Saint-Sernin Basilica in Toulouse
File:Église de la Trinité de Caen 814.JPG, Six-part rib vault in the Abbey of Sainte-Trinité, Caen (about 1120), the transition to the Gothic style

Elevations

The walls were divided into vertical sections, separated by thin columns of ''colonettes'' which supported the vaults of the roof. The ground level of the nave was usually flanked by columned arcades. These were usually surmounted by tribunes, or a galleries, where the faithful could gather to watch the ceremony in the nave below. The level above the tribune usually had a row of windows bringing light into the interior.

The tribunes provided greater width and support to the wall, which meant that churches could be higher. In some churches in the Auvergne region, the tribune rose up two levels, which meant that little light came into the nave. In Normandy, the tribune was often replaced by a ''triforium'', a narrow walkway. In Aquitaine, the churches had a single wide nave, which allowed more light to enter. Taller churches required heavy stone buttresses placed against the exterior walls to support the weight of the roof. This problem was not resolved until the Gothic period, when the introduction of the rib vault transferred the weight of the roof to the flying buttresses outside the walls.

File:Poitiers (86) Église Saint-Hilaire-le-Grand 02.JPG, Église_Saint-Hilaire-le-Grand in Poitiers (about 1130)
File:Abbaye de Lessay - élévation nef.JPG, Lessay Abbey in Normandy (begun 1080), with a triforium instead of a tribune as the middle level
File:PM 051270 F Toulouse.jpg, Elevation of the Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse (about 1118)
File:2015 Périgueux - Cathédrale St-Front.jpg, Interior of Saint-Front Cathedral in Périgueux

Facades

The exterior decoration of the early Romanesque churches was simple, usually composed of vertical stripes of carved stone joined at the top by a band of simple arcs (''bandes lombardes''); or a ''frieze'' of arcs, and, at the ''chevet'', a series of toothlike niches. The columns often had cubic carved capitals. Exterior decoration was usually either vegetal, such as carved acanthus leaves or palm fronds, or geometric forms. Occasionally sculpture with simplified human forms with biblical texts appeared on the lintels.

However, with the construction of new abbeys and pilgrimage churches, the facades became much more theatrical. The facade of the Église Notre-Dame la Grande, Poitiers, is one of the best surviving examples of a Romanesque pilgrimage church facade. It does not have a sculpted tympanum over its portal; instead, the whole facade serves as a theater of biblical scenes; a frieze of sculptures over the portals represents the stories of the original sin and redemption; a multitude of small sculptures around the doors depicts fabulous animals and other biblical themes.

File:Le Puy en Velay 03.jpg, The facade of Notre Dame du Puy, in the southwestern Auvergne region, is built of brick, local white sandstone and black volcanic stone (11th century)
File:PoitiersEglise Notre Dame.JPG, Facade of the Église Notre-Dame la Grande, Poitiers (second quarter of 12th century)
File:Poitiers - Notre-Dame la Grande 03.jpg, Detail of the frieze of the Église Notre-Dame la Grande, Poitiers
File:Abtei Le Thoronet Ansicht von Südwesten.jpg, Facade of the church of the Cistercian Thoronet Abbey, entirely bare of ornament (1176–1200)

Portals

The portal, or entrance, of the Romanesque church received the most elaborate and dramatic sculptural decoration. It was designed as the ''Porta Coeli'' or "Doorway to heaven", a depiction of biblical stories and images in stone, which in earlier churches had been shown on the sculpture of the altar. The usual themes of the portal were the Biblical Day of Judgement, promising Redemption for good Christians, and the Apocalypse for the others. Each church was different; at Moissac. the figure of Christ was surrounded by the four Evangelists, and the group was encircled by the twenty-four figures of the Apocalypse. The portal of Toulouse cathedral featured the Ascension of Christ, while the Abbey Church of Sainte-Foy illustrated the contrasts between hell and the virtuous life of Sainte-Foy.

While the portals of cathedrals traditionally faced west, on Romanesque churches they often were oriented toward the main street or square of the town. In the Cathedral of Cahors it faced north, onto the ancient main street; in Toulouse and Moissiac it faced south, onto the street that led to the center of the town.

One of the most famous sculptural works of the French Romanesque period is Moissac Abbey, a modest-sized abbey which had been a dependency of Cluny since 1047. It was commissioned by the Abbot Roger between 1115 and 1131. It is 5.63 meters in diameter, and is composed of twenty-eight blocks of stone, which were sculpted and then assembled. It depicts the Apocalypse as described in the Bible by Saint John. Christ is seated on a throne in the center, surrounded by a lion, a bull, an eagle in flight, and a human face, which in turn surrounded by twenty-eight seated wise men, who will make the Last Judgement.

File:Tympan_-_Porte_Miégeville_-_Basilique_Saint-Sernin.jpg, At the lateral entrance of Saint-Sernin of Toulouse, the ascending Christ, surrounded by superb angels, is the central figure on one of the oldest tympanums in Romanesque architecture (circa 1115).
File:Conques doorway carving 2003 IMG 6330.JPG, Portal of the Abbey Church of Sainte-Foy in Conques, showing the fate of the virtuous to the left and of sinners to the right
File:Abadia de Saint-Pierre de Moissac - Portalada Sud de Moissac.JPG, Southwest portal of Moissac Abbey (1115–1131) in the Tarn-et-Garonne in the Occitanie Region of Southern France
File:118 Autun Cathédrale Saint-Lazare Le tympan (détail).jpg, Tympanum of Autun Cathedral by Gislebertus, in the Burgundian style (about 1130)

Towers and domes

Bell towers and domes were another distinctive feature of the Romanesque. In the early monastery churches the bell tower Was often separate from the church. In the later period, large abbey churches, like Cluny, had two towers at the portal end, a tower where the transept crossed the nave, and towers on the ends of transept.

The main domes or cupolas were usually placed at crossing of the nave and the transept, and symbolized the heavens. They were often supported by four arches forming a square and supported by four massive pillars' which symbolically represented the four Evangelists, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. The pillars held up a ''Voûte d'arêtes'', or cross vault, where the barrels vaults of the nave and transept met at right angles. The curving triangular surfaces of these vaults, which joined the six or eight sides of the cupola to the four pillars, were called squinches', or pendentives, and were often decorated with the faces of the Four Evangelists, who were considered the symbolic link between the heavens and earth, or with angels or other Biblical figures.

File:75BCluny.jpg, The surviving tower of Cluny Abbey
File:Basilique St Sernin (1071046431).jpg, Tower of Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse
File:Perigueux Cathedrale Saint Front.jpg, Five domes and bell tower of Saint-Front Cathedral in Périgueux
File:Conques, Aveyron.jpg, Abbey Church of Saint Foy in Conques (11th–12th century)
File:Abbatiale Conques Tour Lanterne.JPG, The lantern of the Abbey Church of Sainte-Foy in Conques (11th–12th century) The squinches joining the supporting arches of the lantern are decorated with sculpture of the Apostles. The base is Romanesque, while the lantern itself is later Gothic.

History

Early Romanesque and the Meridional style

The Romanesque style in France developed first in the south of France, particularly in the provinces bordering on Catalonia. Among the best surviving examples are the church and cloister of the Abbey of Saint-Michel de Cuxa, built between 956 and 974. Churches in this region followed the plan of a basilica, with a small or no transept, They were built of massive stones, with little or no decoration on the interior walls. The bells were usually located in a separate tower, decorated with Lombard bands. The cloister of Saint-Michel de Cuxa, built in the 12th century, features columns of rose-colored marble and carved capitals in vegetal and animal shapes on the columns.

Around the year 1000, The architects of the abbeys in Burgundy began experimenting with different forms of vaulted ceilings, at first largely to avoid the danger of fires on the wooden roofs. The church of the Benedictine Abbey of Saint-Philibert de Tournus was an early example. The nave was covered by transversal barrel vaults, perpendicular to the axis of the nave, supported by rows of columns. The weight of the roof pressed down on the columns, not on the walls, This meant that the walls could be thinner, and could have larger windows, filling the church with more light.

File:Cuxa Cloister.jpg, Abbey of Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa in French Catalonia, with a bell tower separate from the church (middle of 10th century)
File:Codalet, Saint-Michel de Cuxa PM 47259.jpg, Capitals of columns in the cloister of the Abbey of Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa
File:Saint Martin du Canigou 04.jpg, Abbey of Saint-Martin du Canigou, in the Pyrenees (beginning of 11th century)
File:Tournus abbatiale vaults.jpg, Barrel vaulted ceiling in the Church of Saint-Philibert de Tournus in Tournus, Burgundy (beginning of 11th century)
File:Church in Chapaize.JPG, Church of Saint-Martin, Chapaize, Ssone-et-Loire (about 1030)

Late Romanesque – Benedictine abbeys

Religious orders played a particularly important role in the development of the Romanesque style. The reorganization of the Catholic Church under Louis the Pious (813–840), and the foundation of the first monastery under the rules of Saint Benedict (817), brought about important changes in religious practices and architecture. The Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, founded in 909 by William of Aquitaine, was the center of a resurgence of religious activity. In France, by the end of the 11th century, there were 815 monastic houses, and more than ten thousand monks, under the authority of the Abbot of Cluny. The flourishing of the monasteries reached a peak summit under Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085).

Cluny Abbey was the largest and most influential of the monasteries in France, both in doctrine and in architecture. The Abbot Hugues de Cluny (1049–1109) decided to reconstruct and enlarge the original Abbey, including the Abbatiale, or Abbey church. The new Abbatiale was completed in 1130. The new church was 187 meters long, and designed to accommodate two hundred and fifty monks. It contained a double transept, an avant-nave on the west, and on the east a chevet with a deambulatoire passage which gave access to five radiating chapels. The nave itself was immense, covered with a vaulted ceiling 10.85 meters wide and 25 meters high. The elevation of the nave had three levels; the windows on the upper levels brought light into the interior. It was crowned by five towers, the largest over the crossing of grand transept, two on either side of the entrance to the avant-nave, and two on the arms of the transept. Its gigantic proportions were not surpassed until the reconstruction of Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome in the 16th century.

Cluny Abbey was almost entirely destroyed during and after the French Revolution; the stones were reused in buildings across the region. The only remaining structures are the two towers of the avant-nave, and the bell tower on the south wing of the grand transept. Eight percent of the original structure remains today.

File:Dehio 212 Cluny.jpg, Cluny Abbey as it appeared in the 12th century (1080–1810)
File:FranceNormandieCerisyLaForetAbbaye.jpg, Benedictine Abbey of Saint-Vigor de Cerisy (1080–1085)

Cistercian monasteries

The Cistercian monastic order was created by Saint Bernard of Clairvaux in 1098; its first monastery was Cîteaux Abbey. Its principal doctrines were defined by Saint Benedict as separation from society, working for the necessities of life, and the refusal of anything unneeded for the first two. The architecture of the new monasteries was designed to comply with these rules. The monasteries were built as far as possible from cities. The monks lived in unadorned buildings constructed around a cloister, isolated from the outside world and from other parts of the monastery. The monks had individual cells, each with three small rooms; The "Ave Maria" for prayer; a second room with a desk and an alive for a bed; and a third room for a workshop. Each later had its own garden. A second building contained the common areas for the monks; a church, the cloister, the capitulary or meeting room; the kitchen and dining room. A third building was added for converts who were not monks, but who wanted to share the monastic life. The order expanded to five monasteries; in France: Cîteaux Abbey, Clairvaux Abbey, Morimond Abbey, Pontigny Abbey, and La Ferté Abbey. These five became the "Mother houses" for new Cistercian monasteries across the European continent and in England. After the death of Saint Bernard in 1153, the standard church architecture was modified; the hemispherical or square sanctuary of the church was replaced by a ''chevet'' with an ambulatory to pass from chapel to chapel.

File:Abbaye Pontigny.jpg, Pontigny Abbey church (founded 1114)
File:Abbaye de Cîteaux La Bibliothèque.JPG, The library of Cîteaux Abbey (founded 1098)
File:Vestige eglise Morimond.jpg, Ruins of Morimond Abbey (founded 1115)
File:Abbaye de Fontenay R01.jpg, Abbey of Fontenay (founded 1118)
File:Sénanque 06.JPG, Sénanque Abbey (founded 1148) is an example of
File:Cloister, Abbaye du Thoronet, Le Thoronet.JPG, Thoronet Abbey in Provence (1176–1200)
File:Abbaye de Thoronet.jpg, The vaulted ceiling of the chapter house of Thoronet Abbey, where the monks met daily

Pilgrimage churches

In the second period of Romanesque, beginning in the last third of the 11th century, many romanesque churches in France were built along the pilgrimage routes that Santiago de Compostela in Spain, where the reputed relics of Saint James the Great were displayed. With the fall of Jerusalem under Islamic rule, the route to Santiago de Compostela became one of the two most important pilgrimage routes in Europe, beside the pilgrimage to the tomb of Saint Peter in Rome. Churches along the route, included the Saint-Foy-de-Conques, were designed to provide space for large numbers of worshippers. The large pilgrimage churches featured a deambulatoire or columned passage around the choir, providing access to a series of small chapels, and even larger pilgrimage church like the basilica of Saint-Sernin has double side aisles to facilitate the movement of pilgrims. Another smaller notable church on the route was the Abbey of Saint-Nectaire in Puy-de-Dôme