The Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon (french: Mandat pour la Syrie et le Liban; ar, الانتداب الفرنسي على سوريا ولبنان, al-intidāb al-fransi 'ala suriya wa-lubnān) (1923−1946) was a
League of Nations mandate founded in the
aftermath of the First World War and the
partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
The partition of the Ottoman Empire (30 October 19181 November 1922) was a geopolitical event that occurred after World War I and the occupation of Constantinople by British, French and Italian troops in November 1918. The partitioning was ...
, concerning
Syria and
Lebanon
Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to Lebanon–Syria border, the north and east and Israel to Blue ...
. The mandate system was supposed to differ from
colonialism
Colonialism is a practice or policy of control by one people or power over other people or areas, often by establishing colony, colonies and generally with the aim of economic dominance. In the process of colonisation, colonisers may impose the ...
, with the governing country intended to act as a trustee until the inhabitants were considered eligible for
self-government
__NOTOC__
Self-governance, self-government, or self-rule is the ability of a person or group to exercise all necessary functions of regulation without intervention from an external authority. It may refer to personal conduct or to any form of ...
. At that point, the mandate would terminate and an
independent state
Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the statu ...
would be born.
During the two years that followed the end of the war in 1918—and in accordance with the
Sykes–Picot Agreement signed by
Britain
Britain most often refers to:
* The United Kingdom, a sovereign state in Europe comprising the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands
* Great Britain, the largest island in the United King ...
and
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
during the war—the British held control of most of
Ottoman Mesopotamia (modern
Iraq
Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, the Persian Gulf and K ...
) and the southern part of
Ottoman Syria (
Palestine and
Transjordan), while the French controlled the rest of
Ottoman Syria,
Lebanon
Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to Lebanon–Syria border, the north and east and Israel to Blue ...
,
Alexandretta (Hatay) and portions of southeastern Turkey.
In the early 1920s, British and French control of these territories became formalized by the
League of Nations
The League of Nations (french: link=no, Société des Nations ) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ...
' mandate system, and on 29 September 1923 France was assigned the League of Nations mandate of Syria, which included the territory of present-day Lebanon and Alexandretta in addition to modern Syria.
The administration of the region under the French was carried out through a number of different governments and territories, including the
Syrian Federation
The Syrian Federation ( ar, الاتحاد السوري; french: Fédération syrienne), officially the Federation of the Autonomous States of Syria (french: Fédération des États autonomes de Syrie), was constituted on 28 June 1922 by High Comm ...
(1922–24), the
State of Syria (1924–30)
State may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media Literature
* ''State Magazine'', a monthly magazine published by the U.S. Department of State
* ''The State'' (newspaper), a daily newspaper in Columbia, South Carolina, United States
* ''Our S ...
and the
Syrian Republic (1930–1950), as well as smaller states: the
State of Greater Lebanon, the
Alawite State
The Alawite State ( ar, دولة جبل العلويين, '; french: État des Alaouites), officially named the Territory of the Alawites (french: territoire des Alaouites), after the locally-dominant Alawites from its inception until its int ...
and
Jabal Druze State
Jabal al-Druze ( ar, جبل الدروز, french: Djebel Druze) was an autonomous state in the French Mandate of Syria from 1921 to 1936, designed to function as a government for the local Druze population under French oversight.
Nomenclat ...
.
Hatay State
Hatay State ( tr, Hatay Devleti; french: État du Hatay; ar , دولة هاتاي ''Dawlat Hatāy''), also known informally as the Republic of Hatay ( ar , جمهورية هاتاي ''Jumhūriyya Hatāy''), was a transitional political entity t ...
was annexed by Turkey in 1939. The French mandate lasted until 1946, when French troops eventually left Syria and Lebanon, which had both declared independence during
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...
.
Background
With the defeat of the Ottomans in Syria, British troops, under
General
A general officer is an officer of high rank in the armies, and in some nations' air forces, space forces, and marines or naval infantry.
In some usages the term "general officer" refers to a rank above colonel."general, adj. and n.". OED ...
Sir Edmund Allenby, entered
Damascus in 1918 accompanied by troops of the
Arab Revolt
The Arab Revolt ( ar, الثورة العربية, ) or the Great Arab Revolt ( ar, الثورة العربية الكبرى, ) was a military uprising of Arab forces against the Ottoman Empire in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. On ...
led by
Faisal, son of
Sharif Hussein
Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi ( ar, الحسين بن علي الهاشمي, al-Ḥusayn bin ‘Alī al-Hāshimī; 1 May 18544 June 1931) was an Arab leader from the Banu Hashim clan who was the Sharif and Emir of Mecca from 1908 and, after proc ...
of
Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow ...
. Faisal established the first new postwar Arab government in Damascus in October 1918, and named
Ali Rida Pasha ar-Rikabi a military governor.
![FEisalKingdom](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/FEisalKingdom.png)
The new Arab administration formed local governments in the major Syrian cities, and the
pan-Arab flag was raised all over Syria. The Arabs hoped, with faith in earlier British promises, that the new Arab state would include all the Arab lands stretching from
Aleppo in northern Syria to
Aden in southern
Yemen
Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...
.
However, in accordance with the secret
Sykes–Picot Agreement between Britain and France, General Allenby assigned to the Arab administration only the interior regions of Syria (the eastern zone).
Palestine (the southern zone) was reserved for the British. On 8 October, French troops disembarked in
Beirut
Beirut, french: Beyrouth is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint o ...
and occupied the Lebanese coastal region south to
Naqoura
Naqoura (, ''Enn Nâqoura, Naqoura, An Nāqūrah'') is a small city in southern Lebanon. Since March 23, 1978, the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) has been headquartered in Naqoura.
Name
According to E. H. Palmer (1881), the nam ...
(the western zone), replacing British troops there. The French immediately dissolved the local Arab governments in the region.
![Syrian National Congress, Damascus 1919-1920](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Syrian_National_Congress%2C_Damascus_1919-1920.jpg)
France demanded full implementation of the Sykes–Picot Agreement, with Syria under its control. On 26 November 1919, British forces withdrew from Damascus to avoid confrontation with the French, leaving the Arab government to face France. Faisal had travelled several times to Europe since November 1918, trying to convince France and Britain to change their positions, but without success. France's determination to intervene in Syria was shown by the naming of General
Henri Gouraud as high commissioner in Syria and
Cilicia
Cilicia (); el, Κιλικία, ''Kilikía''; Middle Persian: ''klkyʾy'' (''Klikiyā''); Parthian: ''kylkyʾ'' (''Kilikiyā''); tr, Kilikya). is a geographical region in southern Anatolia in Turkey, extending inland from the northeastern coa ...
. At the
Paris Peace Conference, Faisal found himself in an even weaker position when the European powers decided to renege on the promises made to the Arabs.
In May 1919, elections were held for the
Syrian National Congress
The Syrian National Congress, also called the Pan-Syrian Congress and General Syrian Congress (GSC), was convened in May 1919 in Damascus, Syria, after the expulsion of the Ottomans from Syria. The mission of the Congress was to consider the futu ...
, which convened in Damascus. 80% of seats went to conservatives. However, the minority included dynamic
Arab nationalist figures such as
Jamil Mardam Bey
Jamil Mardam Bey ( ota, جميل مردم بك; tr, Cemil Mardam Bey; 1895–1960), was a Syrian politician. He was born in Damascus to a prominent aristocratic family. He is a descendant of the Ottoman general, statesman and Grand Vizier Lala ...
,
Shukri al-Kuwatli
Shukri al-Quwatli ( ar, شكري القوّتلي, Shukrī al-Quwwatlī; 6 May 189130 June 1967) was the first president of post-independence Syria. He began his career as a dissident working towards the independence and unity of the Ottoman Em ...
,
Ahmad al-Qadri,
Ibrahim Hanano, and
Riyad as-Solh. The head was moderate nationalist
Hashim al-Atassi
Hashim al-Atassi ( ar, هاشم الأتاسي, Hāšim al-ʾAtāsī; 11 January 1875 – 5 December 1960) was a Syrian nationalist and statesman and the President of Syria from 1936 to 1939, 1949 to 1951 and 1954 to 1955.
Background and e ...
.
In June 1919, the American
King–Crane Commission arrived in Syria to inquire into local public opinion about the future of the country. The commission's remit extended from Aleppo to
Beersheba
Beersheba or Beer Sheva, officially Be'er-Sheva ( he, בְּאֵר שֶׁבַע, ''Bəʾēr Ševaʿ'', ; ar, بئر السبع, Biʾr as-Sabʿ, Well of the Oath or Well of the Seven), is the largest city in the Negev desert of southern Israel. ...
. They visited 36 major cities, met with more than 2,000 delegations from more than 300 villages, and received more than 3,000 petitions. Their conclusions confirmed the opposition of Syrians to the mandate in their country as well as to the
Balfour Declaration, and their demand for a unified
Greater Syria encompassing Palestine. The conclusions of the commission were ignored by both Britain and France.
![Seal of the states under French mandate](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Seal_of_the_states_under_French_mandate.svg)
Unrest erupted in Syria when Faisal accepted a compromise with French Prime Minister
Clemenceau. Anti-
Hashemite
The Hashemites ( ar, الهاشميون, al-Hāshimīyūn), also House of Hashim, are the royal family of Jordan, which they have ruled since 1921, and were the royal family of the kingdoms of Hejaz (1916–1925), Syria (1920), and Iraq (1921 ...
demonstrations broke out, and
Muslim inhabitants in and around
Mount Lebanon revolted in fear of being incorporated into a new, mainly Christian, state of
Greater Lebanon
The State of Greater Lebanon ( ar, دولة لبنان الكبير, Dawlat Lubnān al-Kabīr; french: État du Grand Liban), informally known as French Lebanon, was a state declared on 1 September 1920, which became the Lebanese Republic ( ar, ...
. A part of France's claim to these territories in the Levant was that France had been acknowledged as a protector of the minority Christian communities by the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
.
In March 1920, the Congress in Damascus adopted a resolution rejecting the Faisal-Clemenceau accords. The congress declared the
independence of Syria in her natural borders (including Southern Syria or Palestine), and proclaimed Faisal the king of all Arabs. Faisal invited
Ali Rida al-Rikabi to form a government. The congress also proclaimed political and economic union with neighboring
Iraq
Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, the Persian Gulf and K ...
and demanded its independence as well.
On 25 April, the supreme inter-Allied council, which was formulating the
Treaty of Sèvres
The Treaty of Sèvres (french: Traité de Sèvres) was a 1920 treaty signed between the Allies of World War I and the Ottoman Empire. The treaty ceded large parts of Ottoman territory to France, the United Kingdom, Greece and Italy, as well ...
, granted France the mandate of Syria (including Lebanon), and granted Britain the
Mandate of Palestine (including Jordan), and Iraq. Syrians reacted with violent demonstrations, and a new government headed by Hashim al-Atassi was formed on 7 May 1920. The new government decided to organize general conscription and began forming an army.
These decisions provoked adverse reactions by France as well as by the
Maronite patriarchate of Mount Lebanon, which denounced the decisions as a "
coup d'état
A coup d'état (; French for 'stroke of state'), also known as a coup or overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers. Typically, it is an illegal seizure of power by a political faction, politician, cult, rebel group, m ...
". In
Beirut
Beirut, french: Beyrouth is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint o ...
, the Christian press expressed its hostility to the decisions of Faisal's government.
Lebanese nationalists used the crisis against Faisal's government to convene a council of Christian figures in
Baabda
Baabda ( ar, بعبدا) is the capital city of Baabda District as well as the capital of Mount Lebanon Governorate, western Lebanon. Baabda was the capital city of the autonomous Ottoman Mount Lebanon. Baabda is known for the Ottoman Castle (t ...
that proclaimed the independence of
Lebanon
Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to Lebanon–Syria border, the north and east and Israel to Blue ...
on 22 March 1920.
On 14 July 1920, General Gouraud issued an ultimatum to Faisal, giving him the choice between submission or abdication. Realizing that the power balance was not in his favor, Faisal chose to cooperate. However, the young minister of war,
Youssef al-Azmeh, refused to comply. In the resulting
Franco-Syrian War
The Franco-Syrian War took place during 1920 between the Hashemite rulers of the newly established Arab Kingdom of Syria and France. During a series of engagements, which climaxed in the Battle of Maysalun, French forces defeated the forces of t ...
, Syrian troops under al-Azmeh, composed of the little remaining troops of the Arab army along with Bedouin horsemen and civilian volunteers, met the better trained 12,000-strong French forces under General
Mariano Goybet
Mariano Francisco Julio Goybet (17 August 1861 – 29 September 1943) was a French Army general, who held several commands in World War I.
Family
His family is an old family from Savoy in France. Its members were notaries, merchants, mayors, cap ...
at the
Battle of Maysaloun
The Battle of Maysalun ( ar, معركة ميسلون), also called the Battle of Maysalun Pass or the Battle of Khan Maysalun (french: Bataille de Khan Mayssaloun), was a four-hour battle fought between the forces of the Arab Kingdom of Syria an ...
. The French won the battle in less than a day and Azmeh died on the battlefield, along with many of the Syrian troops, while the remaining troops possibly defected. General Goybet
captured Damascus with little resistance on 24 July 1920, and the mandate was written in London two years later on 24 July 1922.
States created during the French Mandate
Arriving in
Lebanon
Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to Lebanon–Syria border, the north and east and Israel to Blue ...
, the French were received as liberators by the Christian community, but in the rest of Syria, they were faced with strong resistance.
The mandate region was subdivided into six states. They were the states of
Damascus (1920),
Aleppo (1920),
Alawites
The Alawis, Alawites ( ar, علوية ''Alawīyah''), or pejoratively Nusayris ( ar, نصيرية ''Nuṣayrīyah'') are an ethnoreligious group that lives primarily in Levant and follows Alawism, a sect of Islam that originated from Shia Isl ...
(1920),
Jabal Druze (1921), the autonomous
Sanjak of Alexandretta
The Sanjak of Alexandretta ( ar, لواء الإسكندرونة '', '' tr, İskenderun Sancağı, french: Sandjak d'Alexandrette) was a sanjak of the Mandate of Syria composed of two qadaas of the former Aleppo Vilayet ( Alexandretta and Antio ...
(1921, modern-day
Hatay
Hatay Province ( tr, Hatay ili, ) is the southernmost province of Turkey. It is situated almost entirely outside Anatolia, along the eastern coast of the Levantine Sea. The province borders Syria to its south and east, the Turkish province of ...
), and the
State of Greater Lebanon (1920), which became later the modern country of Lebanon.
The borders of these states were based in part on the sectarian geography in Syria. Many of the different Syrian sects were hostile to the French mandate and to the division it created, as shown by the numerous revolts that the French encountered in all of the Syrian states. The
Maronite Christians of
Mount Lebanon, on the other hand, were a community with a dream of independence that was being realized under the French; therefore, Greater Lebanon was the exception among the newly formed states.
It took France three years from 1920 to 1923 to gain full control over Syria and to quell all the insurgencies that broke out, notably in the
Alawite territories,
Mount Druze
Jabal al-Druze ( ar, جبل الدروز, ''jabal ad-durūz'', ''Mountain of the Druze''), officially Jabal al-Arab ( ar, جبل العرب, links=no, ''jabal al-ʿarab'', ''Mountain of the Arabs''), is an elevated volcanic region in the As-Suwa ...
and
Aleppo.
Although there were uprisings in the different states, the French deliberately gave different ethnic and religious groups in the
Levant
The Levant () is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean region of Western Asia. In its narrowest sense, which is in use today in archaeology and other cultural contexts, it is ...
their own lands in the hopes of prolonging their rule. The French hoped to fragment the various groups in the region, to mitigate support for the
Syrian nationalist
Syrian nationalism, also known as Pan-Syrian nationalism (or pan-Syrianism), refers to the nationalism of the region of Syria, as a cultural or political entity known as " Greater Syria".
It should not be confused with the Arab nationalism that ...
movement seeking to end colonial rule. The administration of the state governments was heavily dominated by the French. Local authorities were given very little power and did not have the authority to independently decide policy. The small amount of power that local leaders had could easily be overruled by French officials. The French did everything in their power to prevent people in the Levant from developing self-sufficient governing bodies.
State of Greater Lebanon
On 3 August 1920,
Arrêté 299 of the ''Haut-commissariat de la République française en Syrie et au Liban'' linked the cazas of Hasbaya, Rachaya, Maallaka and Baalbeck to what was then known as the Autonomous Territory of Lebanon. Then on 31 August 1920, General Gouraud signed Arrêté 318 delimiting the State of Greater Lebanon, with explanatory notes stating that Lebanon would be treated separately from the rest of Syria. On 1 September 1920, General Gouraud publicly proclaimed the creation of the
State of Greater Lebanon (french: links=no, État du Grand Liban, ar, links=no, دولة لبنان الكبير) at a ceremony in Beirut.
![Proclamation of the state of Greater Lebanon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Proclamation_of_the_state_of_Greater_Lebanon.jpg)
Greater Lebanon was created by France to be a "safe haven" for the
Maronite population of the ''
mutasarrifia'' (Ottoman administrative unit) of
Mount Lebanon. Mt. Lebanon, an area with a Maronite majority, had enjoyed varying degrees of
autonomy during the
Ottoman era. However, in addition to the Maronite Mutasarrifia other, mainly
Muslim, regions were added, forming "Greater" Lebanon. Those regions correspond today to
North Lebanon,
south Lebanon
Southern Lebanon () is the area of Lebanon comprising the South Governorate and the Nabatiye Governorate. The two entities were divided from the same province in the early 1990s. The Rashaya and Western Beqaa Districts, the southernmost distric ...
,
Biqa' valley
The Beqaa Valley ( ar, links=no, وادي البقاع, ', Lebanese ), also transliterated as Bekaa, Biqâ, and Becaa and known in classical antiquity as Coele-Syria, is a fertile valley in eastern Lebanon. It is Lebanon's most important ...
, and
Beirut
Beirut, french: Beyrouth is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint o ...
. The capital of Greater Lebanon was Beirut. The new state was granted a flag merging the
French flag
The national flag of France (french: link=no, drapeau français) is a tricolour featuring three vertical bands coloured blue ( hoist side), white, and red. It is known to English speakers as the ''Tricolour'' (), although the flag of Ireland ...
with the
cedar of Lebanon
''Cedrus libani'', the cedar of Lebanon or Lebanese cedar (), is a species of tree in the genus cedrus, a part of the pine family, native to the mountains of the Eastern Mediterranean basin. It is a large evergreen conifer that has great religi ...
.
Maronites were the majority in Lebanon and managed to preserve its independence; an independence that created a unique precedent in the Arab world as Lebanon was the first Arab country in which Christians were not a minority. The State of Greater Lebanon existed until 23 May 1926, after which it became the
Lebanese Republic
Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, while Cyprus lie ...
.
Most Muslims in Greater Lebanon rejected the new state upon its creation. Some believe that the continuous Muslim demand for reunification with Syria eventually brought about an
armed conflict between Muslims and Christians in 1958 when
Lebanese Muslims
Islam in Lebanon has a long and continuous history. According to an estimate by the CIA, it is followed by 67.8% of the country's total population. Sunnis make up 31.9%, Shias make up 31.2%, with smaller percentages of Alawites and Ismailis ...
wanted to join the newly proclaimed
United Arab Republic
The United Arab Republic (UAR; ar, الجمهورية العربية المتحدة, al-Jumhūrīyah al-'Arabīyah al-Muttaḥidah) was a sovereign state in the Middle East from 1958 until 1971. It was initially a political union between Eg ...
, while
Lebanese Christians
Christianity in Lebanon has a long and continuous history. Biblical Scriptures purport that Peter and Paul evangelized the Phoenicians, whom they affiliated to the ancient patriarchate of Antioch. The spread of Christianity in Lebanon was ...
were strongly opposed. However, most members of the Lebanese Muslim communities and their political elites were committed to the idea of being Lebanese citizens by the late 1930s, even though they also tended to nurture Arab nationalist sentiments.
State of Alawites
On 19 August 1920, General Gouraud signed Arrêté 314 which added to the autonomous sandjak of Alexandretta the cazas of Jisr el-Choughour, the madriyehs of Baher and Bujack (caza of Latakia), the moudiriyeh of Kinsaba (caza of Sahyoun) "with a view to the formation of the territories of Greater Lebanon and the
Ansarieh Mountains"; where the "Ansarieh Mountains" area was to become the Alawite State. On 31 August 1920, the same day that the decree creating Greater Lebanon was signed, General Gouraud signed Arrêté 319 delimiting the
State of Alawites, and Arrêté 317 adding the caza of Massyaf (Omranie) into the new State.
![Stamp Alaouites 1926 10pi air](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Stamp_Alaouites_1926_10pi_air.jpg)
The
State of Alawites (french: links=no, État des Alaouites, ar, links=no, دولة العلويين) was located on the Syrian coast and incorporated a majority of
Alawites
The Alawis, Alawites ( ar, علوية ''Alawīyah''), or pejoratively Nusayris ( ar, نصيرية ''Nuṣayrīyah'') are an ethnoreligious group that lives primarily in Levant and follows Alawism, a sect of Islam that originated from Shia Isl ...
, a branch of
Shia
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (''khalīfa'') and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, mo ...
Islam. The port city of
Latakia was the capital of this state. Initially it was an autonomous territory under French rule known as the "Alawite Territories". It became part of the Syrian Federation in 1922, but left the federation again in 1924 and became the "State of Alawites". On 22 September 1930, it was renamed the "Independent Government of
Latakia". The population at this time was 278,000. The government of Latakia finally joined the Syrian Republic on 5 December 1936. This state witnessed several rebellions against the French, including that of
Salih al-Ali (1918–1920).
On 28 June 1922 Arrêté 1459 created a "
Federation of the Autonomous States of Syria" which included the State of Aleppo, the State of Damascus and the State of the Alawis. However, two and a half years later on 5 December 1924 Arrêté 2979 and Arrêté 2980 establishing the Alawite State as an independent state with Latakia as its capital, and separately unified the States of Aleppo and Damascus as from 1 January 1925 into a single State, renamed "d'État de Syrie" ("State of Syria").
In 1936, both Jebel Druze and the Alawite State were incorporated into the State of Syria.
[Arrêté 265/LR of 2 December 1936 and Arrêté 274/LR of 5 December 1936 incorporated Jebel Druze and the Alawite State into Syria. Both used similar wording: "le territoire du Djebel Druze fait partie de l'État de Syrie... ce territoire bénéficie, au sein de l'État de Syrie, d'un régime spécial administratif et financier... sous réserve des dispositions de ce règlement, le territoire du Djebel Druze est régi par la Constitution, les lois et les règlements généraux de la République syrienne... le présent arrêté... entreront en vigueur... dès ratification du traité franco-syrien" [Translate: "The territory of Djebel Druze is part of the State of Syria ... this territory enjoys, within the State of Syria, a special administrative and financial regime ... subject to the provisions of this territory of Djebel Druze is governed by the Constitution, the laws and general regulations of the Syrian Republic ... this Order ... shall enter into force ... upon ratification of the Franco-Syrian Treaty ".]]
State of Syria
![General Gouraud marching in Aleppo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/General_Gouraud_marching_in_Aleppo.jpg)
On 1 September 1920, the day after the creation of Greater Lebanon and the Alawite State, Arrêté 330 separated out of the previous "Gouvernement de Damas" ("Government of Damascus") an independent government known as the "Gouvernement d'Alep" ("Government of Aleppo"), including the autonomous sandjak of Alexandretta, which retained its administrative autonomy. The terms "Gouvernement d'Alep" "Gouvernement de Damas" were used interchangeably with "l'État d'Alep" and "l'État de Damas" – for example, Arrete 279 1 October 1920 stated in its preamble: "Vu l'arrêté No 330 du 1er Septembre 1920 créant l'État d'Alep".
The
State of Aleppo
The State of Aleppo (french: État d'Alep; ar, دولة حلب ') was one of the five states that were established by the French High Commissioner of the Levant, General Henri Gouraud, in the French Mandate of Syria which followed the San Remo ...
(1920–1925, french: links=no, État d'Alep, ar, links=no, دولة حلب) included a majority of
Sunni Muslims
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
. It covered northern Syria in addition to the entire fertile basin of river
Euphrates
The Euphrates () is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia ( ''the land between the rivers''). Originating in Turkey, the Eup ...
of eastern Syria. These regions represented much of the agricultural and mineral wealth of Syria. The autonomous
Sanjak of Alexandretta
The Sanjak of Alexandretta ( ar, لواء الإسكندرونة '', '' tr, İskenderun Sancağı, french: Sandjak d'Alexandrette) was a sanjak of the Mandate of Syria composed of two qadaas of the former Aleppo Vilayet ( Alexandretta and Antio ...
was added to the state of Aleppo in 1923. The capital was the northern city of
Aleppo, which had large Christian and
Jewish
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
communities in addition to the Sunni Muslims. The state also incorporated minorities of
Shiites
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (''khalīfa'') and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, most n ...
and Alawites. Ethnic
Kurds ug:كۇردلار
Kurds ( ku, کورد ,Kurd, italic=yes, rtl=yes) or Kurdish people are an Iranian ethnic group native to the mountainous region of Kurdistan in Western Asia, which spans southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Ira ...
and
Assyrians inhabited the eastern regions alongside the Arabs. The General Governors of the state were
Kamil Pasha al-Qudsi (1920–1922)
Mustafa Bey Barmada (1923) and
Mar'i Pasha Al Mallah (1924-1925).
The
State of Damascus
The State of Damascus (french: État de Damas; ar, دولة دمشق ') was one of the six states established by the French General Henri Gouraud in the French Mandate of Syria which followed the San Remo conference of 1920 and the defeat of K ...
was a French mandate from 1920
to 1925. The capital was Damascus.
The primarily Sunni population of the states of Aleppo and Damascus were strongly opposed to the division of Syria. This resulted in its quick end in 1925, when France united the states of Aleppo and Damascus into the State of Syria.
Sanjak of Alexandretta
The Sanjak of Alexandretta became an autonomous province of Syria under Article 7 of the
French-Turkish treaty of 20 October 1921: "A special administrative regime shall be established for the district of Alexandretta. The Turkish inhabitants of this district shall enjoy facility for their cultural development. The Turkish language shall have official recognition".
In 1923,
Alexandretta was attached to the
State of Aleppo
The State of Aleppo (french: État d'Alep; ar, دولة حلب ') was one of the five states that were established by the French High Commissioner of the Levant, General Henri Gouraud, in the French Mandate of Syria which followed the San Remo ...
, and in 1925 it was directly attached to the French mandate of Syria, still with special administrative status. The sanjak was given autonomy in November 1937 in an arrangement brokered by the League. Under its new statute, the sanjak became 'distinct but not separated' from the French Mandate of Syria on the diplomatic level, linked to both France and Turkey for defence matters.
In 1938, the Turkish military went into the Syrian province and expelled most of its Alawite Arab and
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian Diaspora, Armenian communities across the ...
inhabitants.
Before this, Alawi Arabs and Armenians were the majority of Alexandretta's population.
[
The allocation of seats in the sanjak assembly was based on the 1938 census held by the French authorities under international supervision. The assembly was appointed in the summer of 1938, and the French-Turkish treaty settling the status of the Sanjak was signed on 4 July 1938.
On 2 September 1938, the assembly proclaimed the Sanjak of Alexandretta as the ]Hatay State
Hatay State ( tr, Hatay Devleti; french: État du Hatay; ar , دولة هاتاي ''Dawlat Hatāy''), also known informally as the Republic of Hatay ( ar , جمهورية هاتاي ''Jumhūriyya Hatāy''), was a transitional political entity t ...
. The republic lasted for one year under joint French and Turkish military supervision. The name ''Hatay'' itself was proposed by Atatürk and the government was under Turkish control.
In 1939, following a popular referendum, the Hatay State
Hatay State ( tr, Hatay Devleti; french: État du Hatay; ar , دولة هاتاي ''Dawlat Hatāy''), also known informally as the Republic of Hatay ( ar , جمهورية هاتاي ''Jumhūriyya Hatāy''), was a transitional political entity t ...
became a Turkish province.
State of Jabal Druze
On 24 October 1922, Arrêté 1641 established the "" (" Autonomous State of Jabal Druze")
It was created for the Druze population of southern Syria. It had a population of some 50,000 and its capital in As-Suwayda
As-Suwayda ( ar, ٱلسُّوَيْدَاء / ALA-LC romanization: ''as-Suwaydāʾ''), also spelled ''Sweida'' or ''Swaida'', is a mainly Druze city located in southwestern Syria, close to the border with Jordan.
It is the capital of As-Suwayda ...
.
In 1936, both Jebel Druze and the Alawite State were incorporated into the State of Syria.[
]
Demands for autonomy not granted by the French Mandate authorities
Al-Jazira Province
In 1936–1937, there was some autonomist agitation among Assyrians and Kurds ug:كۇردلار
Kurds ( ku, کورد ,Kurd, italic=yes, rtl=yes) or Kurdish people are an Iranian ethnic group native to the mountainous region of Kurdistan in Western Asia, which spans southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Ira ...
, supported by some Bedouins, in the province of Al-Jazira. Its partisans wanted the French troops to stay in the province in the event of a Syrian independence, as they feared the nationalist Damascus government would replace minority officials by Muslim Arabs from the capital. The French authorities refused to consider any new status of autonomy inside Syria.
Golan Region
In Quneitra
Quneitra (also Al Qunaytirah, Qunaitira, or Kuneitra; ar, ٱلْقُنَيْطِرَة or ٱلْقُنَيطْرَة, ''al-Qunayṭrah'' or ''al-Qunayṭirah'' ) is the largely destroyed and abandoned capital of the Quneitra Governorate in sout ...
and the Golan Region, there was a sizeable Circassian community. For the same reasons as their Assyrian, Kurdish and Bedouin counterparts in Al-Jazira province in 1936–1937, several Circassian leaders wanted a special autonomy status for their region in 1938, as they feared the prospect of living in an independent Syrian republic under a nationalist Arab government hostile towards the minorities. They also wanted the Golan region to become a national homeland for Circassian refugees from the Caucasus. A Circassian battalion served in the French Army of the Levant and had helped it against the Arab nationalist uprisings. As in Al-Jazira Province, the French authorities refused to grant any autonomy status to the Golan Circassians.
Economy
Already in 1921, the French wanted to develop the agricultural sector and over a feasibility study of the ''Union Economique de Syrie'' the North-East Syrian and the Alawite State
The Alawite State ( ar, دولة جبل العلويين, '; french: État des Alaouites), officially named the Territory of the Alawites (french: territoire des Alaouites), after the locally-dominant Alawites from its inception until its int ...
were deemed profitable for the cotton cultivation. Investments began in 1924, but it took until the 1930s to produce more than the level reached in 1925.[Khoury, Philip Shukry (1987),p.51] By 1933, Palestine was the largest importer of Syrian goods, while French held a share of 7.5% of the imports.[Khoury, Philip Shukry (1987),p.48] Between the two World Wars, France became the largest trader of goods of the French Mandate. From 1933 onwards, Japan was also a large source for imports.
Kingdom of Syria (1918-1920)
Heads of Government
King
French Mandate of Syria (1920-1939)
Acting Heads of State
President
Heads of State
Presidents
High Commissioners
* 26 Nov 1919 – 23 Nov 1922: Henri Gouraud
* 23 Nov 1922 – 17 Apr 1923: Robert de Caix (acting)
* 19 Apr 1923 – 29 Nov 1924: Maxime Weygand
Maxime Weygand (; 21 January 1867 – 28 January 1965) was a French military commander in World War I and World War II.
Born in Belgium, Weygand was raised in France and educated at the Saint-Cyr military academy in Paris. After graduating in 1 ...
* 29 Nov 1924 – 23 Dec 1925: Maurice Sarrail
Maurice Paul Emmanuel Sarrail (6 April 1856 – 23 March 1929) was a French general of the First World War. Sarrail's openly socialist political connections made him a rarity amongst the Catholics, conservatives and monarchists who dominated th ...
* 23 Dec 1925 – 23 Jun 1926: Henry de Jouvenel
Henry de Jouvenel des Ursins (5 April 1876 – 5 October 1935) was a French journalist and statesman.
* Aug 1926 – 16 Jul 1933: Auguste Henri Ponsot
* 16 Jul 1933 – Jan 1939: Damien de Martel
Count Damien de Martel was a French politician and diplomat, who was born on November 27, 1878 and died on January 21, 1940. He was a minister plenipotentiary in China, then in Latvia, Japan and the sixth High Commissioner of the Levant in Syria ...
* Jan 1939 – Nov 1940: Gabriel Puaux
* 24 Nov 1940 – 27 Nov 1940: Jean Chiappe (died on flight to take office)
* 6 Dec 1940 – 16 Jun 1941: Henri Dentz
* 24 Jun 1941 – 7 Jun 1943: Georges Catroux
* 7 Jun 1943 – 23 Nov 1943: :fr:Jean Helleu, Jean Helleu
* 23 Nov 1943 – 23 Jan 1944: Yves Chataigneau
* 23 Jan 1944 – 1 Sep 1946: Étienne Paul Beynet, Étienne Paul-Émile-Marie Beynet
See also
* French colonial empire
* French colonial flags
* French Lebanese
* List of French possessions and colonies
* Modern history of Syria
Notes
Further reading
Primary sources
* High Commissioner of the Levant, Haut-commissariat de la République française en Syrie et au Liban,
Recueil des actes administratifs du Haut-commissariat de la République française en Syrie et au Liban
', Bibliothèque numérique patrimoniale, Aix-Marseille University
* High Commissioner of the Levant, Haut-commissariat de la République française en Syrie et au Liban,
Bulletin officiel des actes administratifs du Haut commissariat de la République française en Syrie et au Liban
', Bibliothèque numérique patrimoniale, Aix-Marseille University
Secondary sources
* Hakim, Carol. 2019.
The French Mandate in Lebanon
" ''The American Historical Review'', Volume 124, Issue 5, Pages 1689–1693
* Hyam Mallat (2012)
Comprendre la formation des États du Liban et la Syrie a l’aune des boulerversements actuels dans le monde arabe
(in French)
* Hourani (1946)
Syria and Lebanon: A Political Essay
page 180 onwards
*
*
*
*
External links
Timeline of the French Mandate period
Mandat Syria-Liban ... (1920–1946)
{{DEFAULTSORT:French Mandate of Syria
French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon,
League of Nations mandates
20th century in Lebanon
20th century in Syria
History of the Levant
Former countries in the Middle East
Former colonies in Asia
Former French colonies, Mandate for Syria
French colonisation in Asia, Mandate for Syria
Former countries of the interwar period
Political entities in the Land of Israel
Sykes–Picot Agreement
1910s in Mandatory Syria,
1920s in Mandatory Syria,
1930s in Mandatory Syria,
1940s in Mandatory Syria,
States and territories established in 1923
States and territories disestablished in 1946
1923 establishments in Mandatory Syria,
1946 disestablishments in Asia
1923 establishments in the French colonial empire
1946 disestablishments in the French colonial empire
France–Lebanon relations
France–Syria relations