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The founding of Wallachia ( ro, descălecatul Țării Românești), that is the establishment of the first independent
Romanian Romanian may refer to: *anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania **Romanians, an ethnic group **Romanian language, a Romance language ***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language **Romanian cuisine, traditional ...
principality, was achieved at the beginning of the 14th century, through the unification of smaller political units that had existed between the
Carpathian Mountains The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Urals at and the Scandinavian Mountains at . The range stretches ...
, and the Rivers
Danube The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , pa ...
, Siret and Milcov.Pop 1999, p. 45.Georgescu 1991, p. 17. Prior to the consolidation of
Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ro, Țara Românească, lit=The Romanian Land' or 'The Romanian Country, ; archaic: ', Romanian Cyrillic alphabet: ) is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and so ...
, waves of
nomadic people A nomad is a member of a community without fixed habitation who regularly moves to and from the same areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the popu ...
s – the last of them being the
Cumans The Cumans (or Kumans), also known as Polovtsians or Polovtsy (plural only, from the Russian language, Russian Exonym and endonym, exonym ), were a Turkic people, Turkic nomadic people comprising the western branch of the Cuman–Kipchak confede ...
and the
Mongols The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal membe ...
– rode across the territory. The territory became a frontier area between the
Golden Horde The Golden Horde, self-designated as Ulug Ulus, 'Great State' in Turkic, was originally a Mongols, Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the fr ...
(the westernmost part of the
Mongol Empire The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous land empire in history. Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe, ...
) and the
Kingdom of Hungary The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from the Middle Ages into the 20th century. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the coronation of the first king Stephen ...
after 1242. The Romanians in
Muntenia Muntenia (, also known in English as Greater Wallachia) is a historical region of Romania, part of Wallachia (also, sometimes considered Wallachia proper, as ''Muntenia'', ''Țara Românească'', and the seldom used ''Valahia'' are synonyms in R ...
, east of the
Olt River The Olt (Romanian and Hungarian; german: Alt; la, Aluta or ', tr, Oltu, grc, Ἄλυτος ''Alytos'') is a river in Romania. It is long, and its basin area is . It is the longest river flowing exclusively through Romania. Its average disch ...
, had to pay tribute to the Mongols; and west of the river, in
Oltenia Oltenia (, also called Lesser Wallachia in antiquated versions, with the alternative Latin names ''Wallachia Minor'', ''Wallachia Alutana'', ''Wallachia Caesarea'' between 1718 and 1739) is a historical province and geographical region of Romania ...
, they were oppressed by the
Bans of Severin Ban, or BAN, may refer to: Law * Ban (law), a decree that prohibits something, sometimes a form of censorship, being denied from entering or using the place/item ** Imperial ban (''Reichsacht''), a form of outlawry in the medieval Holy Roman ...
, appointed by the Kings of Hungary.Vásáry 2005, p. 148. The Golden Horde's domination decreased in the region at the end of the 13th century, and at that time the Kingdom of Hungary also underwent a strong political crisis.Sălăgean 2006, p. 193. These events enabled the incipient states of the territory to consolidate their autonomy. One Romanian tradition records that Wallachia was founded when a certain
Radu Negru Radu may refer to: People * Radu (given name), Romanian masculine given name * Radu (surname), Romanian surname * Rulers of Wallachia, see * Prince Radu of Romania (born 1960), disputed pretender to the former Romanian throne Other uses * Radu ( ...
(‘Radu the Black’) arrived from the Făgăraș region in the 1290s after crossing the Transylvanian Alps with "a great many following him".Sedlar 1994, p. 24.Rădvan 2009, p. 48. Jean W. Sedlar wrote that "more credible" is the report that some Romanian lords in the Olt and Argeș valleys chose as leader one of their number, a certain Basarab. It was ''Voivode'' Basarab I (c. 1310–1352) who broke off with the Kingdom of Hungary and refused to accept the king's suzerainty. Basarab I received international support and the recognition of the autonomy of Wallachia due to his great military victory over King Charles I of Hungary (1301–1342) at Posada on November 12, 1330. The Metropolitan See of Wallachia, directly subordinated to the
Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople ( el, Οἰκουμενικὸν Πατριαρχεῖον Κωνσταντινουπόλεως, translit=Oikoumenikón Patriarkhíon Konstantinoupóleos, ; la, Patriarchatus Oecumenicus Constanti ...
, was set up during the reign of Basarab I's son,
Nicolae Alexandru Nicholas Alexander ( ro, Nicolae Alexandru), (died November 1364) was a Voivode of Wallachia (c. 1352 – November 1364), after having been co-ruler to his father Basarab I. Reign In the year 1359, he founded the Eastern Orthodox Metropoli ...
(1352–1364).Pop 1999, p. 46. The first silver and bronze coins were minted in Wallachia in 1365.


Last centuries of the Early Middle Ages

Among the oldest attestations of the countries of the
Vlachs "Vlach" ( or ), also "Wallachian" (and many other variants), is a historical term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate mainly Romanians but also Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, Istro-Romanians and other Easter ...
(early Romanians) on the left side of the Danube, there is a quotation of a passage from an
Armenian Armenian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia * Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent ** Armenian Diaspora, Armenian communities across the ...
book of geography. The passage represents an
interpolation In the mathematical field of numerical analysis, interpolation is a type of estimation, a method of constructing (finding) new data points based on the range of a discrete set of known data points. In engineering and science, one often has a n ...
, probably from the first centuries of the second millennium, which refers to an "unknown country called ''Balak''", situated in the neighborhood of the " Sarmatians’ country" and of ''"Zagura"'' (
Bulgaria Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedon ...
). Another 11th-century reference to the Vlachs’ country appears to be the section of the ancient Turkic chronicle '' Oghuzname'' ('Oghuz Khan's Tale'), preserved in a 17th-century text, which narrates the battles of the Cumans against several peoples, including the Vlachs ''(Ulak)''. The
Cumans The Cumans (or Kumans), also known as Polovtsians or Polovtsy (plural only, from the Russian language, Russian Exonym and endonym, exonym ), were a Turkic people, Turkic nomadic people comprising the western branch of the Cuman–Kipchak confede ...
, a
Turkic tribe The Turkic peoples are a collection of diverse ethnic groups of West, Central, East, and North Asia as well as parts of Europe, who speak Turkic languages.. "Turkic peoples, any of various peoples whose members speak languages belonging to the ...
approached the
Danube Delta The Danube Delta ( ro, Delta Dunării, ; uk, Дельта Дунаю, Deľta Dunaju, ) is the second largest river delta in Europe, after the Volga Delta, and is the best preserved on the continent. The greater part of the Danube Delta lies in Ro ...
shortly after 1064–1065, and from 1068 the entire territory between the
Aral Sea The Aral Sea ( ; kk, Арал теңізі, Aral teñızı; uz, Орол денгизи, Orol dengizi; kaa, Арал теңизи, Aral teńizi; russian: Аральское море, Aral'skoye more) was an endorheic basin, endorheic lake lyi ...
and the lower Danube were controlled by them. But this vast territory was never politically united by a strong central power.Vásáry 2005, p. 7. The different Cuman groups were under independent rulers or ''
khan Khan may refer to: *Khan (inn), from Persian, a caravanserai or resting-place for a travelling caravan *Khan (surname), including a list of people with the name *Khan (title), a royal title for a ruler in Mongol and Turkic languages and used by ...
s'' who meddled in the political life of the surrounding areas, such as the Rus’ principalities and the
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
. In attacking the Byzantine Empire, the Cumans were also assisted by the Vlachs living in the
Balkan Mountains The Balkan mountain range (, , known locally also as Stara planina) is a mountain range in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula in Southeastern Europe. The range is conventionally taken to begin at the peak of Vrashka Chuka on the border betw ...
(now in Bulgaria) who showed them the mountain paths where no imperial guard was set up. In 1185, the Balkan Vlachs, together with the
Bulgarians Bulgarians ( bg, българи, Bǎlgari, ) are a nation and South Slavic ethnic group native to Bulgaria and the rest of Southeast Europe. Etymology Bulgarians derive their ethnonym from the Bulgars. Their name is not completely understo ...
, rose up in arms against the Byzantine Empire.Pop 1999, p. 40. They created, with the help of the Cumans and the Vlachs living on the left bank of the Danube, a new state, the
Second Bulgarian Empire The Second Bulgarian Empire (; ) was a medieval Bulgarians, Bulgarian state that existed between 1185 and 1396. A successor to the First Bulgarian Empire, it reached the peak of its power under Tsars Kaloyan of Bulgaria, Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II ...
between the Balkan Mountains and the Danube (to the south of the future Wallachia). The new state was called "Bulgaria and Vlachia" in Western sources. For example, in 1204 the pope elevated the head of the Bulgarian church to the rank of "''primas''" (
primate Primates are a diverse order of mammals. They are divided into the strepsirrhines, which include the lemurs, galagos, and lorisids, and the haplorhines, which include the tarsiers and the simians (monkeys and apes, the latter including huma ...
) "of all Bulgaria and ''Vlachia''". ''Vlachia'' as an exonym for northern Bulgaria only disappeared from the sources after the middle of the 13th century. In 1211, King Andrew II of Hungary (1205–1235) settled the
Teutonic Knights The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem, commonly known as the Teutonic Order, is a Catholic religious institution founded as a military society in Acre, Kingdom of Jerusalem. It was formed to aid Christians on ...
in the region of Brașov in order to put an end to the frequent incursions of the Cumans into
Transylvania Transylvania ( ro, Ardeal or ; hu, Erdély; german: Siebenbürgen) is a historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and south its natural border is the Carpathian Mountains, and to the west the Ap ...
. The knights were given all the territory they could conquer beyond the Carpathian Mountains as a
fief A fief (; la, feudum) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an Lord, overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a for ...
to be held from the king of Hungary.Engel 2001, p. 90. According to a royal charter of 1222, the knights’ military power stretched across the Carpathians all the way to the Danube.Spinei 2005, p. 417. That the Teutonic Knights won several victories "beyond the snowy mountains" ''(ultra montes nivium)'', that is to the south and to the east of the Carpathians, is also confirmed by
papal The pope ( la, papa, from el, πάππας, translit=pappas, 'father'), also known as supreme pontiff ( or ), Roman pontiff () or sovereign pontiff, is the bishop of Rome (or historically the patriarch of Rome), head of the worldwide Cathol ...
letters. However, the Teutonic Knights were forced out of the territory in 1225 by King Andrew II, who claimed that they had ignored his authority. The Mongols entered Europe in 1223 when they defeated a joint Rus’-Cuman army at the river Kalka (now in
Ukraine Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inv ...
). Some Cuman groups, after their defeat of the Mongols, became willing to adopt Christianity.Engel 2001, p. 95. As early as 1227, one of the Cuman chieftains, Boricius subjected himself and his people to the future King Béla IV of Hungary, converted to Christianity and agreed to pay an annual tax and the
tithe A tithe (; from Old English: ''teogoþa'' "tenth") is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a contribution to a religious organization or compulsory tax to government. Today, tithes are normally voluntary and paid in cash or cheques or more r ...
. The
Roman Catholic Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
Diocese of Cumania, located in northeastern Wallachia and southwestern
Moldavia Moldavia ( ro, Moldova, or , literally "The Country of Moldavia"; in Romanian Cyrillic: or ; chu, Землѧ Молдавскаѧ; el, Ἡγεμονία τῆς Μολδαβίας) is a historical region and former principality in Centr ...
, was established in 1228. A significant presence of the Vlachs within the newly established bishopric is documented in the correspondence between the Hungarian
crown prince A crown prince or hereditary prince is the heir apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The female form of the title is crown princess, which may refer either to an heiress apparent or, especially in earlier times, to the wif ...
and
Pope Gregory IX Pope Gregory IX ( la, Gregorius IX; born Ugolino di Conti; c. 1145 or before 1170 – 22 August 1241) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 19 March 1227 until his death in 1241. He is known for issuing the '' Decre ...
(1227–1241), as the pope complained about
Orthodox Orthodox, Orthodoxy, or Orthodoxism may refer to: Religion * Orthodoxy, adherence to accepted norms, more specifically adherence to creeds, especially within Christianity and Judaism, but also less commonly in non-Abrahamic religions like Neo-pag ...
prelate A prelate () is a high-ranking member of the Christian clergy who is an ordinary or who ranks in precedence with ordinaries. The word derives from the Latin , the past participle of , which means 'carry before', 'be set above or over' or 'pref ...
s active among the local Vlachs. The Diocese of Cumania was ''
de jure In law and government, ''de jure'' ( ; , "by law") describes practices that are legally recognized, regardless of whether the practice exists in reality. In contrast, ("in fact") describes situations that exist in reality, even if not legally ...
'' a part of the Kingdom of Hungary, and King Andrew II adopted the title of "king of Cumania" in 1233.Spinei 2005, p. 432. There can be no doubt that the king also placed garrisons at key points on the southern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains in northeastern Wallachia. But the military outposts in the region of the bishopric are only first mentioned in relation to the Mongol invasion of 1241 by Roger of Torre Maggiore. In parallel with the emergence of the Second Bulgarian Empire, the Kingdom of Hungary also persuaded an active expansionist policy in the
Balkan Peninsula The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
from the end of the 12th century. To that end,
Oltenia Oltenia (, also called Lesser Wallachia in antiquated versions, with the alternative Latin names ''Wallachia Minor'', ''Wallachia Alutana'', ''Wallachia Caesarea'' between 1718 and 1739) is a historical province and geographical region of Romania ...
was put under the control of a Hungarian governor, who received the title of
ban Ban, or BAN, may refer to: Law * Ban (law), a decree that prohibits something, sometimes a form of censorship, being denied from entering or using the place/item ** Imperial ban (''Reichsacht''), a form of outlawry in the medieval Holy Roman ...
.Vásáry 2005, p. 146. The centre of the new province (the Banate of Severin) was Fort Severin (now
Drobeta-Turnu Severin Drobeta-Turnu Severin (), colloquially Severin, is a city in Mehedinți County, Oltenia, Romania, on the northern bank of the Danube, close to the Iron Gates. "Drobeta" is the name of the ancient Dacian and Roman towns at the site, and the modern ...
,
Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
), on the Danube, in the vicinity of the
Iron Gates The Iron Gates ( ro, Porțile de Fier; sr, / or / ; Hungarian: ''Vaskapu-szoros'') is a gorge on the river Danube. It forms part of the boundary between Serbia (to the south) and Romania (north). In the broad sense it encompasses a rou ...
. Its first ban, Luke, was mentioned in 1233. In 1236 a large Mongol army was collected under the supreme leadership of
Batu Khan Batu Khan ( – 1255),, ''Bat haan'', tt-Cyrl, Бату хан; ; russian: хан Баты́й was a Mongol ruler and founder of the Golden Horde, a constituent of the Mongol Empire. Batu was a son of Jochi, thus a grandson of Genghis Khan. ...
and set forth to the west, in one of the greatest invasions in world's history.Korobeinikov 2005, p. 390. The Mongols’ most devastating attacks against the western territories of the ''Desht-i Quipchaq'' (‘the
steppe In physical geography, a steppe () is an ecoregion characterized by grassland plains without trees apart from those near rivers and lakes. Steppe biomes may include: * the montane grasslands and shrublands biome * the temperate grasslands, ...
of the Cumans’) took place in 1237–1238. The development of the battles was not recorded in the sources, but the Cuman's subsequent migration to Hungary, Bulgaria and other neighboring territories is eloquent enough.Spinei 2009, p. 167. Although some Cuman groups survived the Mongol invasion, the Cuman aristocracy was slain. The steppes of eastern Europe were conquered by Batu Khan's army and became parts of the Golden Horde. But the Mongols left no garrisons or military detachments in the lower Danube region and did not take direct political control of it.Curta 2006, p. 413. Although theoretically part of the Golden Horde, the steppe corridor between the
Dnieper River } The Dnieper () or Dnipro (); , ; . is one of the major transboundary rivers of Europe, rising in the Valdai Hills near Smolensk, Russia, before flowing through Belarus and Ukraine to the Black Sea. It is the longest river of Ukraine and B ...
and the lower Danube was only a "region of hegemony", not of direct control.


Earliest ''voivodate''s in medieval documents

After the Mongol invasion, a great many (if not most) of the Cuman population left the
Wallachian Plain The Romanian Plain ( ro, Câmpia Română) is located in southern Romania and the easternmost tip of Serbia, where it is known as the Wallachian Plain ( sr, Vlaška nizija/Влашка низија). Part of the historical region of Wallachia, it ...
, but the Vlach (Romanian) population remained there under the leadership of their local chiefs, called '' knezes'' and ''
voivode Voivode (, also spelled ''voievod'', ''voevod'', ''voivoda'', ''vojvoda'' or ''wojewoda'') is a title denoting a military leader or warlord in Central, Southeastern and Eastern Europe since the Early Middle Ages. It primarily referred to the me ...
s''. In 1247, King Béla IV tried to bring the Knights Hospitallers to the region and granted to them a number of territories in the "land of Severin".Pop 1999, p. 44.Curta 2006, p. 407. The knights’ mission, however, proved to be a total failure (there is even no report whether they occupied their posts), but the royal charter for the knights, dated June 2, 1247, lists four autonomous territorial-administrative units (''kenezate''s) in Oltenia and western Muntenia.Vásáry 2005, p. 147. Two of them, the ''kenezate''s of
Johannes Johannes is a Medieval Latin form of the personal name that usually appears as "John" in English language contexts. It is a variant of the Greek and Classical Latin variants (Ιωάννης, ''Ioannes''), itself derived from the Hebrew name '' Yeh ...
and Farcaş were given to the Knights Hospitallers. But the ''kenezate''s under
Litovoi Litovoi, also Litvoy, was a Vlach/Romanian ''voivode'' in the 13th century whose territory comprised northern Oltenia in today's Romania. He is mentioned for the first time in the Diploma of the Joannites issued by king Béla IV of Hungary (1235 ...
and
Seneslau Seneslau, also Seneslav or Stănislau, was a Vlach ''voivode'' mentioned in the Diploma of the Joannites issued by king Béla IV of Hungary (1235–1270) on 2 July 1247. The diploma granted territories to the Knights Hospitaller in the Banate of Sev ...
were exempted from the grant, and the royal charter expressly stipulated that they were to be left "to the Vlachs as they had owned it until now". On the other hand, the royal charter also describes that ''Voivode'' Litovoi's rule had extended on the northern side of the Transylvanian Alps into the
Hunedoara Hunedoara (; german: Eisenmarkt; hu, Vajdahunyad ) is a municipiu, city in Hunedoara County, Transylvania, Romania. It is located in southwestern Transylvania near the Poiana Ruscă Mountains, and administers five villages: Boș (''Bós''), Groș ...
region, but the king removed this territory from Litovoi's authority in 1247; thenceforward Litovoi's ''kenezate'' was restricted to the Oltenian part of the Jiu valley. ''Voivode'' Seneslau held the territories of central and southern Muntenia on the banks of the rivers Argeș and Dâmbovița. After the failure and disappearance of the Hospitallers, the history of the region is shrouded in obscurity for decades. But the trend toward the unification of the Romanian polities seems to begin with ''Voivode'' Litovoi. He (or his namesake son) was at war with the Hungarians and killed in battle sometime between 1270 and 1280. In the battle, his brother,
Bărbat Bărbat was the brother and successor of ''voivode'' Litovoi whose territory had comprised northern Oltenia (Romania). War with Hungary In 1277 (or between 1277 and 1280), Litovoi renounced fealty to king Ladislaus IV of Hungary (1272–1290) ...
was captured. Bărbat was forced not only to pay ransom but also to recognize Hungarian rule.


'Dismounting' by Radu Negru

Romanian chronicles written in the 17th century narrate that a ''herțeg'' or
duke Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a duchy, or of a member of royalty, or nobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, grand princes, grand dukes, and sovereign princes. As royalty or nobility, they are ran ...
of Făgăraș and
Almaș Almaș ( hu, Háromalmás) is a commune in Arad County, Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hung ...
, named Radu Negru (‘Radu the Black’) or Negru Vodă (‘The Black Voivode’) was the first ''voivode'' of Wallachia.Brătianu 1980, p. 87. These texts state that Radu Negru, together with some colonists ("Romanians, Catholics and
Saxons The Saxons ( la, Saxones, german: Sachsen, ang, Seaxan, osx, Sahson, nds, Sassen, nl, Saksen) were a group of Germanic * * * * peoples whose name was given in the early Middle Ages to a large country (Old Saxony, la, Saxonia) near the Nor ...
") arrived from the region of Făgăraş in Transylvania.Brătianu 1980, pp. 93., 102. The first documentary evidence for a ''terra Blacorum'' (‘land of the Vlachs’) on the territory later called Făgăraș is an early 13th-century property register which mentions the order of King Andrew II of Hungary that estates previously in Vlach hands be transferred to the
Cistercian The Cistercians, () officially the Order of Cistercians ( la, (Sacer) Ordo Cisterciensis, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist), are a Catholic religious order of monks and nuns that branched off from the Benedictines and follow the Rule of Saint ...
abbey at Cârța. Radu Negru and his followers crossed the Carpathians to Muntenia and founded Wallachia with its capitals in
Câmpulung Câmpulung (also spelled ''Cîmpulung'', , german: Langenau, Old Romanian ''Dlăgopole'', ''Длъгополе'' (from Middle Bulgarian)), or ''Câmpulung Muscel'', is a municipality in the Argeș County, Muntenia, Romania. It is situated among t ...
and
Curtea de Argeș Curtea de Argeș () is a municipality in Romania on the left bank of the river Argeș, where it flows through a valley of the Southern Carpathians (the Făgăraș Mountains), on the railway from Pitești to the Turnu Roșu Pass. It is part of ...
. The chronicles narrate these events under the year 1290 or 1292. The Romanian term for the "founding" (''descălecat'', literally ‘dismounting’) refers to this alleged settling in Wallachia.Brătianu 1980, p. 93. But the word's exact meaning is debated, since there had been Romanians living in Wallachia before Radu Negru's arrival; thus the term likely refers simply to the unification of the lands under one ruler. Moreover, this account of Radu Negru's ‘dismounting’ may merely be a legend subsequently invented to parallel the circumstances by which
Moldavia Moldavia ( ro, Moldova, or , literally "The Country of Moldavia"; in Romanian Cyrillic: or ; chu, Землѧ Молдавскаѧ; el, Ἡγεμονία τῆς Μολδαβίας) is a historical region and former principality in Centr ...
, the other Romanian principality was founded according to the earliest chronicles. The origin of Oltenia is given by some of the chronicles differently: according to these chronicles Oltenia was colonized by Romanians from Turnu Severin, who founded two other capitals, at
Strehaia Strehaia () is a town in Mehedinți County, Oltenia, Romania. It is situated on the Motru River valley, in the eastern part of the county. Forests in the vicinity are home to the largest Hermann's tortoise colonies in Oltenia. Nine villages ar ...
and
Craiova Craiova (, also , ), is Romania's 6th Cities in Romania, largest city and capital of Dolj County, and situated near the east bank of the river Jiu River, Jiu in central Oltenia. It is a longstanding political center, and is located at approximatel ...
.Brătianu 1980, pp. 102–103. After the arrival of Radu Negru and his ''descălecat'', these Romanians swore allegiance to him. Radu Negru's personality is surrounded by legend; no details about him can be proved by other historical sources.Brătianu 1980, p. 90. Some chronicles identify him with the founder of various churches, such as the monastery at Curtea de Argeș, but they mistake him for later ''voivode''s of Wallachia, such as
Radu I Radu I (died 1383) was a Voivode of Wallachia (c. 1377 – c. 1383). His year of birth is unattested in any primary source. He was the son of Nicolae Alexandru and half-brother and successor to Vladislav I. He is identified by many historians as ...
(c. 1377–c. 1383) and
Neagoe Basarab Neagoe Basarab (; c.1459 – 15 September 1521) was the Voivode (Prince) of Wallachia between 1512 and 1521. Born into the boyar family of the Craioveşti (his reign marks the climax of the family's political influence) as the son of Pârvu Cra ...
(1512–1521). Due to lack of any actual contemporary evidence, the Roman historian Nicolae Iorga doubted the existence of such a ''voivode'', considering that 'Negru Vodă' is simply a nickname that could have been given to Basarab I, the real founder of Wallachia. Other view is represented by
Neagu Djuvara Neagu Bunea Djuvara (; 18 August 1916 – 25 January 2018) was a Romanian historian, essayist, philosopher, journalist, novelist, and diplomat. Biography Early life A native of Bucharest, he was descended from an aristocratic Aromanian family ...
who identifies Negru Vodă with
Thocomerius Thocomerius, also Tihomir, was the father of Basarab, who would become the first independent ''voivode'' of Wallachia. Many Romanian historians, such as Vlad Georgescu and Marcel Popa, believe that Thocomerius was a ''voivode'' in Wallachia who su ...
, Basarab's father, explaining his nickname by his alleged Cuman descent: he appeared to have a dark skin color for the Romanians. In an interview, historian Ioan-Aurel Pop stated, Djuvara "is not a specialist in the field of medieval history" and his "Cumanian theory" is questionable. The legendary traditions may also be in connection with the establishment of a trans-Carpathian frontier
mark Mark may refer to: Currency * Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark, the currency of Bosnia and Herzegovina * East German mark, the currency of the German Democratic Republic * Estonian mark, the currency of Estonia between 1918 and 1927 * Fi ...
by the Hungarian monarchy, with its capital at Câmpulung, probably in the last decade of the 13th century. A
tomb stone A headstone, tombstone, or gravestone is a stele or marker, usually stone, that is placed over a grave. It is traditional for burials in the Christian, Jewish, and Muslim religions, among others. In most cases, it has the deceased's name, ...
belonging to one of the leaders of this formation, Count Lawrence of Câmpulung ''(comes Laurentius de Longo Campo)'', dating from the year 1300, may provide a solid chronological reference point. On the other hand, ''comes Laurentius'' may have been a one-time leader of the Saxon community in Câmpulung.


Basarab I the Founder

Basarab was the son of Thocomerius whose status cannot be specified. There is no direct clue in the sources to the date when Basarab took the office of ''voivode''.Vásáry 2005, p. 149. But Ioannes Kantakouzenos in his ''History'' narrates that in 1323 Basarab's armies joined in the fighting between Bulgaria and Byzantium and supported Tzar Michael Šišman of Bulgaria (1323–1330) against the Byzantines.Vásáry 2005, p. 150. In a diploma, dated July 26, 1324, King Charles I of Hungary refers to Basarab as "our ''voivode'' of Wallachia" ''(woiuodam nostrum Transalpinum)'' which indicates that at that time Basarab was a
vassal A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain. W ...
of the king of Hungary. In short time, however, Basarab refused to accept the suzerainty of the king, for neither Basarab's growing power nor the active foreign policy he was conducting on his own account to the south could be acceptable in Hungary. In a new diploma, dated June 18, 1325, King Charles I mentions him as "Basarab of Wallachia, unfaithful to the king's Holy Crown" ''(Bazarab Transalpinum regie corone infidelem)''. Hoping to punish Basarab, King Charles I mounted a military campaign against him in 1330. The king marched to Severin and took it from Basarab.Vásáry 2005, p. 154. The ''voivode'' asked for a truce, offering to refund 7,000 silver marks for the costs of the army, and showed himself ready to continue paying tribute to the king and send his son as a hostage to the royal court. But the king refused and advanced with his host into Wallachia where everything seemed to have been laid waste. Unable to subdue Basarab, the king ordered the retreat through the mountains. But in a long and narrow valley, the Hungarian army was attacked by the Romanians, who had taken up positions on the heights. The battle, called the Battle of Posada, lasted for four days (November 9–12, 1330) and was a disaster for the Hungarians whose defeat was devastating. The king was only able to escape with his life by exchanging his royal coat of arms with one of his retainers. The Battle of Posada was a turning point in Hungarian-Wallachian relations: though in the course of the 14th century, the kings of Hungary still tried to regulate the ''voivode''s of Wallachia more than one time, but they could only succeed temporarily. Thus Basarab's victory irretrievably opened the way to independence for the Principality of Wallachia.


Aftermath of the Battle of Posada

The international prestige of Wallachia increased considerably after Basarab's victory over King Charles I. Only a few months after his great victory, in February 1331, Basarab contributed to the establishment of his son-in-law,
Ivan Alexander Ivan Alexander ( bg, Иван Александър, transliterated ''Ivan Aleksandǎr'', ; original spelling: ІѠАНЪ АЛЄѮАНдРЪ), also sometimes Anglicized as John Alexander, ruled as Emperor (''Tsar'') of Bulgaria from 1331 to 1371, ...
(1331–1371) on the throne of the tzars of
Bulgaria Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedon ...
in Tarnovo. As a way of solemnizing his secession from the Kingdom of Hungary, Basarab's son, Nicolae Alexandru also sought Byzantine approval for the creation of an Orthodox see for his territories.Angold 2006, p. 26. In 1359 Byzantium acceded to his request that the displaced metropolitan of Vicina, Hyakinthos – whom Nicolae Alexander had been hosting at his court for some time – should become the "legitimate pastor of all ''Oungrovlachia'' for the blessing and spiritual direction of himself, his children and all his lordship". At the same time, Byzantium also agreed to the creation of a metropolitan see, after Hyakinthos’ death, for "all ''Oungrovlachia''". The new state was denoted as ''Oungrovlachia'' () in Byzantine sources which reflects that it bordered on the Kingdom of Hungary.Vásáry 2005, p. 142. This name is first encountered in a Greek diploma issued by the
synod A synod () is a council of a Christian denomination, usually convened to decide an issue of doctrine, administration or application. The word ''wikt:synod, synod'' comes from the meaning "assembly" or "meeting" and is analogous with the Latin ...
of the Patriarchate of Constantinople in 1370. In the diploma, the ruler of Wallachia, Nicolae Alexandru is styled "great ''voivode'' and master of all ''Oungrovlachia''".
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
documents used the term ''Wallachia'' or ''Wallachia maior'' (‘Greater Wallachia’) for Muntenia (which first appeared in 1373), and ''Wallachia minor'' (‘Lesser Wallachia’) for Oltenia (first recorded in 1377). The new country was identified as ''terra transalpina'' (‘land beyond the mountains’) or ''partes transalpinae'' (‘parts beyond the mountains’) in documents issued by the
Royal Chancellery Chancellor of Poland ( pl, Kanclerz - , from la, cancellarius) was one of the highest officials in the historic Poland. This office functioned from the early Polish kingdom of the 12th century until the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwea ...
of Hungary in the entire 14th century.Vásáry 2005, p. 143. The terminology of the Hungarian chancellery was also used in the Latin documents of the Wallachian ''voivode''s. The Romanian rulers chose the Byzantine model of government, and Wallachia was from the start an
absolute monarchy Absolute monarchy (or Absolutism as a doctrine) is a form of monarchy in which the monarch rules in their own right or power. In an absolute monarchy, the king or queen is by no means limited and has absolute power, though a limited constitut ...
. The princes' absolute power was held to be divinely ordained.Georgescu 1991, p. 34. Their correspondence and records used the expression "
By the Grace of God By the Grace of God ( la, Dei Gratia, abbreviated D.G.) is a formulaic phrase used especially in Christian monarchies as an introductory part of the full styles of a monarch. For example in England and later the United Kingdom, the phrase was fo ...
" from the 14th century. Wallachian sovereigns were host commanders and supreme judges, they patronized the church and made decisions that became laws.Pop 1999, p. 51. In theory, the ''voivode''s were considered proprietors of all the lands in the country, but in fact they were devoid of extensive personal land holdings. The monarchy was also dynastic: the princes were to be elected by boyars from among the members of the ruling family, the Basarabs. The boyars were the members of the privileged landed aristocracy. However, the origin of the Romanian boyar class is problematic: it may have evolved naturally from the heads of the Vlach villages and communities, but it is also possible that the princes created it by granting privileges to certain favored persons. Multiple vassalage became an important aspect of Romanian diplomacy after the Christian Balkan states (
Bulgaria Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedon ...
,
Serbia Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
) one by one fell to the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
in the course the second half of the 14th century. For example,
Mircea the Elder Mircea the Elder ( ro, Mircea cel Bătrân, ; c. 1355 – 31 January 1418) was the Voivode of Wallachia from 1386 until his death in 1418. He was the son of Radu I of Wallachia and brother of Dan I of Wallachia, after whose death he inherited th ...
(1386–1418) accepted the suzerainty of Poland in 1387 and that of Hungary in 1395, and Wallachia was paying tribute to the Ottoman Empire from 1417. When accepting Hungarian suzerainty, the princes of Wallachia usually also received the district of Făgăraş in Transylvania from the Hungarian monarchs, for example in 1366 King
Louis I of Hungary Louis I, also Louis the Great ( hu, Nagy Lajos; hr, Ludovik Veliki; sk, Ľudovít Veľký) or Louis the Hungarian ( pl, Ludwik Węgierski; 5 March 132610 September 1382), was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1342 and King of Poland from 1370 ...
(1342–1382) granted the region to Prince Vladislav I of Wallachia (1364–1377), with the title of duke, and Prince Mircea the Elder received it from King Sigismund (1387–1437).Engel 2001, pp. 165, 232., 442. During the reign of Mircea the Elder,
Dobruja Dobruja or Dobrudja (; bg, Добруджа, Dobrudzha or ''Dobrudža''; ro, Dobrogea, or ; tr, Dobruca) is a historical region in the Balkans that has been divided since the 19th century between the territories of Bulgaria and Romania. I ...
also became part of Wallachia before it was annexed to the Ottoman Empire.Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 89.


See also

*
Founding of Moldavia The founding of Moldavia ( ro, Descălecatul Moldovei) began with the arrival of a Vlach (Romanian) voivode (military leader), Dragoș, soon followed by his people from Maramureș, then a voivodeship, to the region of the Moldova River. Drago ...
*
Balkan–Danubian culture The Balkan–Danubian culture was an early medieval archaeological culture which emerged in the region of the Lower Danube in the 8th century and flourished until the 11th century. In Bulgaria it is usually referred to as the Pliska–Preslav c ...
* Bulgarian lands across the Danube


Footnotes


References

*Angold, Michael (2006). ''Eastern Christianity (The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 5.)''. Cambridge University Press. . *Brătianu, Gheorghe I. (1980). ''Tradiția istorică despre întemeierea statelor românești'' (The Historical Tradition of the Founding of the Romanian States). Editura Eminescu. *Curta, Florin (2006). ''Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250''. Cambridge University Press. . *Dimitrov, Ivan Zhelev (2007). ''Bulgarian Christianity''. ''In:'' Parry, Ken (2007); ''The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity''; Blackwell Publishing; . *Djuvara, Neagu (2007). ''Thocomerius – Negru Vodă. Un voivod de origine cumană la începuturile Țării Românești'' (Thocomerius – Negru Vodă: A Voivode of Cuman Origin at the Origins of Wallachia). Humanitas. *Engel, Pál (2001). ''The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526''. I.B. Tauris Publishers. . *Georgescu, Vlad (1991). ''The Romanians: A History''. Ohio State University Press. . *Gjuzelev, Vassil (1981). ''Fontes Latini Historiae Bulgaricae, IV. In aedibus Academiae litterarum Bulgaricae, Serdicae'' (Latin Sources for the History of Bulgaria, IV, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia). *Korobeinikov, Dimitri (2005). ''A Broken Mirror: The Kipçak World in the Thirteenth Century''. ''In:'' Curta, Florin (2005); ''East Central and Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages''; The University of Michigan Press. . *Pop, Ioan Aurel (1999). ''Romanians and Romania: A Brief History''. Columbia University Press. . * Popescu, Petru Demetru. ''Basarab I'', Ed. Militară, București, 1975. * Примов, Боян (1965). ''Създаването на Втората българска държава и участието на власите''. ''In:'' ''Българо-румънски връзки и отношения през вековете''. ''Изследвания, т. І (ХІІ-ХІХ в.)'' Primov, Boyan (1965). The creation of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom and the participation of Vlachs. In: Bulgarian-Romanian relations and dealings over the centuries, vol. I (13th-19th centuries)*Rădvan, Laurenţiu (2009). ''Considerations Regarding the Urbanization Process in Wallachia (13th–15th Centuries)''. ''In:'' Medieval and Early Modern Studies for Central and Eastern Europe I. (2009), No. 1-4''; "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University Press. *Sălăgean, Tudor (2006): ''Romanian Society in the Early Middle Ages (9th–14th Centuries)''. ''In:'' Pop, Ioan-Aurel; Bolovan, Ioan (2005); ''History of Romania: Compendium''; Romanian Cultural Institute (Center for Transylvanian Studies). . *Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). ''East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500''. University of Washington Press. . *Spinei, Victor (2005). ''The Cuman Bishopric: Genesis and Evolution''. ''In:'' Curta, Florin (2005); ''East Central and Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages''; The University of Michigan Press. . *Spinei, Victor (2009). ''The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century''. Koninklijke Brill NV. . *Treptow, Kurt W.; Popa, Marcel (1996). ''Historical Dictionary of Romania''. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. . *Vásáry, István (2005). ''Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365''. Cambridge University Press. .


Further reading

*Castellan, Georges (1989). ''A History of the Romanians''. East European Monographs. *Durandin, Catherine (1995). ''Historie des Roumains'' (The History of the Romanians). Librairie Artheme Fayard. . *Klepper, Nicolae (2005). ''Romania: An Illustrated History''. Hippocrene Books, Inc. . *Коледаров, Петър (1989). ''Политическа география на средновековната българска държава, Втора част (1186–1396)'' Koledarov, Petar. Political Geography of the Medieval Bulgarian State, Part II: 1186–1396 БАН *Петров, Петър (1985). ''Възстановяване на българската държава, 1185–1197'' Petrov, Petar. Restoration of the Bulgarian State: 1185–1197 *Treptow, Kurt W.; Bolovan, Ioan (1996). ''A History of Romania''. East European Monographs. .


External links

*Lambru, Steliu (2007)
"The Cumans in Romania’s History (10.09.2007)"
*Samuelson, James (1882)
"From the Foundation of the Principalities, between the Middle of the Thirteenth and of the Fourteenth Centuries to the Accession of Michael the Brave, A.D. 1593."
{{DEFAULTSORT:Founding Of Wallachia History of Wallachia Romanian principalities