A (plural ''flamens'' or ''flamines'')
was a
priest
A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in partic ...
of the
ancient Roman religion who was assigned to one of eighteen deities with official
cults
In modern English, ''cult'' is usually a pejorative term for a social group that is defined by its unusual religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs and rituals, or its common interest in a particular personality, object, or goal. This s ...
during the
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Ki ...
. The most important of these were the three (or "major priests"), who served the important Roman gods
Jupiter
Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined, but slightly less than one-thousandth t ...
,
Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, only being larger than Mercury. In the English language, Mars is named for the Roman god of war. Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin at ...
, and
Quirinus
In Roman mythology and religion, Quirinus ( , ) is an early god of the Roman state. In Augustan Rome, ''Quirinus'' was also an epithet of Janus, as ''Janus Quirinus''.
Name
Attestations
The name of god Quirinus is recorded across Roman sou ...
. The remaining twelve were the ("lesser priests"). Two of the served deities whose names are now unknown; among the others are deities about whom little is known other than the name. During the
Imperial era, the cult of a deified emperor () also had a flamen.
The fifteen Republican flamens were members of the
Pontifical College
A pontifical university is an ecclesiastical university established or approved directly by the Holy See, composed of three main ecclesiastical faculties (Theology, Philosophy and Canon Law) and at least one other faculty. These academic institute ...
, who administered state-sponsored religion. When the office of flamen was vacant, a could serve as a temporary replacement, although only the is known to have substituted for the , one of the .
Etymology
The etymology of remains obscure, and perhaps undecidable.
Andrew Sihler
Andrew Littleton Sihler (born 25 February 1941 in Seattle) is an American linguist and comparative Indo-Europeanist.
Biography
Sihler received his Bachelor of Arts ''cum laude'' in 1962 from Harvard College, where he studied Germanic languages, li ...
''New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin,'' Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press (OUP) is the university press of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world, and its printing history dates back to the 1480s. Having been officially granted the legal right to print books ...
1995 p.198:’ That such cases are strictly speaking undecidable, so far from calming debate, has seemed to stimulate bickering in the scholarly literature.’ The term is traditionally connected with the
Proto-Germanic
Proto-Germanic (abbreviated PGmc; also called Common Germanic) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages.
Proto-Germanic eventually developed from pre-Proto-Germanic into three Germanic bran ...
verb ''*blōtanan'' ("to sacrifice"; cf.
Gothic
Gothic or Gothics may refer to:
People and languages
*Goths or Gothic people, the ethnonym of a group of East Germanic tribes
**Gothic language, an extinct East Germanic language spoken by the Goths
**Crimean Gothic, the Gothic language spoken b ...
''blotan''), by positing a
Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. Its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages. No direct record of Proto-Indo- ...
stem ''*bʰleh₂d-m(e)n-'' (or ''*bʰleh₂g-m(e)n-''), which could have originally meant "sacrifice".
However, the link remains uncertain since it is impossible to decide whether the Latin form reflects an earlier ''flă-men'', ''flăd-men'' or ''flăg-smen''.
Indo-European scholar G. Dumézil
G is the seventh letter of the Latin alphabet.
G may also refer to:
Places
* Gabon, international license plate code G
* Glasgow, UK postal code G
* Eastern Quebec, Canadian postal prefix G
* Melbourne Cricket Ground in Melbourne, Australia, ...
attempted to link the term to the
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
word ''
brahman
In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
''. His etymology has problems in terms of phonological shifts, and modern linguists have generally rejected it.
Andrew Sihler
Andrew Littleton Sihler (born 25 February 1941 in Seattle) is an American linguist and comparative Indo-Europeanist.
Biography
Sihler received his Bachelor of Arts ''cum laude'' in 1962 from Harvard College, where he studied Germanic languages, li ...
considers the claim that ''flamen'' might be a
cognate of the
Vedic term to be as plausible. He notes that the hypothesis of a connection to Gothic ''blotan'' and via Proto-Indo-European ''*bʰleh₂d-m(e)n-'' is equally plausible.
History
At the time of the religious reformation by
Augustus
Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
, the origins and functions of many of the long-neglected gods resident in Rome were confusing even to the Romans themselves. The obscurity of some of the deities assigned a ''flamen'' (for example
Falacer
Falacer, or more fully ''dīvus pater falacer'', was an ancient Italic god, according to Varro. Hartung is inclined to consider him an epithet of Jupiter, since ''falandum'', according to Festus, was the Etruscan name for "heaven."
Although hi ...
,
Palatua
Palatua was a Roman goddess who was provided an official priest or flamen, the ''Flamen Palatualis'', and was the guardian deity of the Palatine Hill. Aside from this little else is known about her, and it is a safe assumption that her cult, like ...
,
Quirinus
In Roman mythology and religion, Quirinus ( , ) is an early god of the Roman state. In Augustan Rome, ''Quirinus'' was also an epithet of Janus, as ''Janus Quirinus''.
Name
Attestations
The name of god Quirinus is recorded across Roman sou ...
and
Volturnus
The VolturnUS is a floating concrete structure that supports a wind turbine, designed by University of Maine Advanced Structures and Composites Center and deployed by DeepCwind Consortium in 2013. The VolturnUS can support wind turbines in water ...
) suggests that the office dated back to Archaic Rome. Many scholars assume that the existed at least from the
time of the early Roman kings, prior to the establishment of the
Republic. The Romans themselves credited the foundation of the
priesthood to
Numa Pompilius, the second
king of Rome. According to
Livy
Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in ...
, Numa created the offices of the three and assigned them each a fine robe of office and a
curule chair
A curule seat is a design of a (usually) foldable and transportable chair noted for its uses in Ancient Rome and Europe through to the 20th century. Its status in early Rome as a symbol of political or military power carried over to other civilizat ...
. The were circumscribed by many
taboo
A taboo or tabu is a social group's ban, prohibition, or avoidance of something (usually an utterance or behavior) based on the group's sense that it is excessively repulsive, sacred, or allowed only for certain persons.''Encyclopædia Britannica ...
s.
The ''flamen'' was a sacred position within Roman society; however, it could be used for political purposes. Certain people could be appointed ''flamen'' to stop them from gaining power. For example, ''flamines'' were not allowed to ride a horse; therefore, this would make it extremely difficult for such a person to lead and command an army.
By attaining such a position, the ''flamines'' were not permitted to run or hold a political office. There may have been ''flamines'' appointed simply to stop their progression in power and politics for reasons such as making enemies or simply jealousy.
Appointment
The ''flamen'' was a high position within Roman society and religion. Therefore, the selection process was difficult for those wishing to be chosen as ''flamen''. In the case of the ''Flamen Dialis'', they were appointed by the
Pontifex Maximus. By the
Pontifical College
A pontifical university is an ecclesiastical university established or approved directly by the Holy See, composed of three main ecclesiastical faculties (Theology, Philosophy and Canon Law) and at least one other faculty. These academic institute ...
, three nominations were given to the , those whom Romans believed to be the most worthy of such position. The Pontifex Maximus did not just select a new ''Flamen Dialis'', but "scrutinized each candidate's qualifications in order to ensure that he and his wife were fit to serve." After the ''flamen'' and his wife were chosen, they then had to participate in a Roman tradition and ceremony known as ''captio''. This ceremony was performed by an
augur. It was the augur's job to make sure the gods would accept the new ''flamen''. This was done by asking for the king of the gods, Jupiter's blessing, and the gods would respond by providing the proper signs to the people. These ceremonies were known as ''
comitia calata
The vocabulary of ancient Roman religion was highly specialized. Its study affords important information about the religion, traditions and beliefs of the ancient Romans. This legacy is conspicuous in European cultural history in its influence o ...
'' ("callate assemblies") and they were performed on the
Capitoline Hill
The Capitolium or Capitoline Hill ( ; it, Campidoglio ; la, Mons Capitolinus ), between the Forum and the Campus Martius, is one of the Seven Hills of Rome.
The hill was earlier known as ''Mons Saturnius'', dedicated to the god Saturn. ...
.
Privileges and disadvantages
Such a position in Roman society came with many privileges which in turn gave ''flamines'' a unique power. In law and criminal courts, the ''flamen'' wielded great power. When a person was deemed a criminal, they could appeal to a ''flamen,'' who had the power of pardoning criminals. There were also several other privileges that the ''flamen'' possessed. According to Cyril Bailey these include: exemption from the ''Patria Potestas'' (lit. power of the father) of his father; the wearing of the ''
toga praetexta
The toga (, ), a distinctive garment of ancient Rome, was a roughly semicircular cloth, between in length, draped over the shoulders and around the body. It was usually woven from white wool, and was worn over a tunic. In Roman historiography, ...
''; and, the privileges of having a lictor of his own, of sitting on the curule chair, and having an ex officio place in the Senate.
During the sack of Rome by the
Gauls
The Gauls ( la, Galli; grc, Γαλάται, ''Galátai'') were a group of Celtic peoples of mainland Europe in the Iron Age and the Roman period (roughly 5th century BC to 5th century AD). Their homeland was known as Gaul (''Gallia''). They s ...
in 390 BCE, the ''flamines'' were also given a special task. In an attempt to preserve Roman culture and history, the ''flamines'' and other religious orders such as the
vestals
In ancient Rome, the Vestal Virgins or Vestals ( la, Vestālēs, singular ) were priestesses of Vesta, virgin goddess of Rome's sacred hearth and its flame.
The Vestals were unlike any other public priesthood. They were chosen before puberty ...
were in charge of the sacred and religious items of Rome. Their objective was to take these treasures out of Rome so they wouldn't be destroyed by the Gauls. Ralph Mathisen writes, "Their sacred cult should not be abandoned as long as a single person survived to observe it".
The ''flamines'' were also prohibited from many different actions and rituals. In the case of death, ''flamines'' were in charge of performing ritual sacrificing. However, other than that, contact with anything related to death was prohibited so that the ''flamen'' could part take in his religious duties. One extreme example was in the case of the ''flamen''
's wife (Latin, ''flaminica''). They were not allowed to wear ''Calcei Morticini'', "shoes made from the skin of an animal that had died of natural causes." Since the animal was not part of a religious ritual or offered to the gods, these shoes would be seen as impure and disrespectful to the gods.
Another disadvantage for the ''flamines'' was that they "were also forbidden to touch, see, or refer to yeast, raw meat, goats, dogs, ivy, or beans," because it was thought that these could interfere with the ''flamen''
's religious practices. Most of these were associated with unsanitariness or death. When these ''flamines'' would have to perform ritual sacrifices, it was almost impossible for the flamen to avoid contact with raw meat. However, Roman accounts don't include such events in their writings.
Another thing ''flamines'' were forbidden from was binding. They could not be bound to anything because it could hinder and jeopardize their position as ''flamen''. Therefore, the only bind they were tied to was their religious position and priesthood.
Marriage
The marriage of a ''flamen'' was extremely important because it was one of the requirements needed to be eligible for the ''flamen'' position. The ''flamen'' and his wife (the ''flaminica'') needed to come from a Patrician background and the parents had to be married through the ancient ceremony of ''
confarreatio In ancient Rome, ''confarreatio'' was a traditional patrician form of marriage. The ceremony involved the bride and bridegroom sharing a cake of emmer, in Latin ''far'' or ''panis farreus'', hence the rite's name. (''Far'' is often translated as "s ...
''. This only applied to the ''flamen,'' because when they married his wife would become part of his family.
Through the process of ''confarreatio'', the wife would pass
from the ''manus'' (hand) of her father to the hand of her husband. This transferred the father's authority to her husband who would also become part of the religious cult. It was necessary for the wife to be a virgin and previously unwed before marriage to a prospective ''flamen''. The position of ''flamen'' was also heavily dependent on the wife because they served together. In the case of either's death, the surviving priest would then step down from their position. It was viewed as unlucky to be widowed.
''The flamen'' and ''flaminica'' could not separate or divorce. The only way to escape a marriage was through death, because, once they attained their positions, they became the property of the deity they were assigned to.
Since they ruled together, they were also responsible for performing certain rituals together. During certain practices and rituals, the ''flamen'' and ''flaminica'' had to follow certain rules, such as leaving during purification rituals.
Another ritual practiced by the priest and priestess pertained to their bed. Only the ''flamen'' and ''flaminica'' were allowed to sleep in the bed for ritual reasons, and under no circumstance could they spend the night away from the bed for any longer than three days. This was meant to create and ensure a strong relationship between the couple. The end of the bed was lined with "a thin layer of clay."
Garb
The official costume of a ''flamen'', allegedly of great antiquity, was a hat called an ''apex'' and a heavy cloak called a ''laena''. The ''laena'' was a double-thick wool cloak with a fringed edge, and was worn over the flamen's
toga
The toga (, ), a distinctive garment of ancient Rome, was a roughly semicircular cloth, between in length, draped over the shoulders and around the body. It was usually woven from white wool, and was worn over a tunic. In Roman historical tra ...
with a clasp to hold it around his throat. The ''apex'' was a leather skull-cap with a chin-strap and a point of olive wood on its top, like a spindle, with a little fluff of wool at the base of the spindle. This was the traditional outfit during a ritual or sacrifice performed by the ''flamen''. The ''flamen'' would not wear the ''laena'' on a daily occurrence. The ''flamen'' would also wear special shoes known as ''calcei''.
The ''flamen'' dress represented status. Only ''flamines'' were able to wear such a costume. It separated them from average citizens, politicians, and military figures. The responsibility for the creation of such a costume fell in the hands of the ''flaminica''. The costume was handmade and a ritual blade known as ''secespikta'' was used in the process.
The ''laena'' had to be made of wool, because wool was seen as pure and the most appropriate clothing to serve the gods.
Duties and obligations
The ''flamen'' and the ''flaminica'' had special roles that could not be done by the other. This position in Roman society was held to a specific standard with strict rules. The ''flamen'' could not perform the duties of the ''flaminica'' and she could not perform the duties of her husband. One example would be the honour killing and sacrifice of a ram, which was known as an offering to Jupiter and could only be done by the ''flaminica'' on market days. The ''flamen'' couldn't perform his sacred duties without the ''flaminica''. These positions of serving the gods were meant to be served together as husband and wife. This was a partnership where each person was dependent on the other. This is why, when one died, the other would have to step down, because they were not allowed to replace their partner or continue by themselves.
Flamines maiores
The three were required to be
patrician
Patrician may refer to:
* Patrician (ancient Rome), the original aristocratic families of ancient Rome, and a synonym for "aristocratic" in modern English usage
* Patrician (post-Roman Europe), the governing elites of cities in parts of medieval ...
s:
*The oversaw the cult of
Jupiter
Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined, but slightly less than one-thousandth t ...
, the sky deity and ruler of the gods.
*The oversaw the cult of
Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, only being larger than Mercury. In the English language, Mars is named for the Roman god of war. Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin at ...
, the god of war, leading public
rites
Rail India Technical and Economic Service Limited, abbreviated as RITES Ltd, is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Indian Railways, Ministry of Railways, Government of India. It is an engineering consultancy corporation, specializing in the field ...
on the days sacred to Mars. The sacred
spear
A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with fire hardened spears, or it may be made of a more durable material fasten ...
s of Mars were ritually shaken by the ''Flamen Martialis'' when the
legions were preparing for war.
*The oversaw the cult of
Quirinus
In Roman mythology and religion, Quirinus ( , ) is an early god of the Roman state. In Augustan Rome, ''Quirinus'' was also an epithet of Janus, as ''Janus Quirinus''.
Name
Attestations
The name of god Quirinus is recorded across Roman sou ...
, who presided over organized Roman social life and was related to the peaceful aspect of Mars. The ''Flamen Quirinalis'' led public
rites
Rail India Technical and Economic Service Limited, abbreviated as RITES Ltd, is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Indian Railways, Ministry of Railways, Government of India. It is an engineering consultancy corporation, specializing in the field ...
on the days sacred to Quirinus.
A fourth was dedicated to
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, ...
as a divinity () of the Roman state. Thereafter, any deceased emperor could be made ''divus'' by vote of the
senate and consent of his successor, and as a ''divus'' he would be served by a flamen. The ''flamen''
's role in relation to living emperors is uncertain; no living emperor is known to have received official divine worship; see
Imperial cult
An imperial cult is a form of state religion in which an emperor or a dynasty of emperors (or rulers of another title) are worshipped as demigods or deities. "Cult" here is used to mean "worship", not in the modern pejorative sense. The cult may ...
.
A ''flamen'' could also be represented by a , or by a member without that title who could act as a substitute for the ''flamen'' (''qui vice flaminis fungebatur'').
Flamines minores
![Ara pacis fregio lato ovest 2 A](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Ara_pacis_fregio_lato_ovest_2_A.JPG)
The twelve could be
plebeians
In ancient Rome, the plebeians (also called plebs) were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words " commoners". Both classes were hereditary.
Etymology
The precise origins of ...
. Some of the deities whose cult they tended were rather obscure, and only ten are known by name:
* , the flamen for
Carmentis
In ancient Roman religion and myth, Carmenta was a goddess of childbirth and prophecy, associated with technological innovation as well as the protection of mothers and children and a patron of midwives. She was also said to have invented the ...
* , for
Ceres
Ceres most commonly refers to:
* Ceres (dwarf planet), the largest asteroid
* Ceres (mythology), the Roman goddess of agriculture
Ceres may also refer to:
Places
Brazil
* Ceres, Goiás, Brazil
* Ceres Microregion, in north-central Goiás ...
* , for
Falacer
Falacer, or more fully ''dīvus pater falacer'', was an ancient Italic god, according to Varro. Hartung is inclined to consider him an epithet of Jupiter, since ''falandum'', according to Festus, was the Etruscan name for "heaven."
Although hi ...
* , for
Flora
Flora is all the plant life present in a particular region or time, generally the naturally occurring (indigenous (ecology), indigenous) native plant, native plants. Sometimes bacteria and fungi are also referred to as flora, as in the terms '' ...
* , for
Furrina
Furrina, also spelled Furina, was an ancient Roman goddess whose function had become obscure by the 1st century BC. Her cult dated to the earliest period of Roman religious history, since she was one of the fifteen deities who had their own flame ...
* , for
Palatua
Palatua was a Roman goddess who was provided an official priest or flamen, the ''Flamen Palatualis'', and was the guardian deity of the Palatine Hill. Aside from this little else is known about her, and it is a safe assumption that her cult, like ...
* , for
Pomona
* , for
Portunus
* , for
Vulcan
Vulcan may refer to:
Mythology
* Vulcan (mythology), the god of fire, volcanoes, metalworking, and the forge in Roman mythology
Arts, entertainment and media Film and television
* Vulcan (''Star Trek''), name of a fictional race and their home p ...
* , for
Volturnus
The VolturnUS is a floating concrete structure that supports a wind turbine, designed by University of Maine Advanced Structures and Composites Center and deployed by DeepCwind Consortium in 2013. The VolturnUS can support wind turbines in water ...
There were two other during the Republican period, but the names of the deities they cultivated are unknown. The ''flamines minores'' seem mostly connected to agriculture or local cults. The change to an urban way of life may explain why these deities lost their importance or fell into oblivion.
The and are not recorded in calendars as their festivals were moveable. Some information exists for the ritual roles of the in connection with the cult of the god
Quirinus
In Roman mythology and religion, Quirinus ( , ) is an early god of the Roman state. In Augustan Rome, ''Quirinus'' was also an epithet of Janus, as ''Janus Quirinus''.
Name
Attestations
The name of god Quirinus is recorded across Roman sou ...
and in connexion with the cult of the goddess
Maia
Maia (; Ancient Greek: Μαῖα; also spelled Maie, ; la, Maia), in ancient Greek religion and mythology, is one of the Pleiades and the mother of Hermes, one of the major Greek gods, by Zeus, the king of Olympus.
Family
Maia is the daugh ...
on the
Kalends
The calends or kalends ( la, kalendae) is the first day of every month in the Roman calendar. The English word "calendar" is derived from this word.
Use
The Romans called the first day of every month the ''calends'', signifying the start of a n ...
of May. Also preserved is the list of deities invoked by the when he officiated at sacrifices to the goddesses
Ceres
Ceres most commonly refers to:
* Ceres (dwarf planet), the largest asteroid
* Ceres (mythology), the Roman goddess of agriculture
Ceres may also refer to:
Places
Brazil
* Ceres, Goiás, Brazil
* Ceres Microregion, in north-central Goiás ...
and
Tellus
Tellus is a Latin word meaning "Earth" and may refer to:
* An alternative name for the planet Earth
* Tellus of Athens, a citizen of ancient Athens who was thought to be the happiest of men
* Tellus Mater or Terra Mater, the ancient Roman earth mo ...
.
Scholars disagree about some differences among and . Some maintain the difference was not substantial. Others, among them
Dumézil, believe that inherent differences lay in the right of the ''
auspicia maiora'' and the ritual of
inauguration that concerned only the by birth as , that is, as children of parents married through the ritual of ''
confarreatio In ancient Rome, ''confarreatio'' was a traditional patrician form of marriage. The ceremony involved the bride and bridegroom sharing a cake of emmer, in Latin ''far'' or ''panis farreus'', hence the rite's name. (''Far'' is often translated as "s ...
'', which was the form of marriage in turn required for . The also had the privilege of having , assistants who carried out day-to-day business.
[Fest. p. 354 L2; ]Jörg Rüpke Jörg Rüpke (born 27 December 1962 in Herford, West Germany) is a German scholar of comparative religion and classical philology, recipient of the Gay-Lussac Humboldt Prize in 2008, and of the Advanced Grant of the European Research Council in 2011 ...
, ''Religion of the Romans'' (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 22
online.
/ref> The difference would thus be akin to that between magistracies with and those with only.
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
"Flamen"
{{Ancient Roman religion horizontal
Ancient Roman religious titles
Divination