flamines

A (plural ''flamens'' or ''flamines'') was a priest of the ancient Roman religion who was assigned to one of eighteen deities with official cults during the Roman Republic. The most important of these were the three (or "major priests"), who served the important Roman gods Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus. The remaining twelve were the ("lesser priests"). Two of the served deities whose names are now unknown; among the others are deities about whom little is known other than the name. During the Imperial era, the cult of a deified emperor () also had a flamen.

The fifteen Republican flamens were members of the Pontifical College, who administered state-sponsored religion. When the office of flamen was vacant, a could serve as a temporary replacement, although only the is known to have substituted for the , one of the .

Etymology

The etymology of remains obscure, and perhaps undecidable.Andrew Sihler ''New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin,'' Oxford University Press 1995 p.198:’ That such cases are strictly speaking undecidable, so far from calming debate, has seemed to stimulate bickering in the scholarly literature.’ The term is traditionally connected with the Proto-Germanic verb ''*blōtanan'' ("to sacrifice"; cf. Gothic ''blotan''), by positing a Proto-Indo-European stem ''*bʰleh₂d-m(e)n-'' (or ''*bʰleh₂g-m(e)n-''), which could have originally meant "sacrifice". However, the link remains uncertain since it is impossible to decide whether the Latin form reflects an earlier ''flă-men'', ''flăd-men'' or ''flăg-smen''.

Indo-European scholar G. Dumézil attempted to link the term to the Sanskrit word ''brahman''. His etymology has problems in terms of phonological shifts, and modern linguists have generally rejected it.
Andrew Sihler considers the claim that ''flamen'' might be a cognate of the Vedic term to be as plausible. He notes that the hypothesis of a connection to Gothic ''blotan'' and via Proto-Indo-European ''*bʰleh₂d-m(e)n-'' is equally plausible.

History

At the time of the religious reformation by Augustus, the origins and functions of many of the long-neglected gods resident in Rome were confusing even to the Romans themselves. The obscurity of some of the deities assigned a ''flamen'' (for example Falacer, Palatua, Quirinus and Volturnus) suggests that the office dated back to Archaic Rome. Many scholars assume that the existed at least from the time of the early Roman kings, prior to the establishment of the Republic. The Romans themselves credited the foundation of the priesthood to Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. According to Livy, Numa created the offices of the three and assigned them each a fine robe of office and a curule chair. The were circumscribed by many taboos.

The ''flamen'' was a sacred position within Roman society; however, it could be used for political purposes. Certain people could be appointed ''flamen'' to stop them from gaining power. For example, ''flamines'' were not allowed to ride a horse; therefore, this would make it extremely difficult for such a person to lead and command an army. By attaining such a position, the ''flamines'' were not permitted to run or hold a political office. There may have been ''flamines'' appointed simply to stop their progression in power and politics for reasons such as making enemies or simply jealousy.

Appointment

The ''flamen'' was a high position within Roman society and religion. Therefore, the selection process was difficult for those wishing to be chosen as ''flamen''. In the case of the ''Flamen Dialis'', they were appointed by the Pontifex Maximus. By the Pontifical College, three nominations were given to the , those whom Romans believed to be the most worthy of such position. The Pontifex Maximus did not just select a new ''Flamen Dialis'', but "scrutinized each candidate's qualifications in order to ensure that he and his wife were fit to serve." After the ''flamen'' and his wife were chosen, they then had to participate in a Roman tradition and ceremony known as ''captio''. This ceremony was performed by an augur. It was the augur's job to make sure the gods would accept the new ''flamen''. This was done by asking for the king of the gods, Jupiter's blessing, and the gods would respond by providing the proper signs to the people. These ceremonies were known as ''comitia calata'' ("callate assemblies") and they were performed on the Capitoline Hill.

Privileges and disadvantages

Such a position in Roman society came with many privileges which in turn gave ''flamines'' a unique power. In law and criminal courts, the ''flamen'' wielded great power. When a person was deemed a criminal, they could appeal to a ''flamen,'' who had the power of pardoning criminals. There were also several other privileges that the ''flamen'' possessed. According to Cyril Bailey these include: exemption from the ''Patria Potestas'' (lit. power of the father) of his father; the wearing of the ''toga praetexta''; and, the privileges of having a lictor of his own, of sitting on the curule chair, and having an ex officio place in the Senate. During the sack of Rome by the Gauls in 390 BCE, the ''flamines'' were also given a special task. In an attempt to preserve Roman culture and history, the ''flamines'' and other religious orders such as the vestals were in charge of the sacred and religious items of Rome. Their objective was to take these treasures out of Rome so they wouldn't be destroyed by the Gauls. Ralph Mathisen writes, "Their sacred cult should not be abandoned as long as a single person survived to observe it".

The ''flamines'' were also prohibited from many different actions and rituals. In the case of death, ''flamines'' were in charge of performing ritual sacrificing. However, other than that, contact with anything related to death was prohibited so that the ''flamen'' could part take in his religious duties. One extreme example was in the case of the ''flamen'''s wife (Latin, ''flaminica''). They were not allowed to wear ''Calcei Morticini'', "shoes made from the skin of an animal that had died of natural causes." Since the animal was not part of a religious ritual or offered to the gods, these shoes would be seen as impure and disrespectful to the gods.

Another disadvantage for the ''flamines'' was that they "were also forbidden to touch, see, or refer to yeast, raw meat, goats, dogs, ivy, or beans," because it was thought that these could interfere with the ''flamen'''s religious practices. Most of these were associated with unsanitariness or death. When these ''flamines'' would have to perform ritual sacrifices, it was almost impossible for the flamen to avoid contact with raw meat. However, Roman accounts don't include such events in their writings. Another thing ''flamines'' were forbidden from was binding. They could not be bound to anything because it could hinder and jeopardize their position as ''flamen''. Therefore, the only bind they were tied to was their religious position and priesthood.

Marriage

The marriage of a ''flamen'' was extremely important because it was one of the requirements needed to be eligible for the ''flamen'' position. The ''flamen'' and his wife (the ''flaminica'') needed to come from a Patrician background and the parents had to be married through the ancient ceremony of ''confarreatio''. This only applied to the ''flamen,'' because when they married his wife would become part of his family. Through the process of ''confarreatio'', the wife would pass from the ''manus'' (hand) of her father to the hand of her husband. This transferred the father's authority to her husband who would also become part of the religious cult. It was necessary for the wife to be a virgin and previously unwed before marriage to a prospective ''flamen''. The position of ''flamen'' was also heavily dependent on the wife because they served together. In the case of either's death, the surviving priest would then step down from their position. It was viewed as unlucky to be widowed.

''The flamen'' and ''flaminica'' could not separate or divorce. The only way to escape a marriage was through death, because, once they attained their positions, they became the property of the deity they were assigned to. Since they ruled together, they were also responsible for performing certain rituals together. During certain practices and rituals, the ''flamen'' and ''flaminica'' had to follow certain rules, such as leaving during purification rituals. Another ritual practiced by the priest and priestess pertained to their bed. Only the ''flamen'' and ''flaminica'' were allowed to sleep in the bed for ritual reasons, and under no circumstance could they spend the night away from the bed for any longer than three days. This was meant to create and ensure a strong relationship between the couple. The end of the bed was lined with "a thin layer of clay."

Garb

The official costume of a ''flamen'', allegedly of great antiquity, was a hat called an ''apex'' and a heavy cloak called a ''laena''. The ''laena'' was a double-thick wool cloak with a fringed edge, and was worn over the flamen's toga with a clasp to hold it around his throat. The ''apex'' was a leather skull-cap with a chin-strap and a point of olive wood on its top, like a spindle, with a little fluff of wool at the base of the spindle. This was the traditional outfit during a ritual or sacrifice performed by the ''flamen''. The ''flamen'' would not wear the ''laena'' on a daily occurrence. The ''flamen'' would also wear special shoes known as ''calcei''. The ''flamen'' dress represented status. Only ''flamines'' were able to wear such a costume. It separated them from average citizens, politicians, and military figures. The responsibility for the creation of such a costume fell in the hands of the ''flaminica''. The costume was handmade and a ritual blade known as ''secespikta'' was used in the process. The ''laena'' had to be made of wool, because wool was seen as pure and the most appropriate clothing to serve the gods.

Duties and obligations

The ''flamen'' and the ''flaminica'' had special roles that could not be done by the other. This position in Roman society was held to a specific standard with strict rules. The ''flamen'' could not perform the duties of the ''flaminica'' and she could not perform the duties of her husband. One example would be the honour killing and sacrifice of a ram, which was known as an offering to Jupiter and could only be done by the ''flaminica'' on market days. The ''flamen'' couldn't perform his sacred duties without the ''flaminica''. These positions of serving the gods were meant to be served together as husband and wife. This was a partnership where each person was dependent on the other. This is why, when one died, the other would have to step down, because they were not allowed to replace their partner or continue by themselves.

Flamines maiores

The three were required to be patricians:
*The oversaw the cult of Jupiter, the sky deity and ruler of the gods.
*The oversaw the cult of Mars, the god of war, leading public rites on the days sacred to Mars. The sacred spears of Mars were ritually shaken by the ''Flamen Martialis'' when the legions were preparing for war.
*The oversaw the cult of Quirinus, who presided over organized Roman social life and was related to the peaceful aspect of Mars. The ''Flamen Quirinalis'' led public rites on the days sacred to Quirinus.

A fourth was dedicated to Julius Caesar as a divinity () of the Roman state. Thereafter, any deceased emperor could be made ''divus'' by vote of the senate and consent of his successor, and as a ''divus'' he would be served by a flamen. The ''flamen'''s role in relation to living emperors is uncertain; no living emperor is known to have received official divine worship; see Imperial cult.

A ''flamen'' could also be represented by a , or by a member without that title who could act as a substitute for the ''flamen'' (''qui vice flaminis fungebatur'').

Flamines minores

The twelve could be plebeians. Some of the deities whose cult they tended were rather obscure, and only ten are known by name:

* , the flamen for Carmentis
* , for Ceres
* , for Falacer
* , for Flora
* , for Furrina
* , for Palatua
* , for Pomona
* , for Portunus
* , for Vulcan
* , for Volturnus

There were two other during the Republican period, but the names of the deities they cultivated are unknown. The ''flamines minores'' seem mostly connected to agriculture or local cults. The change to an urban way of life may explain why these deities lost their importance or fell into oblivion.

The and are not recorded in calendars as their festivals were moveable. Some information exists for the ritual roles of the in connection with the cult of the god Quirinus and in connexion with the cult of the goddess Maia on the Kalends of May. Also preserved is the list of deities invoked by the when he officiated at sacrifices to the goddesses Ceres and Tellus.

Scholars disagree about some differences among and . Some maintain the difference was not substantial. Others, among them Dumézil, believe that inherent differences lay in the right of the '' auspicia maiora'' and the ritual of inauguration that concerned only the by birth as , that is, as children of parents married through the ritual of ''confarreatio'', which was the form of marriage in turn required for . The also had the privilege of having , assistants who carried out day-to-day business.Fest. p. 354 L2; Jörg Rüpke, ''Religion of the Romans'' (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 22
online.
/ref> The difference would thus be akin to that between magistracies with and those with only.

Notes

Citations

Sources

External links

"Flamen"

{{Ancient Roman religion horizontal

Ancient Roman religious titles
Divination