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Ferdinand II (9 July 1578 – 15 February 1637) was
Holy Roman Emperor The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans ( la, Imperator Romanorum, german: Kaiser der Römer) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period ( la, Imperat ...
,
King of Bohemia The Duchy of Bohemia was established in 870 and raised to the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1198. Several Bohemian monarchs ruled as non-hereditary kings beforehand, first gaining the title in 1085. From 1004 to 1806, Bohemia was part of the Holy Roman ...
,
Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia a ...
, and
Croatia , image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg , anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland") , image_map = , map_caption = , capit ...
from 1619 until his death in 1637. He was the son of Archduke Charles II of Inner Austria and Maria of Bavaria. His parents were devout
Catholics The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
, and, in 1590, they sent him to study at the Jesuits' college in
Ingolstadt Ingolstadt (, Austro-Bavarian: ) is an independent city on the Danube in Upper Bavaria with 139,553 inhabitants (as of June 30, 2022). Around half a million people live in the metropolitan area. Ingolstadt is the second largest city in Upper Bav ...
because they wanted to isolate him from the
Lutheran Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched th ...
nobles. In July that same year (1590), when Ferdinand was 12 years old, his father died, and he inherited
Inner Austria Inner Austria (german: Innerösterreich; sl, Notranja Avstrija; it, Austria Interiore) was a term used from the late 14th to the early 17th century for the Habsburg hereditary lands south of the Semmering Pass, referring to the Imperial duchies ...
Styria Styria (german: Steiermark ; Serbo-Croatian and sl, ; hu, Stájerország) is a state (''Bundesland'') in the southeast of Austria. With an area of , Styria is the second largest state of Austria, after Lower Austria. Styria is bordered to ...
,
Carinthia Carinthia (german: Kärnten ; sl, Koroška ) is the southernmost States of Austria, Austrian state, in the Eastern Alps, and is noted for its mountains and lakes. The main language is German language, German. Its regional dialects belong to t ...
,
Carniola Carniola ( sl, Kranjska; , german: Krain; it, Carniola; hu, Krajna) is a historical region that comprised parts of present-day Slovenia. Although as a whole it does not exist anymore, Slovenes living within the former borders of the region sti ...
and smaller provinces. His cousin, the childless
Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II (18 July 1552 – 20 January 1612) was Holy Roman Emperor (1576–1612), King of Hungary and Croatia (as Rudolf I, 1572–1608), King of Bohemia (1575–1608/1611) and Archduke of Austria (1576–1608). He was a member of the Hous ...
, who was the head of the Habsburg family, appointed regents to administer these lands. Ferdinand was installed as the actual ruler of the Inner Austrian provinces in 1596 and 1597. Rudolf II also charged him with the command of the defense of Croatia, Slavonia, and southeastern Hungary against the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
. Ferdinand regarded the regulation of religious issues as a royal prerogative and introduced strict
Counter-Reformation The Counter-Reformation (), also called the Catholic Reformation () or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) a ...
measures from 1598. First, he ordered the expulsion of all Protestant pastors and teachers; next, he established special commissions to restore the Catholic parishes. The Ottomans captured
Nagykanizsa Nagykanizsa (; hr, Velika Kaniža/Velika Kanjiža, or just ''Kaniža/Kanjiža''; german: Großkirchen, Groß-Kanizsa; it, Canissa; sl, Velika Kaniža; tr, Kanije), known colloquially as Kanizsa, is a medium-sized city in Zala County in southw ...
in Hungary in 1600, which enabled them to invade Styria. A year later, Ferdinand tried to recapture the fortress, but the action ended in November 1601 with a defeat, due to unprofessional command of his troops. During the first stage of the family feud known as the Brothers' Quarrel, Ferdinand initially supported Rudolph II's brother,
Matthias Matthias is a name derived from the Greek Ματθαίος, in origin similar to Matthew. People Notable people named Matthias include the following: In religion: * Saint Matthias, chosen as an apostle in Acts 1:21–26 to replace Judas Iscariot * ...
, who wanted to convince the melancholic Emperor to abdicate, but Matthias' concessions to the Protestants in Hungary, Austria, and Bohemia outraged Ferdinand. He planned an alliance to strengthen the position of the Catholic Church in the Holy Roman Empire, but the Catholic
princes A prince is a male ruler (ranked below a king, grand prince, and grand duke) or a male member of a monarch's or former monarch's family. ''Prince'' is also a title of nobility (often highest), often hereditary title, hereditary, in some Euro ...
established the Catholic League without his participation in 1610.
Philip III of Spain Philip III ( es, Felipe III; 14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621) was King of Spain. As Philip II, he was also King of Portugal, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia and Duke of Milan from 1598 until his death in 1621. A member of the House of Habsburg, Phi ...
, who was the childless Matthias' nephew, acknowledged Ferdinand's right to succeed Matthias in Bohemia and Hungary in exchange for territorial concessions in 1617. Spain also supported Ferdinand against the
Republic of Venice The Republic of Venice ( vec, Repùblega de Venèsia) or Venetian Republic ( vec, Repùblega Vèneta, links=no), traditionally known as La Serenissima ( en, Most Serene Republic of Venice, italics=yes; vec, Serenìsima Repùblega de Venèsia, ...
during the
Uskok War The Uskok War, also known as the War of Gradisca, was fought by the Austrians, Croats, and Spanish on one side and the Venetians, Dutch, and English on the other. It is named for the Uskoks, soldiers from Croatia used by the Austrians for irreg ...
in 1617–18. The Diets of Bohemia and Hungary confirmed Ferdinand's position as Matthias' successor only after he had promised to respect the Estates' privileges in both realms. The different interpretation of the
Letter of Majesty The Letter of Majesty (1609) was a 17th-century European document, reluctantly signed by the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf II, granting religious tolerance to both Protestant and Catholic citizens living in the estates of Bohemia. The letter also ...
, which summarized the Bohemian Protestants' liberties, gave rise to an uprising, known as the Second Defenestration of Prague on 23 May 1618. The Bohemian rebels established a provisional government, invaded Upper Austria, and sought assistance from the Habsburgs' opponents. Matthias II died on 20 March 1619. Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman Emperor on 28 August 1619 (Frankfurt), two days before the Protestant Bohemian Estates deposed Ferdinand (as king of Bohemia). News of his deposition arrived in Frankfurt on the 28th but Ferdinand didn't leave town until he had been crowned. Bohemia offered their crown (King of Bohemia) to the Calvinist
Frederick V of the Palatinate Frederick V (german: link=no, Friedrich; 26 August 1596 – 29 November 1632) was the Elector Palatine of the Rhine in the Holy Roman Empire from 1610 to 1623, and reigned as King of Bohemia from 1619 to 1620. He was forced to abdicate both r ...
on 26 August 1619. The
Thirty Years' War The Thirty Years' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (80 ...
began in 1618 as a result of inadequacies of his predecessors
Rudolf II Rudolf II (18 July 1552 – 20 January 1612) was Holy Roman Emperor (1576–1612), King of Hungary and Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg), Croatia (as Rudolf I, 1572–1608), King of Bohemia (1575–1608/1611) and Archduke of Austria (1576–160 ...
and
Matthias Matthias is a name derived from the Greek Ματθαίος, in origin similar to Matthew. People Notable people named Matthias include the following: In religion: * Saint Matthias, chosen as an apostle in Acts 1:21–26 to replace Judas Iscariot * ...
. But Ferdinand's
acts The Acts of the Apostles ( grc-koi, Πράξεις Ἀποστόλων, ''Práxeis Apostólōn''; la, Actūs Apostolōrum) is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian Church and the spread of its message ...
against
Protestantism Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century against what its followers perceived to b ...
caused the war to engulf the whole empire. As a zealous Catholic, Ferdinand wanted to restore the
Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
as the only religion in the
Empire An empire is a "political unit" made up of several territories and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the empire (sometimes referred to as the metropole) ex ...
and to wipe out any form of religious dissent. The war left the Holy Roman Empire devastated and its population did not recover until 1710.


Childhood

Born in the
castle A castle is a type of fortified structure built during the Middle Ages predominantly by the nobility or royalty and by military orders. Scholars debate the scope of the word ''castle'', but usually consider it to be the private fortified r ...
in
Graz Graz (; sl, Gradec) is the capital city of the Austrian state of Styria and second-largest city in Austria after Vienna. As of 1 January 2021, it had a population of 331,562 (294,236 of whom had principal-residence status). In 2018, the popul ...
on 9 July 1578, Ferdinand was the son of
Charles II, Archduke of Austria Charles II Francis of Austria (german: Karl II. Franz von Innerösterreich) (3 June 1540 – 10 July 1590) was an Archduke of Austria and ruler of Inner Austria (Styria, Carniola, Carinthia and Gorizia) from 1564. He was a member of the House o ...
, and Maria of Bavaria. Charles II, who was the youngest son of
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I ( es, Fernando I; 10 March 1503 – 25 July 1564) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1556, King of Bohemia, King of Hungary, Hungary, and List of rulers of Croatia, Croatia from 1526, and Archduke of Austria from 1521 until his death in 1 ...
, had inherited the Inner Austrian provinces
Styria Styria (german: Steiermark ; Serbo-Croatian and sl, ; hu, Stájerország) is a state (''Bundesland'') in the southeast of Austria. With an area of , Styria is the second largest state of Austria, after Lower Austria. Styria is bordered to ...
,
Carinthia Carinthia (german: Kärnten ; sl, Koroška ) is the southernmost States of Austria, Austrian state, in the Eastern Alps, and is noted for its mountains and lakes. The main language is German language, German. Its regional dialects belong to t ...
,
Carniola Carniola ( sl, Kranjska; , german: Krain; it, Carniola; hu, Krajna) is a historical region that comprised parts of present-day Slovenia. Although as a whole it does not exist anymore, Slovenes living within the former borders of the region sti ...
,
Gorizia Gorizia (; sl, Gorica , colloquially 'old Gorizia' to distinguish it from Nova Gorica; fur, label= Standard Friulian, Gurize, fur, label= Southeastern Friulian, Guriza; vec, label= Bisiacco, Gorisia; german: Görz ; obsolete English ''Gorit ...
,
Fiume Rijeka ( , , ; also known as Fiume hu, Fiume, it, Fiume ; local Chakavian: ''Reka''; german: Sankt Veit am Flaum; sl, Reka) is the principal seaport and the third-largest city in Croatia (after Zagreb and Split). It is located in Primor ...
,
Trieste Trieste ( , ; sl, Trst ; german: Triest ) is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is the capital city, and largest city, of the autonomous region of Friuli Venezia Giulia, one of two autonomous regions which are not subdivided into provi ...
and parts of
Istria Istria ( ; Croatian language, Croatian and Slovene language, Slovene: ; ist, Eîstria; Istro-Romanian language, Istro-Romanian, Italian language, Italian and Venetian language, Venetian: ; formerly in Latin and in Ancient Greek) is the larges ...
and
Friuli Friuli ( fur, Friûl, sl, Furlanija, german: Friaul) is an area of Northeast Italy with its own particular cultural and historical identity containing 1,000,000 Friulians. It comprises the major part of the autonomous region Friuli Venezia Giulia ...
from his father in 1564. Being a daughter of
Albert V, Duke of Bavaria Albert V (German: ''Albrecht V.'') (29 February 1528 – 24 October 1579) was Duke of Bavaria from 1550 until his death. He was born in Munich to William IV and Maria Jacobäa of Baden. Early life Albert was educated at Ingolstadt by Catholic ...
, by Charles II's sister
Anna Anna may refer to: People Surname and given name * Anna (name) Mononym * Anna the Prophetess, in the Gospel of Luke * Anna (wife of Artabasdos) (fl. 715–773) * Anna (daughter of Boris I) (9th–10th century) * Anna (Anisia) (fl. 1218 to 12 ...
, Maria of Bavaria was her husband's niece. Their marriage brought about a reconciliation between the two leading Catholic families of the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a Polity, political entity in Western Europe, Western, Central Europe, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, dissolution i ...
. They were devout Catholics, but Charles II had to grant concessions to his Lutheran subjects in 1572 and 1578 to secure the predominantly Protestant nobles and burghers' financial support for the establishment of a new defense system against the
Ottoman Turks The Ottoman Turks ( tr, Osmanlı Türkleri), were the Turkic founding and sociopolitically the most dominant ethnic group of the Ottoman Empire ( 1299/1302–1922). Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks remains scarce, ...
. Ferdinand's education was managed primarily by his mother. He matriculated at the
Jesuits The Society of Jesus ( la, Societas Iesu; abbreviation: SJ), also known as the Jesuits (; la, Iesuitæ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
' school in Graz at the age of 8. His separate household was set up three years later. His parents wanted to separate him from the Lutheran Styrian nobles and sent him to
Ingolstadt Ingolstadt (, Austro-Bavarian: ) is an independent city on the Danube in Upper Bavaria with 139,553 inhabitants (as of June 30, 2022). Around half a million people live in the metropolitan area. Ingolstadt is the second largest city in Upper Bav ...
to continue his studies at the Jesuits' college in Bavaria. Ferdinand chose
Paul the Apostle Paul; grc, Παῦλος, translit=Paulos; cop, ⲡⲁⲩⲗⲟⲥ; hbo, פאולוס השליח (previously called Saul of Tarsus;; ar, بولس الطرسوسي; grc, Σαῦλος Ταρσεύς, Saũlos Tarseús; tr, Tarsuslu Pavlus; ...
's words" To Those Who Fight Justly Goes the Crown"as his personal motto before he left Graz in early 1590. His parents asked his maternal uncle,
William V, Duke of Bavaria William V (29 September 1548 – 7 February 1626), called ''the Pious'', (German: ''Wilhelm V., der Fromme, Herzog von Bayern'') was Duke of Bavaria from 1579 to 1597. Education and early life William V was born in Landshut, the son of Alber ...
, to oversee his education.


Reign


Inner Austria


First years

Charles II died unexpectedly on 10 July 1590, having named his wife, his brother Archduke Ferdinand II, their nephew
Emperor Rudolph II Rudolf II (18 July 1552 – 20 January 1612) was Holy Roman Emperor (1576–1612), King of Hungary and Croatia (as Rudolf I, 1572–1608), King of Bohemia (1575–1608/1611) and Archduke of Austria (1576–1608). He was a member of the Hous ...
, and his brother-in-law Duke William V the guardians of Ferdinand. Maria and William V tried to secure the regency for her, but Rudolph II, who was the head of the Habsburg family, appointed his own brothersfirst
Ernest Ernest is a given name derived from Germanic languages, Germanic word ''ernst'', meaning "serious". Notable people and fictional characters with the name include: People *Archduke Ernest of Austria (1553–1595), son of Maximilian II, Holy Roman ...
in 1592, and then in 1593, Maximilian IIIto the post. The Estates of Inner Austria urged the Emperor to procure Ferdinand's return from Bavaria; Maria resisted this, and Ferdinand continued his studies at the Jesuit university. Ferdinand and his maternal cousin, Maximilian I, were the only future European rulers to have pursued university studies in the late 16th century. He regularly attended classes, although his delicate health often forced him to stay in his chamber. His religiosity was reinforced during his studies: he did not miss the Masses on Sundays and feast days, and made pilgrimages to Bavarian
shrine A shrine ( la, scrinium "case or chest for books or papers"; Old French: ''escrin'' "box or case") is a sacred or holy sacred space, space dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor worship, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, Daemon (mythology), daem ...
s. Ferdinand completed his studies on 21 December 1594; Rudolph II permitted him to return to Graz only two months later. Before leaving for his homeland, Ferdinand solemnly promised to support the university and the Jesuits. Maximilian III renounced the regency and the Emperor made the 17-year-old Ferdinand his own regent. Ferdinand chose the Jesuit Bartholomew Viller as his
confessor Confessor is a title used within Christianity in several ways. Confessor of the Faith Its oldest use is to indicate a saint who has suffered persecution and torture for the faith but not to the point of death.Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg (156818 October 1634) was an Austrian statesman, a son of Seyfried von Eggenberg, Lord of Erbersdorf (1526-1594), and great-grandson of Balthasar Eggenberger (died 1493). He was a prominent member of the House of E ...
, became one of his most trusted courtiers. The weak position of Catholicism in Graz astonished Ferdinand, especially when he realized that only his relatives and most trusted courtiers celebrated the
Eucharist The Eucharist (; from Greek , , ), also known as Holy Communion and the Lord's Supper, is a Christian rite that is considered a sacrament in most churches, and as an ordinance in others. According to the New Testament, the rite was instit ...
during the Easter Mass. Ferdinand reached the age of majority in late 1596. He was first officially installed as ruler in Styria in December. He avoided discussion of religious affairs with the Estates, taking advantage of their fear of an Ottoman invasion and the peasant uprisings in
Upper Austria Upper Austria (german: Oberösterreich ; bar, Obaöstareich) is one of the nine states or of Austria. Its capital is Linz. Upper Austria borders Germany and the Czech Republic, as well as the other Austrian states of Lower Austria, Styria, a ...
. Early the following year, the representatives of the other Inner Austrian provinces swore fealty to him. He left unchanged the traditional system of government, appointing only Catholics to the highest offices. He and his mother then met with Rudolph II in Prague, where Ferdinand informed the Emperor of his plans to strengthen the position of Catholicism. The Emperor's advisors acknowledged Ferdinand's right to regulate religious issues, yet requested he not provoke his Protestant subjects. Rudolph II gave Ferdinand responsibility for the defense of
Croatia , image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg , anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland") , image_map = , map_caption = , capit ...
,
Slavonia Slavonia (; hr, Slavonija) is, with Dalmatia, Croatia proper, and Istria, one of the four historical regions of Croatia. Taking up the east of the country, it roughly corresponds with five Croatian counties: Brod-Posavina, Osijek-Baranja ...
and the southeastern parts of Hungary proper against the Ottomans. He visited
Nagykanizsa Nagykanizsa (; hr, Velika Kaniža/Velika Kanjiža, or just ''Kaniža/Kanjiža''; german: Großkirchen, Groß-Kanizsa; it, Canissa; sl, Velika Kaniža; tr, Kanije), known colloquially as Kanizsa, is a medium-sized city in Zala County in southw ...
and the nearby fortresses and ordered their repair. Ferdinand made an unofficial journey to Italy before getting fully involved in state administration. He named his mother regent and left Graz on 22 April 1598. He met with
Pope Clement VIII Pope Clement VIII ( la, Clemens VIII; it, Clemente VIII; 24 February 1536 – 3 March 1605), born Ippolito Aldobrandini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 2 February 1592 to his death in March 1605. Born ...
in
Ferrara Ferrara (, ; egl, Fràra ) is a city and ''comune'' in Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy, capital of the Province of Ferrara. it had 132,009 inhabitants. It is situated northeast of Bologna, on the Po di Volano, a branch channel of the main stream ...
in early May, and briefly mentioned that he wanted to expel all Protestants from Inner Austria, which the Pope discouraged. Ferdinand continued his journey, visiting the
Holy House Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or Reverence (emotion), reverence among believers. The property is often asc ...
in Loreto. At the shrine, he ceremoniously pledged that he would restore Catholicism, according to his first biography, written after his death by his confessor,
Wilhelm Lamormaini Wilhelm Germain Lamormaini (29 December 1570 – 22 February 1648) was a Jesuit theologian, and an influential figure as confessor of the Habsburg emperor Ferdinand II during the Thirty Years' War. Life Lamormaini was born near Dochamps in ...
.


Counter-Reformation

Ferdinand returned to Graz on 20 June 1598.
Johannes Kepler Johannes Kepler (; ; 27 December 1571 – 15 November 1630) was a German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher and writer on music. He is a key figure in the 17th-century Scientific Revolution, best known for his laws ...
, who had been staying in the town, noted that the Protestant burghers watched Ferdinand's return with some apprehension. He had already made unsuccessful attempts to appoint Catholic priests to churches in predominantly Lutheran towns prior to his Italian journey. A former Jesuit student, Lorenz Sonnabenter, whom Ferdinand had sent to a parish in Graz, made a formal complaint against the local Lutheran pastors on 22 August, accusing them of unlawfully interfering in his office. Ferdinand's mother and Jesuit confessor urged him to take vigorous measures. He ordered the expulsion of all Protestant pastors and teachers from Styria, Carinthia and Carniola on 13 September, emphasizing that he was the "general overseer of all ecclesiastical foundations in his hereditary lands". When the Protestant nobles and burghers protested against his decree, he replied that the Estates had no jurisdiction in religious affairs. He summoned Italian and Spanish mercenaries to Graz. Due to his firm actions, no riots broke out when the leaders of the Protestant community left Graz on 29 September. Ferdinand forbade the Estates of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola to hold a joint assembly. The Styrian nobles and burghers unsuccessfully sought assistance from Rudolph II and their Austrian peers against him. Although he issued new decrees to strengthen the position of the Catholic Church without seeking the Estates' consent, the Estates granted the subsidies that he had demanded from them. After the Styrian general assembly was dissolved, Ferdinand summarized his views of the Counter-Reformation in a letter to the delegates. He claimed that the unlawful prosecution of Catholics had forced him to adopt strict measures, adding that the
Holy Spirit In Judaism, the Holy Spirit is the divine force, quality, and influence of God over the Universe or over his creatures. In Nicene Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is the third person of the Trinity. In Islam, the Holy Spirit acts as ...
had inspired his acts. In October 1599, Ferdinand set up special commissions, consisting of a prelate and a high officer, to install Catholic priests in each town and village, and authorized them to apply military force if necessary. During the visit of the commissioners, local Protestants were to choose between conversion or exile, although in practice peasants were rarely allowed to leave. The commissioners also burnt prohibited books. Ferdinand did not force the Lutheran noblemen to convert to Catholicism, but forbade them to employ Protestant priests.


Brothers' Quarrel and Turkish war

Ferdinand married his cousin, Maria Anna of Bavaria, in Graz on 23 April 1600. Their marriage improved the relationship between the Habsburgs and the Wittelsbachs, which had deteriorated because of the appointment of Ferdinand's brother Leopold V to the
Bishopric of Passau The Diocese of Passau is a Roman Catholic diocese in Germany that is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Munich and Freising.Matthias Matthias is a name derived from the Greek Ματθαίος, in origin similar to Matthew. People Notable people named Matthias include the following: In religion: * Saint Matthias, chosen as an apostle in Acts 1:21–26 to replace Judas Iscariot * ...
, deteriorated. Fearing that the Protestant
prince-elector The prince-electors (german: Kurfürst pl. , cz, Kurfiřt, la, Princeps Elector), or electors for short, were the members of the electoral college that elected the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. From the 13th century onwards, the prince ...
s could take advantage of his childless brother's death to elect a Protestant emperor, Matthias wanted to convince Rudolph II to name him as his successor. Matthias discussed the issue with his younger brother, Maximilian, and with Ferdinand at a secret meeting in
Schottwien Schottwien is a town in the district of Neunkirchen in the Austrian state of Lower Austria Lower Austria (german: Niederösterreich; Austro-Bavarian: ''Niedaöstareich'', ''Niedaestareich'') is one of the nine states of Austria, located in the ...
in October 1600. They agreed to jointly approach the Emperor, but the superstitious and melancholic Rudolph flatly refused to talk about his succession. The
Uskoks The Uskoks ( hr, Uskoci, , singular: ; notes on naming) were irregular soldiers in Habsburg Croatia that inhabited areas on the eastern Adriatic coast and surrounding territories during the Ottoman wars in Europe. Bands of Uskoks fought a g ...
irregular soldiers of mixed origin along the northeastern coast of the
Adriatic Sea The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan Peninsula. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Sea) to t ...
made several attacks against the Venetian ships, claiming that the Venetians cooperated with the Ottomans. The Venetians urged Ferdinand to prevent further piratical actions. In 1600, he sent an envoy to the Uskoks, whom the Uskoks murdered. Ottoman raids against the borderlands continued and the expenses of the defence of Croatia, Slavonia and southwestern Hungary were almost exclusively financed from Inner Austria. Ferdinand could never properly manage financial affairs, and the most important fortresses were poorly supplied. The Ottomans occupied Nagykanizsa on 20 October 1600, which left the Styrian border almost defenseless against Ottoman raids. Ferdinand urged the Pope and
Philip III of Spain Philip III ( es, Felipe III; 14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621) was King of Spain. As Philip II, he was also King of Portugal, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia and Duke of Milan from 1598 until his death in 1621. A member of the House of Habsburg, Phi ...
to send reinforcements and funds to him. The Pope appointed his nephew, Gian Francesco Aldobrandini, as the commander of the papal troops. Ferdinand's counselors warned him against a counter-invasion before further reinforcements arrived, but Aldobrandini convinced him to lay siege to Nagykanizsa on 18 October 1601. After his troops were decimated by hunger and bad weather, Ferdinand was forced to lift the siege and return to Styria on 15 November. The Ottomans failed to exploit this victory, as Rudolph II's troops managed to defeat them near
Székesfehérvár Székesfehérvár (; german: Stuhlweißenburg ), known colloquially as Fehérvár ("white castle"), is a city in central Hungary, and the country's ninth-largest city. It is the regional capital of Central Transdanubia, and the centre of Fejér ...
. This victory restored Rudolph's self-confidence, and he decided to introduce severe Counter-Reformation measures in Silesia and Hungary, outraging his Protestant subjects. The Calvinist magnate
István Bocskai Stephen Bocskai or Bocskay ( hu, Bocskai István; 1 January 155729 December 1606) was Prince of Transylvania and Hungary from 1605 to 1606. He was born to a Hungarian noble family. His father's estates were located in the eastern regions of th ...
rose up against Rudolph, and most Hungarian noblemen joined him before the end of 1604. Taking advantage of his relatives' anxiety, Matthias persuaded Ferdinand, Maximilian and Ferdinand's brother, Maximilian Ernest, to start new negotiations concerning Rudolph's succession. At their meeting in
Linz Linz ( , ; cs, Linec) is the capital of Upper Austria and third-largest city in Austria. In the north of the country, it is on the Danube south of the Czech border. In 2018, the population was 204,846. In 2009, it was a European Capital of ...
in April 1606, the four archdukes concluded that the Emperor was incompetent and decided to replace him with Matthias in Bohemia, Hungary and Upper and Lower Austria. Ferdinand later claimed that he only signed the secret treaty because he feared that his relatives could otherwise accuse him of pursuing the throne for himself. Rudolph did not abdicate the throne, and announced that he was thinking of appointing Ferdinand's brother, Leopold, his successor. In fact, the Emperor authorised Matthias to start negotiations with Bocskai. The resulting agreement was included in the Treaty of Vienna, which granted religious freedom to Hungarian Protestants and prescribed the election of a
palatine A palatine or palatinus (in Latin; plural ''palatini''; cf. derivative spellings below) is a high-level official attached to imperial or royal courts in Europe since Roman times.
(or royal deputy) in Hungary on 23 June 1606. The subsequent
Peace of Zsitvatorok The Peace of Zsitvatorok (or Treaty of Sitvatorok) was a peace treaty which ended the 15-year Long Turkish War between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg monarchy on 11 November 1606. The treaty was part of a system of peace treaties which put a ...
put an end to the war with the Ottoman Empire on 11 November 1606. Rudolph II convoked the Imperial Diet to Regensburg and appointed Ferdinand as his deputy in November 1607. At the opening session of the Diet on 12 January 1608, Ferdinand demanded funds from the Imperial Estates on the Emperor's behalf to finance 24,000 troops. The delegates of the Protestant
princes A prince is a male ruler (ranked below a king, grand prince, and grand duke) or a male member of a monarch's or former monarch's family. ''Prince'' is also a title of nobility (often highest), often hereditary title, hereditary, in some Euro ...
stated that they would vote for the tax only if the Catholic Estates accepted their interpretation of the Religious Peace of Augsburg, especially their right to retain the lands they had confiscated from Catholic clerics in their realms. Ferdinand urged both parties to respect the Religious Peace, but without much success. He started negotiations with William V of Bavaria about the formation of an alliance of the Catholic princes, but his uncle wanted to establish it without the Habsburgs' participation. After the Diet was closed in early May, the
Electoral Palatinate The Electoral Palatinate (german: Kurpfalz) or the Palatinate (), officially the Electorate of the Palatinate (), was a state that was part of the Holy Roman Empire. The electorate had its origins under the rulership of the Counts Palatine of ...
,
Brandenburg Brandenburg (; nds, Brannenborg; dsb, Bramborska ) is a states of Germany, state in the northeast of Germany bordering the states of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Saxony, as well as the country of Poland. With an ar ...
, Würtemberg and other Protestant principalities formed an alliance, known as the
Protestant Union The Protestant Union (german: Protestantische Union), also known as the Evangelical Union, Union of Auhausen, German Union or the Protestant Action Party, was a coalition of Protestant German states. It was formed on 14 May 1608 by Frederick IV ...
, to defend their common interests. Ferdinand's appointment as the Emperor's deputy to the Diet implied that Rudolph regarded Ferdinandthe only Habsburg who had already fathered childrenas his successor. Matthias made public his secret treaty with Ferdinand, and the Emperor pardoned Ferdinand. Matthias concluded a formal alliance with the representatives of the Hungarian and Austrian Estates and led an army of 15,000 strong to Moravia. The envoys of the Holy See and Philip III of Spain mediated a compromise in June 1608. According to the Treaty of Lieben, Rudolph retained most
Lands of the Bohemian Crown The Lands of the Bohemian Crown were a number of incorporated states in Central Europe during the medieval and early modern periods connected by feudal relations under the Bohemian kings. The crown lands primarily consisted of the Kingdom of B ...
and the title of
Holy Roman Emperor The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans ( la, Imperator Romanorum, german: Kaiser der Römer) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period ( la, Imperat ...
, but had to renounce Hungary, Lower and Upper Austria and Moravia in favor of Matthias. Both brothers were forced to confirm the privileges of the Estates in their realms, including religious freedom.


Matthias's successor


Negotiations and alliances

Ferdinand's mother died on 29 April 1608, while he was staying in Regensburg. With her death, as historian Robert Bireley noted, Ferdinand "lost the most important person in his life, the one who more than any other had formed his character and his outlook." He requested the scholar
Caspar Schoppe Caspar Schoppe (27 May 1576 – 19 November 1649) was a German catholic controversialist and scholar. Life He was born at Neumarkt in the upper Palatinate and studied at several German universities. He converted to Roman Catholicism in about 1599 ...
, whom he had met at the Imperial Diet, to elaborate a detailed plan for an alliance of the Catholic monarchs. Schoppe argued that the alliance was to guarantee the Religious Peace, but he also demanded the restoration of Catholicism in all former ecclesiastic principalities and the return of the confiscated Church lands. Ferdinand embraced Schoppe's views and appointed him to start negotiations with
Pope Paul V Pope Paul V ( la, Paulus V; it, Paolo V) (17 September 1550 – 28 January 1621), born Camillo Borghese, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 16 May 1605 to his death in January 1621. In 1611, he honored ...
about a "just war" for the defence of the interests of Catholics, but the Pope avoid making a commitment, because he did not want to outrage
Henry IV of France Henry IV (french: Henri IV; 13 December 1553 – 14 May 1610), also known by the epithets Good King Henry or Henry the Great, was King of Navarre (as Henry III) from 1572 and King of France from 1589 to 1610. He was the first monarc ...
. Ferdinand also tried to strengthen his relationship with his Bavarian relatives, because Matthias's rebellion against Rudolph II and his concessions to the Protestants had shocked Ferdinand. However, William V and Maximilian of Bavaria ignored him when they and the three ecclesiastical electorsthe
archbishops of Mainz The Elector of Mainz was one of the seven Prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire. As both the Archbishop of Mainz and the ruling prince of the Electorate of Mainz, the Elector of Mainz held a powerful position during the Middle Ages. The Archb ...
,
Trier Trier ( , ; lb, Tréier ), formerly known in English as Trèves ( ;) and Triers (see also names in other languages), is a city on the banks of the Moselle in Germany. It lies in a valley between low vine-covered hills of red sandstone in the ...
and
Cologne Cologne ( ; german: Köln ; ksh, Kölle ) is the largest city of the German western States of Germany, state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) and the List of cities in Germany by population, fourth-most populous city of Germany with 1.1 m ...
established the Catholic League in February 1610. Only Philip III of Spain, who promised financial aid to the League, could persuade the Catholic princes to accept Ferdinand as a director and the vice-protector of the League in August. Cooperating with Rudolph II's principal advisor,
Melchior Klesl Melchior Khlesl (Klesl,Klesel,CleseliusHe uses the spelling Khlesl himself in his German-language correspondence: Victor Bibl, Klesl's Briefe an K. Rudolfs II. Obersthofmeister Adam Freiherrn von Dietrichstein (1583-1589). Ein Beitrag zur Geschic ...
,
Bishop of Vienna The Archbishop of Vienna is the prelate of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vienna who is concurrently the metropolitan bishop of its ecclesiastical province which includes the dioceses of Eisenstadt, Linz and St. Pölten. From 1469 to 1513, bish ...
, Ferdinand persuaded the Emperor to seek a reconciliation with Matthias. Ferdinand and other imperial princes came to Prague to meet with the Emperor on 1 May 1610. He stayed neutral in the family feud, which enabled him to mediate between the two brothers. They reached a compromise, but Rudolph refused to name Matthias as his successor. Instead, he adopted Ferdinand's younger brother, Leopold, who had hired 15,000 mercenaries at his request. Leopold invaded Bohemia in February 1611, but the troops of the Bohemian Estates defeated him. The Bohemian Estates dethroned Rudolph and elected Matthias king on 23 May 1611. Since Rudolph retained the title of emperor, his succession in the Holy Roman Empire remained uncertain. Matthias, Ferdinand and Maximilian III assembled at Vienna to discuss the issue with Philip III's envoy, Baltasar de Zúñiga, in December. They decided to support Matthias's election as
King of the Romans King of the Romans ( la, Rex Romanorum; german: König der Römer) was the title used by the king of Germany following his election by the princes from the reign of Henry II (1002–1024) onward. The title originally referred to any German k ...
(which could have secured his right to succeed Rudolph II), but the three ecclesiastical electors opposed the plan because of Matthias's concessions to the Protestants in Hungary, Austria and Bohemia. Matthias was elected Holy Roman Emperor only months after Rudolph II died on 20 June 1612. Since Matthias and his two surviving brothers, Maximilian III and Albert VII were childless, his succession in Austria, Bohemia, Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire was uncertain. Matthias made Ferdinand the governor of Lower and Upper Austria and appointed him as his representative in Hungary, but Klesl became his most influential advisor. Klesl wanted to forge a new princely alliance in the Holy Roman Empire with the participation of both Catholic and Protestant princes. Ferdinand and Maximilian III regarded his plan dangerous and sent envoys to Rome to convince the Pope about the importance of a pure Catholic alliance. Although the Catholic League was renewed, it declared, in accordance with Klesl's proposal, the defense of the imperial constitution as its principal purpose instead of the protection of Catholicism. Philip III of Spain announced his claim to succeed Matthias in Bohemia and Hungary, emphasizing that his mother,
Anna Anna may refer to: People Surname and given name * Anna (name) Mononym * Anna the Prophetess, in the Gospel of Luke * Anna (wife of Artabasdos) (fl. 715–773) * Anna (daughter of Boris I) (9th–10th century) * Anna (Anisia) (fl. 1218 to 12 ...
, the sister of Matthias, had never renounced her right to the two realms. Matthias and Ferdinand discussed the issue with Zúñiga in Linz in June and July 1613, but they did not reach an agreement. Maximilian III and Albert VII who preferred Ferdinand to Philip III renounced their claims in favor of him in August 1614, but Klesl made several efforts to delay the decision.


Uskok War and royal elections

Ferdinand sent troops against the Uskoks' principal center at
Senj Senj (; it, Segna, la, Senia, Hungarian language, Hungarian and german: Zengg) is a town on the upper Adriatic coast in Croatia, in the foothills of the Mala Kapela and Velebit mountains. The symbol of the town is the Nehaj Fortress ( hr, Tvr ...
to put an end to their piratical raids in 1614. Dozens of Uskok commanders were captured and beheaded, but his action did not satisfy the Venetians who invaded Istria and captured Habsburg territories in 1615. They besieged Gradisca from 12 February to 30 March, but they could not capture the fortress. Ferdinand sought assistance from Spain and the Venetians received support from the Dutch and English, but neither side could achieve a decisive victory in the
Uskok War The Uskok War, also known as the War of Gradisca, was fought by the Austrians, Croats, and Spanish on one side and the Venetians, Dutch, and English on the other. It is named for the Uskoks, soldiers from Croatia used by the Austrians for irreg ...
. Matthias adopted Ferdinand as his son in 1615, but without proposing Ferdinand's election as king of the Romans, because he feared that Ferdinand would force him to abdicate. In early 1616, Ferdinand pledged that he would not interfere in state administration in Matthias's realms. Klesl who regarded Ferdinand as the Jesuits' puppet continued to oppose his appointment as Matthias's successor. On 31 October 1616, Ferdinand and Maximilian III agreed to achieve the removal of Klesl, but Ferdinand wanted to conclude an agreement with Philip III about Matthias's succession before making further steps. Philip's new envoy at Vienna,
Íñigo Vélez de Guevara, 7th Count of Oñate Inigo derives from the Castilian rendering (Íñigo) of the medieval Basque name Eneko. Ultimately, the name means "my little (love)". While mostly seen among the Iberian diaspora, it also gained a limited popularity in the United Kingdom. Ear ...
, and Ferdinand signed a
secret treaty A secret treaty is a treaty ( international agreement) in which the contracting state parties have agreed to conceal the treaty's existence or substance from other states and the public.Helmut Tichy and Philip Bittner, "Article 80" in Olivier D ...
on 20 March 1617. Philip acknowledged Ferdinand's right to inherit Matthias's realms, but Ferdinand promised to cede territories in
Alsace Alsace (, ; ; Low Alemannic German/ gsw-FR, Elsàss ; german: Elsass ; la, Alsatia) is a cultural region and a territorial collectivity in eastern France, on the west bank of the upper Rhine next to Germany and Switzerland. In 2020, it had ...
, along with
Finale Ligure Finale Ligure ( lij, O Finâ, locally ; la, Finarium) is a ''comune'' on the Gulf of Genoa in the Province of Savona in Liguria, Italy. It is considered part of the Italian Riviera. Geography Known for its white sand beaches and its views, Final ...
and the
Principality of Piombino The Lordship of Piombino (''Signoria di Piombino''), and after 1594 the Principality of Piombino (''Principato di Piombino''), was a small state on the Italian peninsula centred on the city of Piombino and including part of the island of Elba. ...
in Italy to Philip after he succeeded Matthias as Holy Roman Emperor. Philip also granted 1 million tallers to Ferdinand to finance the war against the Venetians. The Venetians again laid siege to Gradisca in March 1617. Ferdinand needed further funds, but the Estates did not vote new taxes. Matthias fell seriously ill in late April 1617. Ignoring Klesl's advice, he convoked the Diet of Bohemia to secure Ferdinand's succession. He announced that his two brothers had abdicated in favor of Ferdinand, but the majority of the Bohemian delegates denied the Habsburgs' hereditary right to Bohemia. After some negotiations, all delegates but two noblemen and two burghers agreed to "accept" Ferdinand as king on 6 June. Ferdinand promised to respect the
Letter of Majesty The Letter of Majesty (1609) was a 17th-century European document, reluctantly signed by the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf II, granting religious tolerance to both Protestant and Catholic citizens living in the estates of Bohemia. The letter also ...
a royal diploma that guaranteed religious freedom in the Lands of the Bohemian Crownonly after consulting with the local Jesuits. He was crowned king in the
St. Vitus Cathedral , native_name_lang = Czech , image = St Vitus Prague September 2016-21.jpg , imagesize = 300px , imagelink = , imagealt = , landscape = , caption ...
on 29 June. Ten regents (seven Catholics and three Protestants) were appointed and they established a censor office in Prague. Ferdinand and Matthias met with the Lutheran
John George I, Elector of Saxony John George I (5 March 1585 – 8 October 1656) was Elector of Saxony from 1611 to 1656. He led Saxony through the Thirty Years' War, which dominated his 45 year reign. Biography Born in Dresden, John George was the second son of the Elector Chr ...
in
Dresden Dresden (, ; Upper Saxon: ''Dräsdn''; wen, label=Upper Sorbian, Drježdźany) is the capital city of the German state of Saxony and its second most populous city, after Leipzig. It is the 12th most populous city of Germany, the fourth larg ...
who promised to support Ferdinand at the imperial elections. John George also agreed to convince the two other Protestant electors,
Frederick V of the Palatinate Frederick V (german: link=no, Friedrich; 26 August 1596 – 29 November 1632) was the Elector Palatine of the Rhine in the Holy Roman Empire from 1610 to 1623, and reigned as King of Bohemia from 1619 to 1620. He was forced to abdicate both r ...
and
John Sigismund of Brandenburg John Sigismund (german: Johann Sigismund; 8 November 1572 – 23 December 1619) was a Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg from the House of Hohenzollern. He became the Duke of Prussia through his marriage to Duchess Anna, the eldes ...
, to vote for Ferdinand. Ferdinand hired new troops against the Venetians and volunteers also joined his army. The Catholic Bohemian nobleman,
Albrecht von Wallenstein Albrecht Wenzel Eusebius von Wallenstein () (24 September 1583 – 25 February 1634), also von Waldstein ( cs, Albrecht Václav Eusebius z Valdštejna), was a Bohemian military leader and statesman who fought on the Catholic side during the Th ...
, recruited 260 soldiers at his own expense. The Venetians abandoned the siege of Gradisca on 22 September, but peace was restored only in early 1618, after Ferdinand agreed to resettle the Uskoks from the coastline and ordered the destruction of their ships. The Venetians abandoned the territories that they had occupied in Istria and a permanent Austrian garrison was placed at Senj. Matthias convoked the
Diet of Hungary The Diet of Hungary or originally: Parlamentum Publicum / Parlamentum Generale ( hu, Országgyűlés) became the supreme legislative institution in the medieval kingdom of Hungary from the 1290s, and in its successor states, Royal Hungary and ...
to Pressburg (now
Bratislava Bratislava (, also ; ; german: Preßburg/Pressburg ; hu, Pozsony) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Slovakia. Officially, the population of the city is about 475,000; however, it is estimated to be more than 660,000 — approxim ...
in Slovakia) in early 1618. After the Hungarian delegates achieved the appointment of a new
palatine A palatine or palatinus (in Latin; plural ''palatini''; cf. derivative spellings below) is a high-level official attached to imperial or royal courts in Europe since Roman times.
(or royal lieutenant) and the confirmation of the Estates' privileges, they proclaimed Ferdinand king on 16 May 1618. He appointed the Catholic magnate,
Zsigmond Forgách Baron Zsigmond Forgách de Ghymes et Gács, sometimes Sigismund Forgách ( sk, Žigmund Forgáč; 1559 – 23 June 1621, in Nagyszombat, today ''Trnava'' in Slovakia) was a Hungarian nobleman in the Kingdom of Hungary, who served as Palatine from ...
, as the new palatine.


Thirty Years' War


Bohemian revolt

The application of the Letter of Majesty was controversial in Bohemia. The Protestants argued that it allowed them to build churches on Catholic prelates' lands, but the Catholics did not accept their interpretation. Royal officials arrested Protestant burghers who wanted to build a church in Broumov and destroyed a newly built church in
Hrob Hrob (german: Klostergrab) is a town in Teplice District in the Ústí nad Labem Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 2,000 inhabitants. Administrative parts The town part of Verneřice and villages of Křižanov and Mlýny are administrati ...
. The Protestants principally blamed two of the four Catholic royal governors,
Jaroslav Bořita of Martinice Jaroslav Hrabě Bořita z Martinic (; ) (6 January 1582 – 21 November 1649) was a Czech nobleman and a representative of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor who, along with Vilém Slavata of Chlum, was a victim in the 1618 Defenestration of Prag ...
and
Vilém Slavata of Chlum Vilém Slavata z Chlumu a Košumberka (; ) (1 December 1572 – 19 January 1652) was a Czech nobleman from old Bohemian family. As viceregent ''(místodržící)'' of Emperor Ferdinand II of Habsburg (from 1617) he became famous as co-victim, a ...
, for the violent acts. On 23 May 1618,
Jindřich Matyáš Thurn Count Jindřich Matyáš of Thurn-Valsassina (german: Heinrich Matthias Graf von Thurn und Valsassina; it, Enrico Matteo Conte della Torre di Valsassina) (24 February 1567 – 26 January 1640), was one of the leaders of the Protestant Bohemian ...
one of the two Czech magnates who had not accepted Ferdinand's successionled a group of armed noblemen to the Prague Castle. They captured the two governors and one of their secretaries and threw them out of the window. The Second Defenestration of Prague was the start of a new uprising. Two days later, the Protestant Estates elected directors to form a provisional government and started to raise an army. Ferdinand was staying in Pressburg when he was informed of the Bohemian events on 27 May 1618. He urged Matthias to send an envoy to Prague, but Matthias' envoy could not reach a compromise. Ferdinand was crowned king of Hungary on 1 July, and he returned to Vienna two weeks later. Ferdinand and Maximilian III decided to get rid of Klesl, although the cardinal supported their demand for a more determined policy against the Bohemian rebels. After a meeting with Klesl at his home, they invited him to the
Hofburg The Hofburg is the former principal imperial palace of the Habsburg dynasty. Located in the centre of Vienna, it was built in the 13th century and expanded several times afterwards. It also served as the imperial winter residence, as Schönbrunn ...
, but Ferdinand ordered his arrest at the entrance of the palace on 20 July. Ferdinand was automatically excommunicated for the imprisonment of a cardinal, but
Pope Paul V Pope Paul V ( la, Paulus V; it, Paolo V) (17 September 1550 – 28 January 1621), born Camillo Borghese, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 16 May 1605 to his death in January 1621. In 1611, he honored ...
absolved him before the end of the year. Ferdinand started negotiations with the rebels with the mediation of John George I of Saxony. He demanded the dissolution of the provisional government and the rebels' army. Instead of obeying his orders, the rebels concluded an alliance with the Estates of
Silesia Silesia (, also , ) is a historical region of Central Europe that lies mostly within Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is approximately , and the population is estimated at around 8,000,000. Silesia is split ...
, Upper and
Lower Lusatia Lower Lusatia (; ; ; szl, Dolnŏ Łużyca; ; ) is a historical region in Central Europe, stretching from the southeast of the German state of Brandenburg to the southwest of Lubusz Voivodeship in Poland. Like adjacent Upper Lusatia in the sou ...
, and Upper Austria.
Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy Charles Emmanuel I ( it, Carlo Emanuele di Savoia; 12 January 1562 – 26 July 1630), known as the Great, was the Duke of Savoy from 1580 to 1630. He was nicknamed (, in context "the Hot-Headed") for his rashness and military aggression. Being ...
hired
Ernst von Mansfeld Peter Ernst, Graf von Mansfeld (german: Peter Ernst Graf von Mansfeld; c. 158029 November 1626), or simply Ernst von Mansfeld, was a German military commander who, despite being a Catholic, fought for the Protestants during the early years of the ...
to assist the Bohemians. Mansfeld and his mercenaries captured
Plzeň Plzeň (; German and English: Pilsen, in German ) is a city in the Czech Republic. About west of Prague in western Bohemia, it is the Statutory city (Czech Republic), fourth most populous city in the Czech Republic with about 169,000 inhabita ...
, which was an important center of the Bohemian Catholics, and the rebels made raids into Lower Austria. From September 1618, Pope Paul V paid a monthly subsidy to Ferdinand to contribute to the costs of the war and Philip III of Spain also promised support to him. Emperor Matthias died on 20 March 1619. Maximilian of Bavaria encouraged Ferdinand to adopt an aggressive policy against the Bohemian rebels, but Ferdinand again confirmed the Letter of Majesty and urged the Bohemians to send delegates to Vienna. The directors ignored Ferdinand's acts and made further preparations for an armed conflict. Wallenstein stormed into
Olomouc Olomouc (, , ; german: Olmütz; pl, Ołomuniec ; la, Olomucium or ''Iuliomontium'') is a city in the Czech Republic. It has about 99,000 inhabitants, and its larger urban zone has a population of about 384,000 inhabitants (2019). Located on th ...
and seized 96,000 talers from the Moravian treasury on 30 April. He gave the booty to Ferdinand, but the king returned it to the Moravian Estates. The Protestant Estates of Upper Austria demanded the confirmation of their religious and political liberties before recognizing Ferdinand as Matthias' successor. Thurn and his 15,000 troops laid siege to Vienna on 5 June. Since only 300 soldiers were staying in the town, Ferdinand sent envoys to his commander at Krems, Henri Dampierre and entered into negotiations with the Upper Austrian Protestants about their demands. Dampierre and his troops reached Vienna by boat and forced the Protestant delegates to flee from the Hofburg. After Ferdinand's general, Count Bucquoy, defeated the Bohemian rebels in the
Battle of Sablat The Battle of Sablat or Záblatí occurred on 10 June 1619, during the Bohemian period of the Thirty Years' War. The battle was fought between a Roman Catholic Imperial army led by Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy and the Pr ...
, Thurn lifted the siege on 12 June.
Johann Schweikhard von Kronberg Johann Schweikhard von Kronberg (15 July, 1553 – 17 September, 1626) was the Archbishop-Elector of Mainz from 1604 to 1626. Biography Early life, 1553–1604 Born on July 15, 1553, Johann Schweikhard von Kronberg was the third son of Hartmut ...
, Archbishop of Mainz, convoked the electors' meeting to
Frankfurt Frankfurt, officially Frankfurt am Main (; Hessian: , "Frank ford on the Main"), is the most populous city in the German state of Hesse. Its 791,000 inhabitants as of 2022 make it the fifth-most populous city in Germany. Located on its na ...
. Ferdinand avoided the rebellious Upper Austria and approached the assembly through Salzburg and Munich. The Bohemians sent envoys to the conference and denied Ferdinand's right to vote as their king, but the electors ignored their demand. The Estates of all Lands of the Bohemian Crown formed a confederation on 31 July. They deposed Ferdinand on 22 August, and four days later, they offered the crown to Frederick V of the Palatinate. Frederick had tried to convince the electors to elect Maximilian I of Bavaria as the new Holy Roman Emperor. Maximilian did not accept the candidacy and Ferdinand was unanimously elected as Emperor on 28 August. The news about Ferdinand's deposition in Bohemia reached Frankfurt on the same day, but he did not leave the town before being crowned on 9 September.
Gabriel Bethlen Gabriel Bethlen ( hu, Bethlen Gábor; 15 November 1580 – 15 November 1629) was Prince of Transylvania from 1613 to 1629 and Duke of Opole from 1622 to 1625. He was also King-elect of Hungary from 1620 to 1621, but he never took control of th ...
,
Prince of Transylvania The Prince of Transylvania ( hu, erdélyi fejedelem, german: Fürst von Siebenbürgen, la, princeps Transsylvaniae, ro, principele TransilvanieiFallenbüchl 1988, p. 77.) was the head of state of the Principality of Transylvania from the last d ...
, made an alliance with the Bohemians and invaded
Upper Hungary Upper Hungary is the usual English translation of ''Felvidék'' (literally: "Upland"), the Hungarian term for the area that was historically the northern part of the Kingdom of Hungary, now mostly present-day Slovakia. The region has also been ...
(mainly present-day Slovakia) in September. After learning of Bethlen's success, Frederick V accepted the Bohemian crown on 28 September. Ferdinand concluded a treaty with Maxilimian I in Munich on 8 October 1619. Maximilian became the head of a renewed Catholic League and Ferdinand promised to compensate him for the costs of the war. He was still in Munich when Bethlen and Thurn united their forces and laid siege to Vienna in November. Ferdinand sought assistance from his staunchly Catholic brother-in-law,
Sigismund III of Poland Sigismund III Vasa ( pl, Zygmunt III Waza, lt, Žygimantas Vaza; 20 June 1566 – 30 April 1632 N.S.) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1587 to 1632 and, as Sigismund, King of Sweden and Grand Duke of Finland from 1592 t ...
. Sigismund did not intervene, however, he did hire mercenaries from the
Cossack The Cossacks , es, cosaco , et, Kasakad, cazacii , fi, Kasakat, cazacii , french: cosaques , hu, kozákok, cazacii , it, cosacchi , orv, коза́ки, pl, Kozacy , pt, cossacos , ro, cazaci , russian: казаки́ or ...
lands which invaded Upper Hungary and forced Bethlen to hurry back to Transylvania in late January 1620. Ferdinand and Bethlen concluded a 9-month truce, which temporarily acknowledged Bethlen's conquests in Hungary. Abandoned by Bethlen, Thurn was forced to lift the siege. Ferdinand ordered Frederick to abandon Bohemia before 1 July, threatening him with an
imperial ban The imperial ban (german: Reichsacht) was a form of outlawry in the Holy Roman Empire. At different times, it could be declared by the Holy Roman Emperor, by the Imperial Diet, or by courts like the League of the Holy Court (''Vehmgericht'') or th ...
. John George I of Saxony promised support against the Bohemian rebels in exchange for Lusatia, but Bethlen made a new alliance with the Bohemian Confederation and they sent envoys to Constantinople to seek the sultan's assistance. Ferdinand continued the negotiations with the Estates of Lower and Upper Austria about his recognition as Matthias' successor in both provinces. After his new confessor, the Jesuit
Martin Becanus Martinus Becanus (6 January 1563 – 24 January 1624) was a Dutch-born Jesuit priest, known as a theologian and controversialist. Life He was born ''Maarten Schellekens'' in Hilvarenbeek in North Brabant; Schellekens is a patronymic and he adop ...
, assured him that he could grant concessions to the Protestants to secure their loyalty, Ferdinand confirmed the Lutherans' right to practise their religion in Lower Austria, save the towns on 8 July 1620. Five days later, the vast majority of the noblemen swore fealty to him. Before long,
Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly ( nl, Johan t'Serclaes Graaf van Tilly; german: Johann t'Serclaes Graf von Tilly; french: Jean t'Serclaes de Tilly ; February 1559 – 30 April 1632) was a field marshal who commanded the Catholic League's ...
, who was the commander of the army of the Catholic League, occupied Upper Austria, Bucquoy defeated the last rebels in Lower Austria and John George of Saxony invaded Lusatia. Maximilian I retained Upper Austria as a security for Ferdinand's debts and the local Estates swore fealty to him on 20 August. The Diet of Hungary dethroned Ferdinand and elected Bethlen king on 23 August. The envoy of
Louis XIII of France Louis XIII (; sometimes called the Just; 27 September 1601 – 14 May 1643) was King of France from 1610 until his death in 1643 and King of Navarre (as Louis II) from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged with the French crown ...
,
Charles de Valois, Duke of Angoulême Charles de Valois (28 April 1573 – 24 September 1650) was an royal bastard, illegitimate son of Charles IX of France and Marie Touchet. He was count of Auvergne, duke of Angoulême, and memoirist. Biography Charles de Valois was born at the C ...
, tried to mediate a compromise between Ferdinand and his opponents, but Ferdinand was determined to force his rebellious subjects into obedience. The united troops of Maximilian I of Bavaria, Tilly and Bucquoy invaded Bohemia and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Bohemians and their allies in the
Battle of White Mountain ), near Prague, Bohemian Confederation(present-day Czech Republic) , coordinates = , territory = , result = Imperial-Spanish victory , status = , combatants_header = , combatant1 = Catholic L ...
on 8 November 1620.


Consolidation

Maximilian I of Bavaria urged Ferdinand to adopt strict measures against the Bohemians and their allies, and Ferdinand declared Frederick V an outlaw on 29 January 1621. Ferdinand charged
Karl I, Prince of Liechtenstein Karl I (30 July 1569 – 12 February 1627), was the first member of the Liechtenstein family to become a Prince of Liechtenstein, thus he was the founder of the Princely Family of Liechtenstein. Karl was the elder son of Hartmann II, Baron of ...
and Cardinal
Franz von Dietrichstein Franz Seraph von Dietrichstein ( cs, František Serafín z Ditrichštejna, 22 August 1570 – 19 September 1636), of the Austrian and Moravian House of Dietrichstein, was Prince of Dietrichstein, Archbishop of Olomouc, Governor (Landeshauptmann) ...
with the government of Bohemia and Moravia, respectively, and ordered the establishment of special courts of justice to hear the rebels' trials. The new tribunals sentenced most leaders of the rebellion to death, and 27 of them were executed in the Old Town Square in Prage on 21 June. The estates of more than 450 nobles and burghers were fully or partially confiscated. Ferdinand demanded further trials, but Liechtenstein convinced him to grant a general pardon, because Mansfeld's troops had not been expelled from western Bohemia. Bethlen also wanted to continue the war against Ferdinand, but the Ottomans did not support him. After lengthy negotiations, Bethlen renounced the title of king of Hungary, after Ferdinand ceded him seven Hungarian counties and two
Silesian duchies The Duchies of Silesia were the more than twenty divisions of the region of Silesia formed between the 12th and 14th centuries by the breakup of the Duchy of Silesia, then part of the Kingdom of Poland. In 1335, the duchies were ceded to the King ...
in the
Peace of Nikolsburg The Peace of Nikolsburg or Peace of Mikulov, signed on 31 December 1621 in Nikolsburg, Moravia (now Mikulov in the Czech Republic), was the treaty which ended the war between Prince Gabriel Bethlen of Transylvania and Emperor Ferdinand II of the ...
on 31 December 1621. By that time, Ferdinand had banned all Protestant pastors from Prague, ignoring John George I of Saxony's protests. Ferdinand could not pay off his mercenaries' salaries. Liechtenstein, Eggenberg, Wallenstein and other noblemen established a consortium that also included the Jewish banker,
Jacob Bassevi Jacob Batsheba Bassevi von Treuenberg (born Schmieles; 1570, Verona – 2 May 1634, Mladá Boleslav, Kingdom of Bohemia, Bohemia) was a Bohemian Court Jew and financier. Bassevi, sometimes also written Baschevi, was a son of Avraham Basch who orig ...
, and Wallenstein's financial manager,
Hans de Witte Hans de Witte (1583–1630) was a German financier who was the main financial backer of Albrecht von Wallenstein's army during the Thirty Years War The Thirty Years' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European hi ...
. They persuaded Ferdinand to lease all Bohemian, Moravian and Lower Austrian mints to them for one year in return for 6 million gulden on 18 January 1622. The consortium minted debased silver coins, issuing almost 30 million gulden. They used the bad money to purchase silver and the rebels' confiscated property and also to pay off the lease. The liberal issue of the new currency caused "the western's worlds first financial crisis", featured by inflation, famine and other symptoms of economic and social disruption. Dietrichstein and the Jesuits urged Ferdinand to intervene, and he dissolved the consortium in early 1623. Ferdinand met his second wife, the 23-year-old Eleonora Gonzaga, in Innsbruck on 1 February 1622. She was crowned as queen of Hungary in
Sopron Sopron (; german: Ödenburg, ; sl, Šopron) is a city in Hungary on the Austrian border, near Lake Neusiedl/Lake Fertő. History Ancient times-13th century When the area that is today Western Hungary was a province of the Roman Empire, a ...
where the first Italian opera was performed in the Habsburgs' realms during the festivities that followed the coronation. Ferdinand had convoked the Diet of Hungary to Sopron to assure the Hungarian Estates that he would respect their privileges. The Diet elected a Lutheran aristocrat, Count Szaniszló Thurzó, as the new palatine. The united imperial and Spanish armies inflicted decisive defeats on the Protestant troops in the Holy Roman Empire in May and June 1622. Tilly conquered the capital of the Palatinate, Heidelberg, on 19 September. Ferdinand convoked the German princes to a conference to Regensburg, primarily to talk about the future of the Palatinate. He reached the town on 24 November, but most Protestant princes sent delegates to the convention. He had secretly promised the transfer of Frederick V's title of elector to Maximilian I and his heirs, but most of his allies did not support the plan. They only agreed to bestow the title on Maximilian personally. Ferdinand had to yield, but assured Maximilian that he had not abandoned their original plan. He invested Maximilian with the electoral title on 25 February 1623, but the envoys of the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony and the Spanish ambassador were absent from the ceremony. Ferdinand decided to unite the Habsburgs' hereditary landsInner Austria, Upper and Lower Austria and Tyrolinto a new kingdom. He informed his brothers, Leopold and
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''*k ...
, about his plan in a letter on 29 April 1623, but they rejected it. Leopold wanted to establish his own principality. He renounced the bishoprics of Passau and
Strasbourg Strasbourg (, , ; german: Straßburg ; gsw, label=Bas Rhin Alsatian, Strossburi , gsw, label=Haut Rhin Alsatian, Strossburig ) is the prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est region of eastern France and the official seat of the Eu ...
in favor of Ferdinand's younger son, Leopold Wilhelm, and retained
Further Austria Further Austria, Outer Austria or Anterior Austria (german: Vorderösterreich, formerly ''die Vorlande'' (pl.)) was the collective name for the early (and later) possessions of the House of Habsburg in the former Swabian stem duchy of south-we ...
and Tyrol (that he had administered since 1619). Deprived of the Palatinate, Frederick V had made a new alliance with the
Dutch Republic The United Provinces of the Netherlands, also known as the (Seven) United Provinces, officially as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (Dutch: ''Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden''), and commonly referred to in historiography ...
. Bethlen used Ferdinand's refusal to give one of his daughters to him in marriage as a pretext to join the new coalition.
Christian of Brunswick Christian the Younger of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (20 September 1599 – 16 June 1626), a member of the House of Welf, titular Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Halberstadt, was a German Protestant military ...
was dispatched to invade Bohemia from the north, while Bethlen attacked from the east, but
Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly ( nl, Johan t'Serclaes Graaf van Tilly; german: Johann t'Serclaes Graf von Tilly; french: Jean t'Serclaes de Tilly ; February 1559 – 30 April 1632) was a field marshal who commanded the Catholic League's ...
routed Brunswick in the
Battle of Stadtlohn The Battle of Stadtlohn was fought on 6 August 1623 between the armies of the Electoral Palatinate and of the Catholic League during the Thirty Years' War. The League's forces were led by Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, the Protestants by ...
on 23 August 1623. The Ottomans denied support to Bethlen and he was forced to sign a new peace treaty in Vienna in May 1624. The treaty confirmed the provisions of the previous Peace of Nikolsburg.


Restoration

Becanus who died in late 1623 was succeeded by Lamormaini as Ferdinand's confessor. Lamormaini awakened Ferdinand's determination to adopt strict measures against the Protestants. At his initiative, Ferdinand decided to unite the medical and law faculties of the
Charles University ) , image_name = Carolinum_Logo.svg , image_size = 200px , established = , type = Public, Ancient , budget = 8.9 billion CZK , rector = Milena Králíčková , faculty = 4,057 , administrative_staff = 4,026 , students = 51,438 , undergr ...
in Prague with the theological and philosophical faculties of the Jesuits' local college to strengthen the Jesuits' control of higher education. The new
archbishop of Prague The following is a list of bishops and archbishops of Prague. The bishopric of Prague was established in 973, and elevated to an archbishopric on 30 April 1344. The current Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Prague is the continual successor of the bis ...
,
Ernst Adalbert von Harrach Count Ernst Adalbert von Harrach (4 November 1598 – 25 October 1667) was an Austrian Catholic Cardinal who was appointed Archbishop of Prague and Prince-Bishop of Trento. His name in Czech is Arnošt Vojtěch hrabě z Harrachu. Early life Adal ...
did not renounce the control of the university and also wanted to prevent the Jesuits from seizing the estates of the Charles University.
Valerianus Magnus Valerianus Magnus or Valeriano Magni (October 11, 1586 – July 20, 1661) was an Italian Capuchin, missionary preacher in Central Europe, philosopher, polemicist and author. Biography He was born at Milan, presumably of the noble family of de M ...
, the head of the
Capuchins Capuchin can refer to: *Order of Friars Minor Capuchin The Order of Friars Minor Capuchin (; postnominal abbr. O.F.M. Cap.) is a religious order of Franciscan friars within the Catholic Church, one of Three " First Orders" that reformed from t ...
in Bohemia, and the Holy See supported Harrach, but Ferdinand did not relent. Ferdinand ceremoniously renewed his oath about the restoration of Catholicism in his realms on 25 March 1624. First, he banned Protestant ceremonies in Bohemia proper and Moravia, even prohibiting the noblemen to hold Protestant pastors on 18 May. Maximilian I of Bavaria, who still held Upper Austria in pledge, proposed a cautious approach in the province, but Ferdinand ordered the expulsion of all Protestant pastors and teachers on 4 October. A year later, he prescribed that all inhabitants were to convert to Catholicism in Upper Austria by the following Easter, allowing only noblemen and burghers to choose to leave the province. The Upper Austrian peasants rose up in a rebellion and took control of the territories to the north of the Danube in May–June 1626. They sent delegates to Ferdinand in Vienna, but he did not give them an audience. Instead, he sent troops from Lower Austria to assist the Bavarian army in the crushing of the rebellion which was accomplished by the end of November. Tens of thousands of Protestants left Upper Austria during the following years. Ferdinand also took advantage of his peace with Bethlen to strengthen his position in Hungary. The Diet of Hungary confirmed the right of his son, Ferdinand III, to succeed him in October 1625. Ferdinand also achieved the election of a Catholic magnate, Count Miklós Esterházy, as the new palatine with the support of the
Archbishop of Esztergom In Christian denominations, an archbishop is a bishop of higher rank or office. In most cases, such as the Catholic Church, there are many archbishops who either have jurisdiction over an ecclesiastical province in addition to their own archdioc ...
, Cardinal
Péter Pázmány Péter Pázmány de Panasz, S.J. ( hu, panaszi Pázmány Péter, ; la, Petrus Pazmanus; german: Peter Pazman; sk, Peter Pázmaň; 4 October 1570 – 19 March 1637), was a Hungarian Jesuit who was a noted philosopher, theologian, cardina ...
.


Conclusion

The chief minister of Louis XIII of France,
Cardinal Richelieu Armand Jean du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu (; 9 September 1585 – 4 December 1642), known as Cardinal Richelieu, was a French clergyman and statesman. He was also known as ''l'Éminence rouge'', or "the Red Eminence", a term derived from the ...
, started to forge an alliance against the Habsburgs in 1624. French troops were garrisoned along the French frontiers and Richelieu sent envoys to the wealthy and ambitious
Christian IV of Denmark Christian IV (12 April 1577 – 28 February 1648) was King of Denmark and Norway and Duke of Holstein and Schleswig from 1588 until his death in 1648. His reign of 59 years, 330 days is the longest of Danish monarchs and Scandinavian monar ...
and other Protestant rulers to convince them to form a new league. Christian IV raised new troops and stationed them in his
Duchy of Holstein The Duchy of Holstein (german: Herzogtum Holstein, da, Hertugdømmet Holsten) was the northernmost state of the Holy Roman Empire, located in the present German state of Schleswig-Holstein. It originated when King Christian I of Denmark had his ...
(in the
Lower Saxon Circle The Lower Saxon Circle (german: Niedersächsischer Reichskreis) was an Imperial Circle of the Holy Roman Empire. It covered much of the territory of the medieval Duchy of Saxony (except for Westphalia), and was originally called the Saxon Circl ...
of the Holy Roman Empire) and persuaded the other Lower Saxon rulers to make him the commander of their united armies in early 1625. Initially, Ferdinand wanted to avoid the renewal of armed conflicts, but Maximilian of Bavaria urged him to gather an army against the new Protestant alliance. Wallenstein, who had accumulated immeasurable wealth in Bohemia, offered to hire mercenaries for him, but Ferdinand still hesitated. He authorized Maximilian to invade the Lower Saxon Circle if it were necessary to stop a Danish attack only in July. In the same month, Maximilian ordered Tilly to move his troops into Lower Saxony, and Wallenstein invaded the
Archbishopric of Magdeburg The Archbishopric of Magdeburg was a Roman Catholic archdiocese (969–1552) and Prince-Archbishopric (1180–1680) of the Holy Roman Empire centered on the city of Magdeburg on the Elbe River. Planned since 955 and established in 968, the Roma ...
and the
Bishopric of Halberstadt The Diocese of Halberstadt was a Roman Catholic diocese (german: Bistum Halberstadt) from 804 until 1648.
, but a fierce rivalry between the two commanders prevented them from continuing the military campaign. The electors of Mainz and Saxony demanded that Ferdinand should convoke the electors to a new convention to discuss the status of the Palatinate, but Ferdinand adopted a delaying tactic. In a letter, he informed Maximilian of Bavaria about his plan to grant a pardon to Frederick V in exchange for Frederick's public submission and an indemnification for the costs of the war, but he also emphasized that he did not want to deprive Maximilian of the electoral title. The English, Dutch and Danish envoys concluded an alliance against the Catholic League in
The Hague The Hague ( ; nl, Den Haag or ) is a city and municipality of the Netherlands, situated on the west coast facing the North Sea. The Hague is the country's administrative centre and its seat of government, and while the official capital of ...
on 9 December 1625. Bethlen promised to launch a new military campaign against Royal Hungary and Richelieu agreed to send a subsidy to him. Taking advantage of the peasant revolt in Upper Austria, Christian IV departed from his headquarters in
Wolfenbüttel Wolfenbüttel (; nds, Wulfenbüddel) is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany, the administrative capital of Wolfenbüttel District. It is best known as the location of the internationally renowned Herzog August Library and for having the largest c ...
, but Tilly routed his troops in the Battle of Lutter on 26 August 1626. Mansfeld who had invaded Silesia reached Upper Hungary, but Bethlen made a new peace with Ferdinand on 20 December 1626, because he could not wage war alone against the Emperor. Ferdinand deprived the dukes of
Mecklenburg Mecklenburg (; nds, label=Low German, Mękel(n)borg ) is a historical region in northern Germany comprising the western and larger part of the federal-state Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. The largest cities of the region are Rostock, Schwerin ...
from their duchies for their support to Christian IV in February 1627. In the same month, Wallenstein occupied Mecklenburg,
Pomerania Pomerania ( pl, Pomorze; german: Pommern; Kashubian: ''Pòmòrskô''; sv, Pommern) is a historical region on the southern shore of the Baltic Sea in Central Europe, split between Poland and Germany. The western part of Pomerania belongs to ...
and Holstein, and invaded Denmark. His devout Catholicism and negative view of Protestantism caused immediate turmoil in his non-Catholic subjects, especially in Bohemia. He did not wish to uphold the religious liberties granted by the Letter of Majesty signed by the previous emperor,
Rudolph II Rudolf II (18 July 1552 – 20 January 1612) was Holy Roman Emperor (1576–1612), King of Hungary and Croatia (as Rudolf I, 1572–1608), King of Bohemia (1575–1608/1611) and Archduke of Austria (1576–1608). He was a member of the Hous ...
, which had guaranteed freedom of religion to the nobles and cities. Additionally, Ferdinand as an absolutist monarch infringed several historical privileges of the nobles. Given the great number of Protestants among the ordinary population in the kingdom, and some of the nobles, the king's unpopularity soon caused the
Bohemian Revolt The Bohemian Revolt (german: Böhmischer Aufstand; cs, České stavovské povstání; 1618–1620) was an uprising of the Bohemian estates against the rule of the Habsburg dynasty that began the Thirty Years' War. It was caused by both religi ...
. The Second Defenestration of Prague of 22 May 1618 is considered the first step of the
Thirty Years' War The Thirty Years' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (80 ...
. In the following events he remained a staunch backer of the
Anti-Protestant Anti-Protestantism is bias, hatred or distrust against some or all branches of Protestantism and/or its followers. Anti-Protestantism dates back to before the Protestant Reformation itself, as various pre-Protestant groups such as Arnoldist ...
Counter Reformation The Counter-Reformation (), also called the Catholic Reformation () or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) a ...
efforts as one of the heads of the
German Catholic League The Catholic League ( la, Liga Catholica, german: Katholische Liga) was a coalition of Catholic states of the Holy Roman Empire formed 10 July 1609. While initially formed as a confederation to act politically to negotiate issues vis-à-vis the ...
. Ferdinand succeeded Matthias as Holy Roman Emperor in 1619. Supported by the Catholic League and the Kings of Spain and the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and, after 1791, as the Commonwealth of Poland, was a bi-confederal state, sometimes called a federation, of Crown of the Kingdom of ...
, Ferdinand decided to reclaim his possession in Bohemia and to quash the rebels. On 8 November 1620 his troops, led by the Flemish general
Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly ( nl, Johan t'Serclaes Graaf van Tilly; german: Johann t'Serclaes Graf von Tilly; french: Jean t'Serclaes de Tilly ; February 1559 – 30 April 1632) was a field marshal who commanded the Catholic League's ...
, smashed the rebels of
Frederick V Frederick V or Friedrich V may refer to: * Frederick V, Duke of Swabia (1164–1170) *Frederick V, Count of Zollern (d.1289) *Frederick V, Burgrave of Nuremberg (c. 1333–1398), German noble *Frederick V of Austria (1415–1493), or Frederick III ...
, who had been elected as rival King in 1619. After Frederick's flight to the Netherlands, Ferdinand ordered a massive effort to bring about re-conversion to Catholicism in Bohemia and Austria, causing Protestantism there to nearly disappear in the following decades, and reducing the Diet's power. In 1625, despite the subsidies received from Spain and the Pope, Ferdinand was in a bad financial situation. In order to muster an imperial army to continue the war, he applied to
Albrecht von Wallenstein Albrecht Wenzel Eusebius von Wallenstein () (24 September 1583 – 25 February 1634), also von Waldstein ( cs, Albrecht Václav Eusebius z Valdštejna), was a Bohemian military leader and statesman who fought on the Catholic side during the Th ...
, one of the richest men in Bohemia: the latter accepted on condition that he could keep total control over the direction of the war, as well as over the booties taken during the operations. Wallenstein was able to recruit some 30,000 men (later expanded up to 100,000), with whom he was able to defeat the Protestants in
Silesia Silesia (, also , ) is a historical region of Central Europe that lies mostly within Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is approximately , and the population is estimated at around 8,000,000. Silesia is split ...
,
Anhalt Saxony-Anhalt (german: Sachsen-Anhalt ; nds, Sassen-Anholt) is a state of Germany, bordering the states of Brandenburg, Saxony, Thuringia and Lower Saxony. It covers an area of and has a population of 2.18 million inhabitants, making it the ...
and
Denmark ) , song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast") , song_type = National and royal anthem , image_map = EU-Denmark.svg , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Danish Realm, Kingdom of Denmark ...
. In the wake of these Catholic military successes, in 1629 Ferdinand issued the
Edict of Restitution The Edict of Restitution was proclaimed by Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor in Vienna, on 6 March 1629, eleven years into the Thirty Years' War. Following Catholic military successes, Ferdinand hoped to restore control of land to that specifie ...
, by which all the lands stripped from Catholics after the
Peace of Passau Holy Roman Emperor Charles V had won a victory against Protestant forces in the Schmalkaldic War of 1547. Many Protestant princes were unhappy with the religious terms of the Augsburg Interim imposed after this victory. In January 1552, led by Maur ...
of 1552 would be returned. His military success caused the tottering Protestants to call in
Gustavus II Adolphus Gustavus Adolphus (9 December Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">N.S_19_December.html" ;"title="Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="/nowiki>Old Style and New Style dates">N.S 19 December">Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="/now ...
, King of Sweden. Soon, some of Ferdinand's allies began to complain about the excessive power exercised by Wallenstein, as well as the ruthless methods he used to finance his vast army. Ferdinand replied by firing the Bohemian general in 1630. The leadership of the war thenceforth passed to Tilly, who was however unable to stop the Swedish march from northern Germany towards Austria. Some historians directly blame Ferdinand for the large civilian loss of life in the
Sack of Magdeburg The Sack of Magdeburg, also called Magdeburg's Wedding (german: Magdeburger Hochzeit) or Magdeburg's Sacrifice (), was the destruction of the Protestant city of Magdeburg on 20 May 1631 by the Imperial Army and the forces of the Catholic Leag ...
in 1631: he had instructed Tilly to enforce the edict of Restitution upon the
Electorate of Saxony The Electorate of Saxony, also known as Electoral Saxony (German: or ), was a territory of the Holy Roman Empire from 1356–1806. It was centered around the cities of Dresden, Leipzig and Chemnitz. In the Golden Bull of 1356, Emperor Charles ...
, his orders causing the Belgian general to move the Catholic armies east, ultimately to
Leipzig Leipzig ( , ; Upper Saxon: ) is the most populous city in the German state of Saxony. Leipzig's population of 605,407 inhabitants (1.1 million in the larger urban zone) as of 2021 places the city as Germany's eighth most populous, as wel ...
, where they suffered their first substantial defeat at the hands of Adolphus' Swedes in the First
Battle of Breitenfeld (1631) The Battle of Breitenfeld (german: Schlacht bei Breitenfeld; sv, Slaget vid Breitenfeld) or First Battle of Breitenfeld (in older texts sometimes known as Battle of Leipzig), was fought at a crossroads near Breitenfeld approximately 8 km ...
. Tilly died in battle in 1632. Wallenstein was recalled, being able to muster an army in only a week, and immediately staked a tactical, if not strategic, victory at the September Battle of Fürth, quickly followed by his forces expelling the Swedes from Bohemia. In November 1632, however, the Catholics were defeated in the
Battle of Lützen (1632) The Battle of Lützen, fought on 16 November 1632, is considered one of the most important battles of the Thirty Years War. A combined Swedish Empire, Swedish-German army led by Gustavus Adolphus narrowly defeated an Habsburg monarchy, Imperial ...
, while Gustavus Adolphus was himself killed. A period of minor operations followed. Perhaps because of Wallenstein's ambiguous conduct, he was assassinated in 1634. Despite Wallenstein's fall, the imperial forces recaptured
Regensburg Regensburg or is a city in eastern Bavaria, at the confluence of the Danube, Naab and Regen rivers. It is capital of the Upper Palatinate subregion of the state in the south of Germany. With more than 150,000 inhabitants, Regensburg is the f ...
and were victorious in the
Battle of Nördlingen (1634) The Battle of Nördlingen (german: Schlacht bei Nördlingen; es, Batalla de Nördlingen; sv, Slaget vid Nördlingen) took place on 6 September 1634 during the Thirty Years' War. A combined Imperial-Spanish force inflicted a crushing defeat on ...
. The Swedish army was substantially weakened, and the fear that the power of the Habsburgs would become overwhelming caused France, led by
Louis XIII of France Louis XIII (; sometimes called the Just; 27 September 1601 – 14 May 1643) was King of France from 1610 until his death in 1643 and King of Navarre (as Louis II) from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged with the French crown ...
and
Cardinal Richelieu Armand Jean du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu (; 9 September 1585 – 4 December 1642), known as Cardinal Richelieu, was a French clergyman and statesman. He was also known as ''l'Éminence rouge'', or "the Red Eminence", a term derived from the ...
, to enter the war on the Protestant side. (Louis's father
Henry IV of France Henry IV (french: Henri IV; 13 December 1553 – 14 May 1610), also known by the epithets Good King Henry or Henry the Great, was King of Navarre (as Henry III) from 1572 and King of France from 1589 to 1610. He was the first monarc ...
had once been a Huguenot leader.) In 1635 Ferdinand signed his last important act, the
Peace of Prague (1635) The Peace of Prague (, ), signed on 30 May 1635, ended Saxony's participation in the Thirty Years War. Other German princes subsequently joined the treaty and although the Thirty Years War continued, it is generally agreed Prague ended it as a ...
, yet this did not end the war. Ferdinand died in 1637, leaving to his son
Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III (Ferdinand Ernest; 13 July 1608, in Graz – 2 April 1657, in Vienna) was from 1621 Archduke of Austria, King of Hungary from 1625, King of Croatia and Bohemia from 1627 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1637 until his death in 1657. ...
, an empire still engulfed in a war and whose fortunes seemed to be increasingly chaotic. Ferdinand II was buried in his Mausoleum in Graz. His heart was interred in the
Herzgruft The Herzgruft () is a burial chamber that protects 54 urns containing the hearts of members of the House of Habsburg. The crypt is located behind the Loreto Chapel in the Augustinian Church within the Hofburg Palace complex in Vienna, Austria. ...
(heart crypt) of the
Augustinian Church, Vienna The Augustinian Church (german: link=no, Augustinerkirche) in Vienna is a parish church located on Josefsplatz, next to the Hofburg, the winter palace of the Habsburg dynasty in Vienna. Originally built in the 14th century as the parish church of ...
.


Marriages and issue

In 1600, Ferdinand married
Maria Anna of Bavaria (1574–1616) Maria Anna of Bavaria (18 December 1574 – 8 March 1616), was a German princess, a member of the House of Wittelsbach by birth and Archduchess consort of Inner Austria by marriage. Born in Munich, she was the fourth child and second (but eldes ...
, daughter of Duke
William V William V may refer to: *William V, Duke of Aquitaine (969–1030) *William V of Montpellier (1075–1121) *William V, Marquess of Montferrat (1191) *William V, Count of Nevers (before 11751181) *William V, Duke of Jülich (1299–1361) *William V, ...
of Bavaria. They had seven children: * Archduchess Christine (25 May 160112/21 June 1601) * Archduke Charles (25 May 1603) * Archduke John-Charles (1 November 160526 December 1619) * Ferdinand III (13 July 16082 April 1657) married: ** 1631 Infanta
Maria Anna of Spain , house = Habsburg , father = Philip III of Spain , mother = Margaret of Austria , birth_date = , birth_place = El Escorial, Spain , death_date = , death_place = Linz, Austria , burial_place = Imperial Crypt , ...
** 1648
Maria Leopoldine of Austria Maria Leopoldine of Austria-Tyrol (6 April 1632 – 7 August 1649), was by birth Archduchess of Austria and member of the Tyrolese branch of the House of Habsburg and by marriage the second spouse of her first cousin, Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinan ...
** 1651
Eleanor Gonzaga (1630–1686) Eleonora Gonzaga may refer to: * Eleonora Gonzaga, Duchess of Urbino (1493–1570), daughter of Francesco II Gonzaga; wife of Francesco Maria I della Rovere, Duke of Urbino * Eleonora Gonzaga (1598–1655), daughter of Vincenzo I Gonzaga & Eleono ...
* Archduchess
Maria Anna of Austria Maria Anna of Austria (Maria Anna Josepha Antonia Regina; 7 September 1683 – 14 August 1754) was Queen of Portugal as the wife of King John V of Portugal. She served as the regent of Portugal from 1742 until 1750 during the illness of her hus ...
(13 January 161025 September 1665) * Archduchess Cecilia Renata of Austria (16 July 1611 – 24 March 1644), who married her cousin
Władysław IV Vasa Władysław IV Vasa; lt, Vladislovas Vaza; sv, Vladislav IV av Polen; rus, Владислав IV Ваза, r=Vladislav IV Vaza; la, Ladislaus IV Vasa or Ladislaus IV of Poland (9 June 1595 – 20 May 1648) was King of Poland, Grand Duke of ...
, King of Poland. *
Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria (5 January 1614 – 20 November 1662), younger brother of Emperor Ferdinand III, was an Austrian soldier, administrator and patron of the arts. He held a number of military commands, with limited success, and ...
(1614–1662). In 1622, he married Eleonore of Mantua (Gonzaga) (1598–1655), the daughter of Duke Vincenzo I of
Mantua Mantua ( ; it, Mantova ; Lombard language, Lombard and la, Mantua) is a city and ''comune'' in Lombardy, Italy, and capital of the Province of Mantua, province of the same name. In 2016, Mantua was designated as the Italian Capital of Culture ...
and
Eleonora de' Medici Eleanor de' Medici (28 February 1567 – 9 September 1611) was a Duchess of Mantua by marriage to Vincenzo I Gonzaga. She served as regent of Mantua 1595, 1597 and 1601, when Vincenzo served in the Austrian campaign in Hungary, and in 1602, whe ...
, at
Innsbruck Innsbruck (; bar, Innschbruck, label=Bavarian language, Austro-Bavarian ) is the capital of Tyrol (state), Tyrol and the List of cities and towns in Austria, fifth-largest city in Austria. On the Inn (river), River Inn, at its junction with the ...
. They had no children.


Ancestors


Titles

''Ferdinand II, by the grace of God elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King in Germany, King of Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania, Bulgaria, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Margrave of Moravia, Duke of Luxemburg, of the Higher and Lower Silesia, of Württemberg and Teck, Prince of Swabia, Count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Kyburg and Goritia, Marquess of the Holy Roman Empire, Burgovia, the Higher and Lower Lusace, Lord of the Marquisate of Slavonia, of Port Naon and Salines, etc. etc.''


See also

*
Kings of Germany family tree The following image is a family tree of every prince, king, queen, monarch, confederation president and emperor of Germany, from Charlemagne in 800 over Louis the German in 843 through to Wilhelm II in 1918. It shows how almost every single ruler of ...
. He was related to every other king of Germany.


References


Sources

* * * * * * * *


Further reading

* Bireley, Robert. ''Religion and Politics in the Age of the Counterreformation: Emperor Ferdinand II, William Lamormaini, SJ, and the Formation of the Imperial Policy'' (U Press of North Carolina, 2012). * * * Saunders, Steven. ''Cross, sword, and lyre: sacred music at the imperial court of Ferdinand II of Habsburg (1619–1637)'' (Oxford UP, 1995). *


External links


Regnal titles

, - , - {{DEFAULTSORT:Ferdinand 2, Holy Roman Emperor 1578 births 1637 deaths 17th-century Holy Roman Emperors 16th-century archdukes of Austria 17th-century archdukes of Austria Knights of the Golden Fleece Pretenders to the Bohemian throne University of Ingolstadt alumni Austrian people of the Thirty Years' War Counter-Reformation Dukes of Carniola Burials at St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna