The presence of women in medicine, particularly in the practicing fields of
surgery
Surgery ''cheirourgikē'' (composed of χείρ, "hand", and ἔργον, "work"), via la, chirurgiae, meaning "hand work". is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a person to investigate or treat a pat ...
and as
physician
A physician (American English), medical practitioner (Commonwealth English), medical doctor, or simply doctor, is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through th ...
s, has been traced to the earliest of history. Women have historically had lower participation levels in medical fields compared to men with occupancy rates varying by race,
socioeconomic status
Socioeconomic status (SES) is an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family's economic access to resources and social position in relation to others. When analyzing a family's ...
, and geography.
Women's informal practice of medicine in roles such as caregivers, or as allied health professionals, has been widespread. Since the start of the 20th century, most countries of the world provide women with access to
medical education
Medical education is education related to the practice of being a medical practitioner, including the initial training to become a physician (i.e., medical school and internship (medical), internship) and additional training thereafter (e.g., Re ...
. Not all countries ensure equal employment opportunities, and gender equality has yet to be achieved within medical specialties and around the world.
History
Ancient medicine
The involvement of women in the field of
medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pract ...
has been recorded in several early civilizations. An
Egyptian
Egyptian describes something of, from, or related to Egypt.
Egyptian or Egyptians may refer to:
Nations and ethnic groups
* Egyptians, a national group in North Africa
** Egyptian culture, a complex and stable culture with thousands of years of ...
of the
Old Kingdom of Egypt
In ancient Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom is the period spanning c. 2700–2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth ...
,
Peseshet
Peseshet, who lived under the Fourth Dynasty (albeit a date in the Fifth Dynasty is also possible), is often credited with being the earliest known female physician in history. Some have credited Merit-Ptah with being the first female physician, ...
, described in an inscription as "lady overseer of the female physicians", is the earliest woman named in the
history of science
The history of science covers the development of science from ancient times to the present. It encompasses all three major branches of science: natural, social, and formal.
Science's earliest roots can be traced to Ancient Egypt and Meso ...
.
Ubartum Ubartum was a female physician who lived in Garšana , a town in Mesopotamia around 2075 BC (in the Third Dynasty of Ur). Ubartum came from an influential family. Both brothers were physicians too and one of them was married to a daughter of king S ...
lived around 2050 BC in
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the F ...
and came from a family of several physicians.
Agamede
Agamede (Ancient Greek: Ἀγαμήδη means ‘very cunning’) was a name attributed to two separate women in classical Greek mythology and legendary history.
* Agamede ( twelfth century BC) was, according to Homer, a Greek physician acquaint ...
was cited by
Homer
Homer (; grc, Ὅμηρος , ''Hómēros'') (born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Homer is considered one of the ...
as a healer in
ancient Greece
Ancient Greece ( el, Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity ( AD 600), that comprised a loose collection of cult ...
before the
Trojan War
In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and has ...
.
Agnodice
Agnodice or Agnodike ( grc, Ἀγνοδίκη ''Agnodikē'', c. 4th century BCE) is a legendary figure credited as the first female midwife or physician in ancient Athens. Her story is told by the Roman author Gaius Julius Hyginus in his ''Fabu ...
was the first female
physician
A physician (American English), medical practitioner (Commonwealth English), medical doctor, or simply doctor, is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through th ...
to practice legally in 4th century BC
Athens
Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...
.
Metrodora
Metrodora ( grc, Μητροδώρα) was possibly the author an ancient Greek medical text, ''On the Diseases and Cures of Women'' (Περὶ τῶν Γυναικείων παθῶν τῆς μἠτρας). She is known from a Byzantine manuscript ...
was a physician and generally regarded as the first female medical writer. Her book, ''On the Diseases and Cures of Women'', was the oldest medical book written by a female and was referenced by many other female physicians. She credited much of her writings to the ideologies of
Hippocrates
Hippocrates of Kos (; grc-gre, Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος, Hippokrátēs ho Kôios; ), also known as Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician of the classical period who is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of ...
.
Medieval Europe
During the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
,
convent
A convent is a community of monks, nuns, religious brothers or, sisters or priests. Alternatively, ''convent'' means the building used by the community. The word is particularly used in the Catholic Church, Lutheran churches, and the Anglican ...
s were a centralized place of education for women, and some of these communities provided opportunities for women to contribute to scholarly
research
Research is "creativity, creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". It involves the collection, organization and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular att ...
. An example is the
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
**Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ger ...
abbess
An abbess (Latin: ''abbatissa''), also known as a mother superior, is the female superior of a community of Catholic nuns in an abbey.
Description
In the Catholic Church (both the Latin Church and Eastern Catholic), Eastern Orthodox, Coptic ...
Hildegard of Bingen
Hildegard of Bingen (german: Hildegard von Bingen; la, Hildegardis Bingensis; 17 September 1179), also known as Saint Hildegard and the Sibyl of the Rhine, was a German Benedictine abbess and polymath active as a writer, composer, philosopher ...
, whose prolific writings include treatments of various scientific subjects, including
medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pract ...
,
botany
Botany, also called , plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek w ...
and natural history (–58). She is considered Germany's first female
physician
A physician (American English), medical practitioner (Commonwealth English), medical doctor, or simply doctor, is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through th ...
.
Women in the Middle Ages participated in healing techniques and several capacities in medicine and medical education. Women occupied select ranks of medical personnel during the period. They worked as
herbalists
Herbal medicine (also herbalism) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. With worldwide research into pharmacology, some herbal medicines have been translated into modern remed ...
,
midwives
A midwife is a health professional who cares for mothers and newborns around childbirth, a specialization known as midwifery.
The education and training for a midwife concentrates extensively on the care of women throughout their lifespan; con ...
,
surgeons
In modern medicine, a surgeon is a medical professional who performs surgery. Although there are different traditions in different times and places, a modern surgeon usually is also a licensed physician or received the same medical training as ...
,
barber-surgeons
The barber surgeon, one of the most common European medical practitioners of the Middle Ages, was generally charged with caring for soldiers during and after battle. In this era, surgery was seldom conducted by physicians, but instead by barbers ...
, nurses, and traditional
empirics
In philosophy, empiricism is an epistemological theory that holds that knowledge or justification comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views within epistemology, along with rationalism and skepticism. Empiri ...
. Women healers treated most patients, not limiting themselves to treating solely women. The names of 24 women described as surgeons in Naples, Italy between 1273 and 1410 have been recorded, and references have been found to 15 women practitioners, most of them Jewish and none described as midwives, in Frankfurt, Germany between 1387 and 1497.
Women also engaged in midwifery and healing arts without having their activities recorded in written records, and practiced in rural areas or where there was little access to medical care. Society in the Middle Ages limited women's role as physician. Once universities established faculties of medicine during the thirteenth century, women were excluded from advanced medical education. Licensure began to require clerical vows for which women were ineligible, and healing as a profession became male-dominated.
In many occasions, women had to fight against accusation of illegal practice done by males, putting into question their motives. If they were not accused of
malpractice
In the law of torts, malpractice, also known as professional negligence, is an "instance of negligence or incompetence on the part of a professional".Malpractice definition,
Professionals who may become the subject of malpractice actions inc ...
, then women were considered "witches" by both clerical and civil authorities. Surgeons and barber-surgeons were often organized into guilds, they could hold out longer against the pressures of licensure. Like other guilds, a number of the barber-surgeon guilds allowed the daughters and wives of their members to take up membership in the guild, generally after the man's death. Katherine la surgiene of London, daughter of Thomas the surgeon and sister of William the Surgeon belonged to a guild in 1286. Documentation of female members in the guilds of Lincoln, Norwich, Dublin and York continue until late in the period.
Midwives, those who assisted pregnant women through childbirth and some aftercare, included only women. Midwives constituted roughly one third of female medical practitioners. Men did not involve themselves in women's medical care; women did not involve themselves in men's health care. The southern
Italian
Italian(s) may refer to:
* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries
** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom
** Italian language, a Romance language
*** Regional Ita ...
coastal town of Salerno was a center of medical education and practice in the 12th century. In Salerno the physician
Trota of Salerno
Trota of Salerno (also spelled Trocta) was the world's first gynecologist. She was a medical practitioner and writer in the southern Italian coastal town of Salerno who lived in the early or middle decades of the 12th century. Her fame spread as ...
compiled a number of her medical practices in several written collections. One work on women's medicine that was associated with her, the ''De curis mulierum'' ("On Treatments for Women") formed the core of what came to be known as the ''
Trotula
''Trotula'' is a name referring to a group of three texts on women's medicine that were composed in the southern Italian port town of Salerno in the 12th century. The name derives from a historic female figure, Trota of Salerno, a physician and ...
'' ensemble, a compendium of three texts that circulated throughout medieval Europe. Trota herself gained a reputation that spread as far as France and England. There are also references in the writings of other Salernitan physicians to the ''mulieres Salernitane'' ("Salernitan women"), which give some idea of local empirical practices.
Dorotea Bucca
Dorotea Bocchi (1360–1436) (also sometimes referred to as Dorotea Bucca) was an Italian noblewoman known for studying medicine and philosophy. Dorotea was associated with the University of Bologna, though there are differing beliefs regarding th ...
, an Italian physician, was chair of philosophy and medicine at the University of Bologna for over forty years from 1390.Brooklyn Museum: Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art: The Dinner Party: Heritage Floor: Dorotea Bucca (accessed 22 August 2007) Other Italian women whose contributions in medicine have been recorded include
Abella
Abella, often known as Abella of Salerno or Abella of Castellomata, was a physician in the mid fourteenth century. Abella studied and taught at the Salerno School of Medicine. Abella is believed to have been born around 1380, but the exact time o ...
Alessandra Giliani
Alessandra Giliani (1307-1326) was thought to be an Italian natural historian, best known as the first woman to be recorded in historical documents as practicing anatomy and pathology. However, the historical evidence for her existence is limited ...
,
Rebecca de Guarna
Rebecca Guarna ( fl. 1200), was an Italian physician and surgeon and author. She is one of a number of female physicians known from the Middle Ages. She was one of the women known as the " ladies of Salerno".
Rebecca Guarna was a member of the sam ...
,
Margarita
A margarita is a cocktail consisting of Tequila, triple sec, and lime juice often served with salt on the rim of the glass. The drink is served shaken with ice (on the rocks), blended with ice (frozen margarita), or without ice (straight up). T ...
,
Mercuriade
Mercuriade (14th-century) was an Italian physician, surgeon and medical author. She is one of the few woman physicians known from the Middle Ages.
Mercuriade was a student of the University of Salerno and belonged to the minority of female studen ...
(14th century),
Constance Calenda
Constance Calenda ( it, Costanza or ; ) was an Italian surgeon specializing in diseases of the eye.
Maria Incarnata
Maria may refer to:
People
* Mary, mother of Jesus
* Maria (given name), a popular given name in many languages
Place names Extraterrestrial
*170 Maria, a Main belt S-type asteroid discovered in 1877
*Lunar maria (plural of ''mare''), large, da ...
and
Thomasia de Mattio
''Thomasia'' is a genus of thirty-one species of flowering plants in the family Malvaceae. Plants in this genus are small shrubs that are endemic to the south-west of Western Australia, apart from '' T. petalocalyx'' that is native to Victoria ...
.Howard S. ''The Hidden Giants'', p. 35, (Lulu.com; 2006) (accessed 22 August 2007)
Medieval Islamic world
For the medieval Islamic world, little information is known about female medical practitioners although it is likely that women were regularly involved in medical practice in some capacity. Male medical writers refer to the presence of female practitioners (a ''ṭabība'') in describing certain procedures or situations. The late-10th to early-11th century Andalusi physician and surgeon
al-Zahrawi
Abū al-Qāsim Khalaf ibn al-'Abbās al-Zahrāwī al-Ansari ( ar, أبو القاسم خلف بن العباس الزهراوي; 936–1013), popularly known as al-Zahrawi (), Latinised as Albucasis (from Arabic ''Abū al-Qāsim''), was ...
wrote that certain medical procedures were difficult for male doctors practicing on female patients because of the need to touch the genitalia. The male practitioner was required to either find a female doctor who could perform the procedure, or a eunuch physician, or a midwife who took instruction from the male surgeon. The existence of female practitioners can be inferred, albeit not explicitly, through direct evidence.Monica H. Green, "History of Science," ''Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures''. Volume I: ''Methodologies, Paradigms and Sources'', Suad Joseph, general editor (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2003), pp. 358–361; Peter Pormann, "Female Patients and Practitioners in Medieval Islam," ''The Lancet'' 373 (9 May 2009), pp. 1598–1599. Midwives played a prominent role in the delivery of women's healthcare. For these practitioners, there is more detailed information, both in terms of the prestige of their craft (
ibn Khaldun
Ibn Khaldun (; ar, أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون الحضرمي, ; 27 May 1332 – 17 March 1406, 732-808 AH) was an Arab
The Historical Muhammad', Irving M. Zeitlin, (Polity Press, 2007), p. 21; "It is, of ...
calls it a noble craft, "something necessary in civilization") and in terms of biographical information on historic women. To date, no known medical treatise written by a woman in the medieval Islamic world has been identified.
Western medicine in China
Traditional
Chinese medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. It has been described as "fraught with pseudoscience", with the majority of its treatments having no logical mechanism of action ...
based on the use of
herbal medicine
Herbal medicine (also herbalism) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. With worldwide research into pharmacology, some herbal medicines have been translated into modern remed ...
,
acupuncture
Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine and a component of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in which thin needles are inserted into the body. Acupuncture is a pseudoscience; the theories and practices of TCM are not based on scientifi ...
,
massage
Massage is the manipulation of the body's soft tissues. Massage techniques are commonly applied with hands, fingers, elbows, knees, forearms, feet or a device. The purpose of massage is generally for the treatment of body stress or pain. In Eu ...
and other forms of therapy has been practiced in China for thousands of years. Western medicine was introduced to China in the 19th Century, mainly by medical missionaries sent from various Christian mission organizations, such as the
London Missionary Society
The London Missionary Society was an interdenominational evangelical missionary society formed in England in 1795 at the instigation of Welsh Congregationalist minister Edward Williams. It was largely Reformed in outlook, with Congregational miss ...
(Britain), the
Methodist
Methodism, also called the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity whose origins, doctrine and practice derive from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and John's b ...
Church (Britain) and the
Presbyterian Church
Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism that broke from the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland by John Knox, who was a priest at St. Giles Cathedral (Church of Scotland). Presbyterian churches derive their nam ...
(US).
Benjamin Hobson
Benjamin Hobson (1816–1873) (Chinese:合信) was a Protestantism in China, Protestant Medical missions in China, medical missionary who served with the London Missionary Society in imperial China during its Qing Dynasty, Qing list of Chinese dy ...
(1816–1873), a medical missionary sent by the
London Missionary Society
The London Missionary Society was an interdenominational evangelical missionary society formed in England in 1795 at the instigation of Welsh Congregationalist minister Edward Williams. It was largely Reformed in outlook, with Congregational miss ...
in 1839, set up the Wai Ai Clinic (惠愛醫館) in Guangzhou, China. The
Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese
The Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine or LKS Faculty of Medicine (HKUMed), formerly known as the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Hong Kong, is a medical school which comprises several schools and departments that provide an array of tert ...
(香港華人西醫書院) was founded in 1887 by the
London Missionary Society
The London Missionary Society was an interdenominational evangelical missionary society formed in England in 1795 at the instigation of Welsh Congregationalist minister Edward Williams. It was largely Reformed in outlook, with Congregational miss ...
, with its first graduate (in 1892) being
Sun Yat-sen
Sun Yat-sen (; also known by several other names; 12 November 1866 – 12 March 1925)Singtao daily. Saturday edition. 23 October 2010. section A18. Sun Yat-sen Xinhai revolution 100th anniversary edition . was a Chinese politician who serve ...
(孫中山).
Due to the social custom that men and women should not be near to one another, Chinese women were reluctant to be treated by Western male doctors. This resulted in a need for female doctors. One of these was Sigourney Trask of the Methodist Episcopal Church, who set-up a hospital in
Fuzhou
Fuzhou (; , Fuzhounese: Hokchew, ''Hók-ciŭ''), alternately romanized as Foochow, is the capital and one of the largest cities in Fujian province, China. Along with the many counties of Ningde, those of Fuzhou are considered to constitute t ...
during the mid-19th century. Trask also arranged for a local girl,
Hü King Eng
Hü King Eng (, Foochow Romanized: Hṳ̄ Gĭnghŏng) was a physician, and the second ethnic Chinese woman to attend university in the United States, after King You Mé. (Contrast:-Dr King You Me ameiwas adopted and brought up by an American ...
, to study medicine at
Ohio Wesleyan Female College
Ohio Wesleyan Female College was founded in 1853 in Delaware, Ohio. In 1877, the Ohio Wesleyan Female College merged with Ohio Wesleyan University.
History
It is one of the oldest institutions of higher education for women in the United States, ...
, with the intention that Hü would return to practise western medicine in Fuzhou. After graduation, Hü became the resident physician at Fuzhou's
Woolston Memorial Hospital
The Woolston Memorial Hospital was a Christian hospital in China and the first of its kind in Fuzhou.
History
The Woolston Memorial Hospital was formed from the expansion of a small Fuzhounese clinic run by a Methodist missionary within the ...
in 1899 and trained several female physicians. Another female medical missionary
Mary H. Fulton Mary Hannah Fulton (31 May 1854 – 7 January 1927) was a medical missionary sent to South China by the Presbyterian Church. She began her work by setting up a dispensary in Kwai Ping, then continued by working with the Canton Hospital. Dr. Fult ...
(1854–1927) was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the
Presbyterian Church
Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism that broke from the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland by John Knox, who was a priest at St. Giles Cathedral (Church of Scotland). Presbyterian churches derive their nam ...
(US) to found the first medical college for women in China. Known as the
Hackett Medical College for Women
Lingnan University () in Guangzhou (Canton), China, was a private university established by a group of American missionaries in 1888. At its founding it was named Canton Christian College ().
When the Communist government reorganized China's high ...
(夏葛女子醫學院), this college was located in
Guangzhou
Guangzhou (, ; ; or ; ), also known as Canton () and alternatively romanized as Kwongchow or Kwangchow, is the capital and largest city of Guangdong province in southern China. Located on the Pearl River about north-northwest of Hong Kon ...
, China, and was enabled by a large donation from Edward A. K. Hackett (1851–1916) of
Indiana
Indiana () is a U.S. state in the Midwestern United States. It is the 38th-largest by area and the 17th-most populous of the 50 States. Its capital and largest city is Indianapolis. Indiana was admitted to the United States as the 19th s ...
. The college was dedicated in 1902 and offered a four-year curriculum. By 1915, there were more than 60 students, mostly in residence. Most students became Christians, due to the influence of Fulton. The college was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese women's social status. The graduates of this college included Chau Lee-sun (周理信, 1890–1979) and Wong Yuen-hing (黃婉卿), both of whom graduated in the late 1910s and then practiced medicine in the hospitals in Guangdong province.
Midwifery in 18th century America
Out of the different occupations women took on around this time,
midwifery
Midwifery is the health science and health profession that deals with pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period (including care of the newborn), in addition to the sexual and reproductive health of women throughout their lives. In many cou ...
was one of the highest-paying industries. In the 18th century, households tended to have an abundance of children largely in part to having hired help and diminished mortality rates. Despite the high chance of complications in labor, American midwife
Martha Ballard
Martha Moore Ballard (February 9, 1735 – June 9, 1812) was an American midwife and healer. Unusually for the time, Ballard kept a diary with thousands of entries over nearly three decades, which has provided historians with invaluable insi ...
, specifically, had high success rates in delivering healthy babies to healthy mothers.
Women's health movement, 1970s
The 1970s marked an increase of women entering and graduating from
medical school
A medical school is a tertiary educational institution, or part of such an institution, that teaches medicine, and awards a professional degree for physicians. Such medical degrees include the Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS, M ...
in the United States. From 1930 to 1970, a period of 40 years, around 14,000 women graduated from medical school. From 1970 to 1980, a period of 10 years, over 20,000 women graduated from medical school.Paludi, Michele A. and Gertrude A. Streuernage, ed., Foundations for a Feminist Restructuring of the Academic Disciplines (New York: Harrington Park Press, 1990), p. 236. This increase of women in the medical field was due to both political and cultural changes. Two laws in the U.S. lifted restrictions for women in the medical field –
Title IX
Title IX is the most commonly used name for the federal civil rights law in the United States that was enacted as part (Title IX) of the Education Amendments of 1972. It prohibits sex-based discrimination in any school or any other educat ...
of the Higher Education Act Amendments of 1972 and the
Public Health Service Act
The Public Health Service Act is a United States federal law enacted in 1944. The full act is codified in Title 42 of the United States Code (The Public Health and Welfare), Chapter 6A (Public Health Service).
Contents
The act clearly establis ...
of 1975, banning discrimination on grounds of gender. In November 1970, the Assembly of the Association of American Medical Colleges rallied for equal rights in the medical field.
Throughout the decade women's ideas about themselves and their relation to the medical field were shifting due to the women's feminist movement. A sharp increase of women in the medical field led to developments in doctor-patient relationships, changes in terminology and theory. One area of medical practice that was challenged and changed was
gynecology
Gynaecology or gynecology (see spelling differences) is the area of medicine that involves the treatment of women's diseases, especially those of the reproductive organs. It is often paired with the field of obstetrics, forming the combined are ...
.Kline, Wendy. ''Bodies of Knowledge: Sexuality, Reproduction, and Women's Health in the Second Wave'' (University of Chicago Press, 2010). Author Wendy Kline noted that "to ensure that young brides were ready for the wedding night, octorsused the
pelvic exam
A pelvic examination is the physical examination of the external and internal female pelvic organs. It is frequently used in gynecology for the evaluation of symptoms affecting the female reproductive and urinary tract, such as pain, bleeding, dis ...
as a form of sex instruction."
With higher numbers of women enrolled in medical school, medical practices like gynecology were challenged and subsequently altered. In 1972, the University of Iowa Medical School instituted a new training program for pelvic and breast examinations. Students would act both as the doctor and the patient, allowing each student to understand the procedure and create a more gentle, respectful examination. With changes in ideologies and practices throughout the 70s, by 1980 over 75 schools had adopted this new method.Paludi and Streuernage, ''Foundations for a Feminist Restructuring of the Academic Disciplines'', p. 241.
Along with women entering the medical field and feminist rights movement, came along the women's health movement which sought alternative methods of health care for women. This came through the creation of self-help books, most notably ''
Our Bodies, Ourselves
''Our Bodies, Ourselves'' is a book about women's health and sexuality produced by the nonprofit organization Our Bodies Ourselves (originally called the Boston Women's Health Book Collective). First published in 1970, it contains information rel ...
: A Book by and for Women''.Boston Women's Health Book Collective Staff, ''Our Bodies, Ourselves: A Book by and for Women'' (Boston: Simon and Schuster Trade, 1976). This book gave women a "manual" to help understand their body. It challenged hospital treatment, and doctors' practices. Aside from self-help books, many help centres were opened: birth centres run by
midwives
A midwife is a health professional who cares for mothers and newborns around childbirth, a specialization known as midwifery.
The education and training for a midwife concentrates extensively on the care of women throughout their lifespan; con ...
, safe
abortion
Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus. An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a miscarriage or "spontaneous abortion"; these occur in approximately 30% to 40% of pregn ...
centres, and classes for educating women on their bodies, all with the aim of providing non-judgmental care for women.Schulman, Bruce J. The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture, Society, and politics. (Da Capo Press, 2002), p. 174. The women's health movement, along with women involved in the medical field, opened the doors for research and awareness for female illness like
breast cancer
Breast cancer is cancer that develops from breast tissue. Signs of breast cancer may include a lump in the breast, a change in breast shape, dimpling of the skin, milk rejection, fluid coming from the nipple, a newly inverted nipple, or a re ...
and
cervical cancer
Cervical cancer is a cancer arising from the cervix. It is due to the abnormal growth of cells that have the ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Early on, typically no symptoms are seen. Later symptoms may include abnormal ...
.
Scholars in the history of medicine had developed some study of women in the field—biographies of pioneering women physicians were common prior to the 1960s—and study of women in medicine took particular root with the advent of the women's movement in the 1960s, and in conjunction with the
women's health movement
The presence of women in medicine, particularly in the practicing fields of surgery and as physicians, has been traced to the earliest of history. Women have historically had lower participation levels in medical fields compared to men with occ ...
.
Modern medicine
In 1540,
Henry VIII of England
Henry VIII (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is best known for his six marriages, and for his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. His disa ...
granted the charter for the Company of Barber-Surgeons; while this led to the specialization of healthcare professions (i.e. surgeons and barbers), women were barred from professional practice.The History of Women in Surgery, by Debrah A. Wirtzfeld, MD Women did continue to practice during this time without formal training or recognition in England and eventually North America for the next several centuries.
Women's participation in the medical professions was generally limited by legal and social practices during the decades while medicine was professionalizing.See generally
Barbara Ehrenreich
Barbara Ehrenreich (, ; ; August 26, 1941 – September 1, 2022) was an American author and political activist. During the 1980s and early 1990s, she was a prominent figure in the Democratic Socialists of America. She was a widely read and awar ...
&
Deirdre English
Deirdre English (born 1948) is the former editor of ''Mother Jones'' and author of numerous articles for national publications and television documentaries. She has taught at the State University of New York and currently teaches at the Graduate S ...
, ''Witches, Midwives, and Nurses'' (1973). Women openly practiced medicine in the
allied health professions
Allied health professions are health care professions distinct from optometry, dentistry, nursing, medicine, and pharmacy. They provide a range of diagnostic, technical, therapeutic, and support services in connection with health care.
Definitio ...
(
nursing
Nursing is a profession within the health care sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life. Nurses may be differentiated from other health ...
,
midwifery
Midwifery is the health science and health profession that deals with pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period (including care of the newborn), in addition to the sexual and reproductive health of women throughout their lives. In many cou ...
, etc.), and throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, women made significant gains in access to
medical education
Medical education is education related to the practice of being a medical practitioner, including the initial training to become a physician (i.e., medical school and internship (medical), internship) and additional training thereafter (e.g., Re ...
and medical work through much of the world. These gains were sometimes tempered by setbacks; for instance, Mary Roth Walsh documented a ''decline'' in women physicians in the US in the first half of the twentieth century, such that there were fewer women physicians in 1950 than there were in 1900.Walsh, 1977. Through the latter half of the twentieth century, women made gains generally across the board. In the United States, for instance, women were 9% of total US medical school enrollment in 1969; this had increased to 20% in 1976. By 1985, women constituted 16% of practicing American physicians.Morantz-Sanchez, Preface.
At the beginning of the 21st-century in industrialized nations, women have made significant gains, but have yet to achieve parity throughout the medical profession. Women have achieved parity in medical school in some industrialized countries, since 2003 forming the majority of the United States medical school applicants. In 2007–2008, women accounted for 49% of medical school applicants and 48.3% of those accepted. According to the
Association of American Medical Colleges
The Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) is a nonprofit organization based in Washington, D.C. that was established in 1876. It represents medical schools, teaching hospitals, and academic and scientific societies, while providing serv ...
(AAMC) 48.4% (8,396) of medical degrees awarded in the US in 2010–2011 were earned by women, an increase from 26.8% in 1982–1983. While more women are taking part in the medical field, a 2013–2014 study reported that there are significantly fewer women in leadership positions within the academic realm of medicine. This study found that women accounted for 16% of deans, 21% of the professors, and 38% of faculty, as compared to their male counterparts.
The practice of medicine remains disproportionately male overall. In industrialized nations, the recent parity in gender of medical students has not yet trickled into parity in practice. In many developing nations, neither medical school nor practice approach gender parity. Moreover, there are skews within the medical profession: some medical specialties, such as surgery, are significantly male-dominated, while other specialties are significantly female-dominated, or are becoming so. For example, in the United States, female physicians outnumber male physicians in pediatrics and female residents outnumber male residents in family medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, pathology, and psychiatry. In several different areas of medicine (general practice, medical specialties, surgical specialties) and in various roles, medical professionals tend to overestimate women’s true representation, and this correlates with a decreased willingness to support gender-based initiatives among men, impeding further progress towards gender parity.
Women continue to dominate in nursing. In 2000, 94.6% of registered nurses in the United States were women. In health care professions as a whole in the US, women numbered approximately 14.8 million, as of 2011.
Biomedical research and academic medical professions—i.e., faculty at medical schools—are also disproportionately male. Research on this issue, called the "leaky pipeline" by the
National Institutes of Health
The National Institutes of Health, commonly referred to as NIH (with each letter pronounced individually), is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and public health research. It was founded in the late ...
and other researchers, shows that while women have achieved parity with men in entering graduate school, a variety of discrimination causes them to drop out at each stage in the academic pipeline: graduate school,
postdoc
A postdoctoral fellow, postdoctoral researcher, or simply postdoc, is a person professionally conducting research after the completion of their doctoral studies (typically a PhD). The ultimate goal of a postdoctoral research position is to p ...
, faculty positions, achieving tenure; and, ultimately, in receiving recognition for groundbreaking work.
Glass ceiling
The "
glass ceiling
A glass ceiling is a metaphor usually applied to women, used to represent an invisible barrier that prevents a given demographic from rising beyond a certain level in a hierarchy.Federal Glass Ceiling Commission''Solid Investments: Making Full ...
" is a metaphor to convey the undefined obstacles that women and minorities face in the workplace. Female physicians of the late 19th-century faced discrimination in many forms due to the prevailing
Victorian Era
In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardia ...
attitude that the ideal woman be demure, display a gentle demeanor, act submissively, and enjoy a perceived form of power that should be exercised over and from within the home. Medical degrees were difficult for women to earn, and once practicing, discrimination from landlords for medical offices, left female physicians to set up their practices on "Scab Row" or "bachelor's apartments."
The ''
Journal of Women's Health
The ''Journal of Women's Health'' is a monthly peer-reviewed healthcare journal focusing on women's health care, including advancements in diagnostic procedures, therapeutic protocols for the management of diseases, and research in gender-based b ...
'' surveyed physician mothers and their physician daughters in order to analyze the effect that discrimination and harassment have on the individual and their career. This study included 84% of physician mothers that graduated medical school prior to 1970, with the majority of these physicians graduating in the 1950s and 1960s. The authors of this study stated that discrimination in the medical field persisted after the title VII discrimination legislation was passed in 1965. This was the case until 1970, when the
National Organization for Women
The National Organization for Women (NOW) is an American feminist organization. Founded in 1966, it is legally a 501(c)(4) social welfare organization. The organization consists of 550 chapters in all 50 U.S. states and in Washington, D.C. It ...
(NOW) filed a class action lawsuit against all medical schools in the United States. By 1975, the number of women in medicine had nearly tripled, and has continued to grow. By 2005, more than 25% of physicians and around 50% of medical school students were women. The increase of women in medicine also came with an increase of women identifying as a racial/ethnic minority, yet this population is still largely underrepresented in comparison to the general population of the medical field.
Within this specific study, 22% of physician mothers and 24% of physician daughters identified themselves as being an ethnic minority. These women reported experiencing instances of exclusion from career opportunities as a result of their race and gender. According to this article, females tend to have lessened confidence in their abilities as a doctor, yet their performance is equivalent to that of their male counterparts. This study also commented on the impact of power dynamics within medical school, which is established as a hierarchy that ultimately shapes the educational experience. Instances of sexual harassment attribute to the high attrition rates of females in the STEM fields.
Competition between midwifery and obstetrics
A shift from women midwifery to male obstetrics occurs in the growth of medical practices such as the founding of the
American Medical Association
The American Medical Association (AMA) is a professional association and lobbying group of physicians and medical students. Founded in 1847, it is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. Membership was approximately 240,000 in 2016.
The AMA's state ...
. Instead of assisting labor in the basis of an emergency, doctors took over the delivery of babies completely; putting midwifery second. This is an example of the growing sense of competition between male physicians and female midwives as a rise in obstetrics took hold. The education of women on the basis of midwifery was stunted by both physicians and public-health reformers, driving midwifery to be seen as out of practice. Societal roles also played a fact in the downfall of the practice in midwifery because women were unable to obtain the education needed for licensing and once married, women were to embrace a domestic lifestyle. In 2018, there were 11,826 certified nurse midwives (CNMs). In 2019 there were 42,720 active physicians in Obstetrics and Gynecology.
Outside of the United States, midwifery is still practiced in several countries such as in
Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
. The first school of midwives in Africa was supposedly founded by Dr. Ernst Rodenwalt in
Togo
Togo (), officially the Togolese Republic (french: République togolaise), is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Ghana to the west, Benin to the east and Burkina Faso to the north. It extends south to the Gulf of Guinea, where its c ...
in 1912. In comparison, The Juba College of Nursing and Midwifery in
South Sudan
South Sudan (; din, Paguot Thudän), officially the Republic of South Sudan ( din, Paankɔc Cuëny Thudän), is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia, Sudan, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the C ...
(a country that gained its independence in 2011) graduated its first class of students in 2013.
Women's contributions to medicine
Historical women's medical schools
When women were routinely forbidden from medical school, they sought to form their own medical schools.
*
New England Female Medical College
New England Female Medical College (NEFMC), originally Boston Female Medical College, was founded in 1848 by Samuel Gregory and was the first school to train women in the field of medicine. It merged with Boston University to become the Boston Uni ...
, Boston, founded in 1848.
*
Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania
The Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania (WMCP) was founded in 1850, and was the second medical institution in the world established to train women in medicine to earn the M.D. degree. The New England Female Medical College had been established ...
(founded 1850 as Female Medical College of Pennsylvania)
*
London School of Medicine for Women
The London School of Medicine for Women (LSMW) established in 1874 was the first medical school in Britain to train women as doctors. The patrons, vice-presidents, and members of the committee that supported and helped found the London School of Me ...
(founded 1874 by
Sophia Jex-Blake
Sophia Louisa Jex-Blake (21 January 1840 – 7 January 1912) was an English physician, teacher and feminist. She led the campaign to secure women access to a University education when she and six other women, collectively known as the Edi ...
)
*
Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women
The Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women was founded by Sophia Jex-Blake in Edinburgh, Scotland, in October of 1886, with support from the National Association for Promoting the Medical Education of Women. Sophia Jex-Blake was appointed as bot ...
(founded 1886 by
Sophia Jex-Blake
Sophia Louisa Jex-Blake (21 January 1840 – 7 January 1912) was an English physician, teacher and feminist. She led the campaign to secure women access to a University education when she and six other women, collectively known as the Edi ...
)
*
First Pavlov State Medical University of St. Petersburg
The First Ivan Pavlov, Pavlov State Medical University of St. Petersburg (russian: Первый Санкт-Петербургский государственный медицинский университет имени академика И. ...
(founded 1897 as Female Medical University)
*
Tokyo Women's Medical University
, TWMU, is a private university in Tokyo, Japan.
The University olso operates the Tokyo Women's Medical University Hospital within the campus, as well as a separate hospital in Yachiyo, Chiba.
History
TWMU originated from , which was founded b ...
(founded 1900 by
Yoshioka Yayoi
was a Japanese physician, educator, and women's rights activist. She founded the Tokyo Women's Medical University in 1900, as the first medical school for women in Japan. She was also known as Washiyama Yayoi.
Biography
Yoshioka was born in what ...
)
*
Hackett Medical College for Women
Lingnan University () in Guangzhou (Canton), China, was a private university established by a group of American missionaries in 1888. At its founding it was named Canton Christian College ().
When the Communist government reorganized China's high ...
, Guangzhou, China, founded in 1902 by Presbyterian Church (USA).
Historical hospitals with significant female involvement
*
Woman's Hospital of Philadelphia
The Woman's Hospital of Philadelphia was established in 1861 to provide clinical experience for Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania students, a group of Quaker women, particularly Ann Preston.
History
Its purposes were to “establish in Phila ...
, founded in 1861, provided clinical experience for
Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania
The Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania (WMCP) was founded in 1850, and was the second medical institution in the world established to train women in medicine to earn the M.D. degree. The New England Female Medical College had been established ...
students
*
New England Hospital for Women and Children
The New England Hospital for Women and Children was founded by Marie Zakrzewska on July 1, 1862. The Hospitals goal was to provide patients with competent female physicians, educate women in the study of medicine and train nurses to care for the ...
(now called Dimock Community Health Center), founded in 1862 by women doctors "for the exclusive use of women and children"
*
New Hospital for Women
The Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Obstetric Hospital and its predecessor organisations provided health care to women in central London from the mid-Victorian era. It was named after Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, one of Britain's first female physi ...
(founded in the 1870s by
Elizabeth Garrett Anderson
Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (9 June 1836 – 17 December 1917) was an English physician and suffragist. She was the first woman to qualify in Britain as a physician and surgeon. She was the co-founder of the first hospital staffed by women, ...
and run largely by women, for women)
*
South London Hospital for Women and Children
The South London Hospital for Women and Children was a general hospital treating women and children on Clapham Common in London, UK. It was also known as the South London Hospital for Women and the South London Women's Hospital. Founded by Eleano ...
(founded 1912 by
Eleanor Davies-Colley
Eleanor Davies-Colley FRCS (21 August 1874; Petworth, Sussex – 10 December 1934; London) was a British surgeon. Among the earliest women in the UK to pursue a career in surgery, at that time an almost entirely male-dominated profession, she ...
and
Maud Chadburn
Maud Mary Chadburn (9 March 1868 – 24 April 1957), was one of the earliest women in the United Kingdom to pursue a career as a surgeon. She also co-founded the South London Hospital for Women and Children in 1912 with fellow surgeon Ele ...
; closed 1984; employed an all-woman staff)
Pioneering women in early modern medicine
18th century
* Madeleine-Françoise Calais ( – ''fl.'' 1740) was a pioneer who is referred to as the first female dentist in France.
*
Dorothea Erxleben
Dorothea Christiane Erxleben (13 November 1715 – 13 June 1762) was a German doctor who became the first female doctor of medicinal science in Germany.
Early life
Dorothea was born on 13 November 1715 in the small town of Quedlinburg, German ...
(1715–1762) was the first female doctor in Germany and the first woman worldwide to be granted an MD by a university.
*
Salomée Halpir
Salomea Halpir (1718 – after 1763) was a medic and oculist. She often earns the title of the first female doctor from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. What is known about her life is known from her memoirs, written in 1760, which is a unique example ...
(1718 – after 1763) was a Polish medic and oculist who is often referred to as the first female doctor from the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state that existed from the 13th century to 1795, when the territory was partitioned among the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Habsburg Empire of Austria. The state was founded by Li ...
.
19th century
* Lovisa Årberg (1801–1881) was the first female doctor and surgeon in
Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
; whereas,
Amalia Assur
Amalia Assur (June 8, 1803 – 1889) was the first female dentist in Sweden.
Amalia Assur was born in Stockholm as the daughter of the Jewish dentist Joel Assur (1753–1837), the Dentist of the Royal Family, who has been referred to as one of the ...
(1803–1889) was the first female dentist in
Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
and possibly
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
.
*
Marie Durocher
Marie Josefina Mathilde Durocher (6 January 1809 – 25 December 1893) was a Brazilian obstetrician, midwife
A midwife is a health professional who cares for mothers and newborns around childbirth, a specialization known as midwifery.
T ...
(1809–1893) was a Brazilian obstetrician, midwife and physician. She is considered the first female doctor in
Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
and the
Americas
The Americas, which are sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North and South America. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and comprise the New World.
Along with th ...
.
*
Ann Preston
Ann Preston (December 1, 1813April 18, 1872) was an American physician, activist, and educator.
Early life
Ann Preston was the first woman dean of a medical school, the Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania (WMCP), which was the first medical ...
(1813–1872) was the first female to become the
dean
Dean may refer to:
People
* Dean (given name)
* Dean (surname), a surname of Anglo-Saxon English origin
* Dean (South Korean singer), a stage name for singer Kwon Hyuk
* Dean Delannoit, a Belgian singer most known by the mononym Dean
Titles
* ...
of a medical school [
Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania
The Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania (WMCP) was founded in 1850, and was the second medical institution in the world established to train women in medicine to earn the M.D. degree. The New England Female Medical College had been established ...
(WMCP)] in 1866.
* Elizabeth Blackwell (1821–1910), who was
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe b ...
-born, was the first woman to graduate from medical school in the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
Rebecca Lee Crumpler
Rebecca Lee Crumpler, born Rebecca Davis, (February 8, 1831March 9, 1895), was an American physician, nurse and author. After studying at the New England Female Medical College, in 1864 she became the first African-American woman to become a ...
, (1831–1895) became the first African American female physician in the United States in 1864 upon being awarded her M.D. by
New England Female Medical College
New England Female Medical College (NEFMC), originally Boston Female Medical College, was founded in 1848 by Samuel Gregory and was the first school to train women in the field of medicine. It merged with Boston University to become the Boston Uni ...
in Boston.
*
Lucy Hobbs Taylor
Lucy Hobbs Taylor (March 14, 1833 – October 3, 1910) was an American school teacher and a dentist, known for being the first woman to graduate from dental school ( Ohio College of Dental Surgery in 1866).
She was originally denied admittance ...
(1833–1910) was the first female dentist in the United States.
*
Elizabeth Garrett Anderson
Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (9 June 1836 – 17 December 1917) was an English physician and suffragist. She was the first woman to qualify in Britain as a physician and surgeon. She was the co-founder of the first hospital staffed by women, ...
(1836–1917) was a pioneering
feminist
Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates the position that society prioritizes the male po ...
in Britain who became the first female doctor in the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
in 1865 and a co-founder of
London School of Medicine for Women
The London School of Medicine for Women (LSMW) established in 1874 was the first medical school in Britain to train women as doctors. The patrons, vice-presidents, and members of the committee that supported and helped found the London School of Me ...
.
* Madeleine Brès (1839–1925) was the first female medical doctor in
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
.
*
Sophia Jex-Blake
Sophia Louisa Jex-Blake (21 January 1840 – 7 January 1912) was an English physician, teacher and feminist. She led the campaign to secure women access to a University education when she and six other women, collectively known as the Edi ...
(1840–1912) was an English physician, feminist and teacher who was the first woman to practice medicine in
Scotland
Scotland (, ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a border with England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the ...
in 1878.
* Sophia Bambridge (1841–1910) was the first female doctor in
American Samoa
American Samoa ( sm, Amerika Sāmoa, ; also ' or ') is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean, southeast of the island country of Samoa. Its location is centered on . It is east of the International ...
.
*
Frances Hoggan
Frances Elizabeth Hoggan (''née'' Morgan; 20 December 1843 – 5 February 1927) was a Welsh doctor and the first British woman to receive a doctorate in medicine from any university in Europe. She was also a pioneering medical practitioner, rese ...
(1843–1927) became the first female doctor in
Wales
Wales ( cy, Cymru ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by England to the Wales–England border, east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the ...
in 1870. She was also the first British woman to receive a doctorate in medicine (1870).
*
Jennie Kidd Trout
Jennie Kidd Trout (born Gowanlock; April 21, 1841 – November 10, 1921) was the first woman in Canada to become a licensed medical doctor, on March 11, 1875. Trout was the only woman in Canada licensed to practice medicine until July 1880, when ...
(1841–1921) was the first woman in
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
to become a licensed medical doctor in March 1875.
* Rosina Heikel (1842–1929) was a feminist and the first female physician in
Finland
Finland ( fi, Suomi ; sv, Finland ), officially the Republic of Finland (; ), is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It shares land borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of B ...
(1878), as well as in the
Nordic countries
The Nordic countries (also known as the Nordics or ''Norden''; literal translation, lit. 'the North') are a geographical and cultural region in Northern Europe and the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic. It includes the sovereign states of Denmar ...
.
*
Nadezhda Suslova
Nadezhda Prokofyevna Suslova (russian: Надежда Прокофьевна Суслова; 1 September 1843 – 20 April 1918) was Russia's first woman medical doctor and the sister of Polina Suslova. She worked as a gynecologist in Nizhny No ...
(1843–1918), a graduate of Zurich University, was the first female doctor in
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
*
Edith Pechey-Phipson
Mary Edith Pechey (7 October 1845 – 14 April 1908) was one of the first women doctors in the United Kingdom and a campaigner for women's rights. She spent more than 20 years in India as a senior doctor at a women's hospital and was involved ...
(1845–1908) was a pioneering
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
doctor in
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
. She received her MD in 1877 from the
University of Bern
The University of Bern (german: Universität Bern, french: Université de Berne, la, Universitas Bernensis) is a university in the Switzerland, Swiss capital of Bern and was founded in 1834. It is regulated and financed by the Canton of Bern. It ...
and Licentiate in Midwifery in 1877 at the
Royal College of Physicians of Ireland
The Royal College of Physicians of Ireland (RCPI), ( ga, Coláiste Ríoga Lianna na hÉireann) is an Irish professional body dedicated to improving the practice of general medicine and related medical specialities, chiefly through the accredit ...
.
*
Mary Scharlieb
Dame Mary Ann Dacomb Scharlieb, DBE (née Bird; 18 June 1845 – 21 November 1930) was a pioneer British female physician and gynaecologist in the late 19th/early 20th centuries. She had worked in India and by her persistence she returned to ...
(1845–1930) was a pioneer British female physician, as she was the first woman to be elected to the honorary visiting staff of a hospital in the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
.
* Vilma Hugonnai (1847–1922) was the first female doctor in
Hungary
Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia a ...
. She studied
Medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pract ...
in
Zürich
Zürich () is the list of cities in Switzerland, largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zürich. It is located in north-central Switzerland, at the northwestern tip of Lake Zürich. As of January 2020, the municipality has 43 ...
and received her degree in 1879. However, she had to work as a
midwife
A midwife is a health professional who cares for mothers and newborns around childbirth, a specialization known as midwifery.
The education and training for a midwife concentrates extensively on the care of women throughout their lifespan; co ...
until 1897 when the Hungarian authorities finally accepted her degree. Hugonnai then started her own medical practice.
*
Margaret Cleaves
Margaret Abigail Cleaves (November 25, 1848 – November 7, 1917), M.D., was an American physician and scientific writer. She was a pioneer of electrotherapy and brachytherapy, instructor in Electro-Therapeutics New York Post-Graduate Medical Scho ...
(1848–1917) was a pioneering doctor in
brachytherapy
Brachytherapy is a form of radiation therapy where a sealed radiation source is placed inside or next to the area requiring treatment. ''Brachy'' is Greek for short. Brachytherapy is commonly used as an effective treatment for cervical, prosta ...
who obtained her M.D. in 1873. She was the first female appointed to the
University of Iowa
The University of Iowa (UI, U of I, UIowa, or simply Iowa) is a public university, public research university in Iowa City, Iowa, United States. Founded in 1847, it is the oldest and largest university in the state. The University of Iowa is org ...
Medical Department's examining committee in 1885.
* Anastasia Golovina, also known as Anastassya Nikolau Berladsky-Golovina, and Atanasya Golovina (1850–1933), was the first female doctor in
Bulgaria
Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedon ...
.
*
Ogino Ginko
was the first licensed women in medicine, female physician practicing Western medicine in Japan.
Life overview
Ogino Ginko was born in Tawarase, in Musashi Province (present-day Kumagaya City, Saitama Prefecture). The Ogino’s were a respecta ...
(1851–1913) was the first licensed and practicing female physician of
Western medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practice ...
in
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
.
*
Bohuslava Kecková
Bohuslava Kecková (18 March 1854 – 17 October 1911) was a Bohemian physician, the first woman to earn a medical degree in what is now the Czech Republic. After completing her education at the Girl's High School of Prague, she received special p ...
(1854–1911), first Bohemian (
Czech
Czech may refer to:
* Anything from or related to the Czech Republic, a country in Europe
** Czech language
** Czechs, the people of the area
** Czech culture
** Czech cuisine
* One of three mythical brothers, Lech, Czech, and Rus'
Places
*Czech, ...
) woman to obtain a medical degree in 1880 from
University of Zurich
The University of Zürich (UZH, german: Universität Zürich) is a public research university located in the city of Zürich, Switzerland. It is the largest university in Switzerland, with its 28,000 enrolled students. It was founded in 1833 f ...
.
*
Aletta Jacobs
Aletta Henriëtte Jacobs (; 9 February 1854 – 10 August 1929) was a Dutch physician and women's suffrage activist. As the first woman officially to attend a Dutch university, she became one of the first female physicians in the Netherlands. I ...
(1854–1929) was the first woman to complete a university course in
the Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
and the first female doctor in the country.
*
Hope Bridges Adams Lehmann
Hope Bridges Adams Lehmann (16 December 1855 – 10 October 1916) was the first female general practitioner and gynecologist in Munich, Germany.
She was the daughter of the English journalist and railway engineer William Bridges Adams. She st ...
(1855–1916) was the first female general practitioner and gynecologist in
Munich, Germany
Munich ( ; german: München ; bar, Minga ) is the capital and most populous city of the German state of Bavaria. With a population of 1,558,395 inhabitants as of 31 July 2020, it is the third-largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Ha ...
.
*
Grace Cadell
Grace Ross Cadell (October 25, 1855 – February 19, 1918) was a Scottish doctor and suffragist, and one of the first group of women to study medicine in Scotland and qualify.
She was, with Elsie Inglis, one of the initial entrants to the Ed ...
(1855–1918) and Marion Gilchrist (1864–1952) were the first women to qualify as doctors in
Scotland
Scotland (, ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a border with England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the ...
respectively in 1891 and 1894.
*
Draga Ljočić
Draga Ljočić Milošević (1855–1926), was a Serbian physician, socialist, and feminist. In 1872, she became the first Serbian woman to be accepted at the University of Zürich in Switzerland. During the war between Serbia and the Ottoman Em ...
-Milošević (1855–1926) was a feminist activist and the first female physician in
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
Henriette Saloz-Joudra
Henriette Saloz-Joudra (1855–1928) was a Russian-born physician, the first woman to open a private medical practice in Geneva, Switzerland.
Biography
She was born Henriette Joudra in 1855 in Vitebsk, the Russian Empire (now Belarus), to a fa ...
(1855–1928) successfully defended a doctoral thesis in cardiology at the
University of Geneva
The University of Geneva (French: ''Université de Genève'') is a public research university located in Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded in 1559 by John Calvin as a theological seminary. It remained focused on theology until the 17th centu ...
in June 1883.
* Ana Galvis Hotz (1855–1934) was the first female doctor in
Colombia
Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
. She was also the first Colombian woman (and first woman from
Latin America
Latin America or
* french: Amérique Latine, link=no
* ht, Amerik Latin, link=no
* pt, América Latina, link=no, name=a, sometimes referred to as LatAm is a large cultural region in the Americas where Romance languages — languages derived f ...
) to obtain a medical degree.
* Constance Stone (1856–1902) was the first woman to practice medicine in
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
.
*
Dolors Aleu i Riera
Dolores Aleu Riera (7 April 1857 in Barcelona – 19 February 1913) was a noted Spanish medical doctor. She was the first woman in Spain to be licensed in medicine and the second woman in the country to earn a Doctor of Medicine degree.
Early ...
(1857–1913) was the first female medical doctor in
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
when she started practicing medicine in 1879.
* Maria Cuțarida-Crătunescu (1857–1919) was the first female doctor in
Romania
Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
.
* Lilian Welsh (1858–1938) was the first woman full professor at
Goucher College
Goucher College ( ') is a private liberal arts college in Towson, Maryland. It was chartered in 1885 by a conference in Baltimore led by namesake John F. Goucher and local leaders of the Methodist Episcopal Church.https://archive.org/details/h ...
.
* Sonia Belkind (1858–1943), who was Russian-born, was the first female doctor in
Palestine
__NOTOC__
Palestine may refer to:
* State of Palestine, a state in Western Asia
* Palestine (region), a geographic region in Western Asia
* Palestinian territories, territories occupied by Israel since 1967, namely the West Bank (including East ...
.
*
Isabel Cobb
Isabel "Belle" Cobb (October 25, 1858 – August 11, 1947) was a Cherokee woman, physician and educator. Cobb is best known for being the first woman physician in Indian Territory.
Early life and education
Cobb was born near Morgantown, Tennesse ...
(1858–1947), who earned her M.D. in 1892, was
Cherokee
The Cherokee (; chr, ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯᎢ, translit=Aniyvwiyaʔi or Anigiduwagi, or chr, ᏣᎳᎩ, links=no, translit=Tsalagi) are one of the indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands of the United States. Prior to the 18th century, t ...
and the first woman physician in
Indian territory
The Indian Territory and the Indian Territories are terms that generally described an evolving land area set aside by the Federal government of the United States, United States Government for the relocation of Native Americans in the United St ...
. She was also an alumnus of
Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania
The Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania (WMCP) was founded in 1850, and was the second medical institution in the world established to train women in medicine to earn the M.D. degree. The New England Female Medical College had been established ...
.
* Matilde Montoya (1859–1939) became the first female physician in
Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
in 1887.
*
Kadambini Ganguly
Kadambini Bose Ganguly (18 July 1861 – 3 October 1923) was one of the first Indian female doctors who practised with a degree in modern medicine. She was the first Indian woman to practice medicine in India. Ganguly was the first woman to gai ...
(1861–1923) was the first Indian woman to obtain a medical degree in
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
upon graduating from the
Calcutta Medical College
Calcutta Medical College, officially Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata, is a public medical school and hospital in Kolkata, West Bengal, India. It is the oldest existing hospital in Asia. The institute was established on 28 January 1835 by L ...
in 1886.
*
Elsie Inglis
Eliza Maud "Elsie" Inglis (16 August 1864 – 26 November 1917) was a Scottish doctor, surgeon, teacher, Women's suffrage, suffragist, and founder of the Scottish Women's Hospitals for Foreign Service, Scottish Women's Hospitals. She was the ...
(1864–1917), born in
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, was a pioneering Scottish doctor and suffragist who obtained her MD at
Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women
The Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women was founded by Sophia Jex-Blake in Edinburgh, Scotland, in October of 1886, with support from the National Association for Promoting the Medical Education of Women. Sophia Jex-Blake was appointed as bot ...
and worked at
Rotunda Hospital
The Rotunda Hospital ( ga, Ospidéal an Rotunda; legally the Hospital for the Relief of Poor Lying-in Women, Dublin) is a maternity hospital on Parnell Street in Dublin, Ireland, now managed by RCSI Hospitals. The eponymous Rotunda in Parnell Squ ...
,
Dublin
Dublin (; , or ) is the capital and largest city of Republic of Ireland, Ireland. On a bay at the mouth of the River Liffey, it is in the Provinces of Ireland, province of Leinster, bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, a part of th ...
Southern United States
The Southern United States (sometimes Dixie, also referred to as the Southern States, the American South, the Southland, or simply the South) is a geographic and cultural region of the United States of America. It is between the Atlantic Ocean ...
*
Anandi Gopal Joshi
Dr. Anandibai Gopalrao Joshi (31 March 1865 – 26 February 1887) was the first Indian female doctor of western medicine. She was the first woman from the erstwhile Bombay presidency of India to study and graduate with a two-year degree in west ...
(1865–1887), the first Indian woman to obtain a medical degree having graduated from the
Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania
The Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania (WMCP) was founded in 1850, and was the second medical institution in the world established to train women in medicine to earn the M.D. degree. The New England Female Medical College had been established ...
Sofia Okunevska
Sofia Okunevska (Ukr. Софія Окуневська-Морачевська, Ger. Dr.in Sofia Okunewska-Moraczewska, 12 May 1865, Dovzhanka, Ternopil region, Austrian Empire – 24 February 1926, Lviv, Poland (today Ukraine)), was a Ukrainian ph ...
(1865–1926) was the first
Ukrainian
Ukrainian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Ukraine
* Something relating to Ukrainians, an East Slavic people from Eastern Europe
* Something relating to demographics of Ukraine in terms of demography and population of Ukraine
* So ...
female doctor.
*
Mary Josephine Hannan
Mary Josephine Hannan LRCPI & SI &LM (c1865–c1935) was the first Irishwoman to graduate LRCPI & SI and LM.
Career
Almost nothing is known about Hannan's early life or who her parents were. Hannan was one of the first women to study in the Roya ...
(1865–1935) was the first Irishwoman to graduate with the following credentials: LRCPI & SI and LM.
* Marie Spångberg Holth (1865–1942) was the first woman doctor in
Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and t ...
after graduating in medicine from the Royal Frederiks University of Christiania in 1893.
*
Anne Walter Fearn
Anne Walter Fearn (May 21, 1867 – April 28, 1939) was an American physician who went to Shanghai, China, on a temporary posting in 1893, and remained there for 40 years.
Family
She grew up in Holly Springs, Mississippi, just after the American ...
(1865–1938) practiced as a medical doctor in
Shanghai, China
Shanghai (; , , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is one of the four direct-administered municipalities of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The city is located on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the Huangpu River flowin ...
, for almost 40 years.
* Eloísa Díaz (1866–1950) became the first female doctor in
Chile
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
upon graduating from the
Universidad de Chile
The University of Chile ( es, Universidad de Chile) is a public research university in Santiago, Chile. It was founded on November 19, 1842, and inaugurated on September 17, 1843.
on December 27, 1886. She obtained her degree on January 3, 1887.
*
Merbai Ardesir Vakil
Merbai Ardesir Vakil (25 May 1868 – 9 April 1941) was an Indian-Parsi physician and the first Asian woman to graduate from a Scottish university.
Early life
Merbai Ardesir Vakil was born 25 May 1868 in Bombay (now known as Mumbai), the dau ...
(1868–1941) was an Indian
physician
A physician (American English), medical practitioner (Commonwealth English), medical doctor, or simply doctor, is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through th ...
and the first Asian woman to graduate from a Scottish university.
*
Eva Jellett
Eva Josephine Jellett (8 April 1880 – 2 July 1955), doctor, was the first woman to graduate in medicine from Dublin University.
Early life and study
Jellett was born in Wellington Row to John Hewitt Jellett who was a clergyman, mathematician, ...
(1868–1958), first woman to graduate from
Trinity College Dublin
, name_Latin = Collegium Sanctae et Individuae Trinitatis Reginae Elizabethae juxta Dublin
, motto = ''Perpetuis futuris temporibus duraturam'' (Latin)
, motto_lang = la
, motto_English = It will last i ...
with a medical degree in 1905.
* Bertha E. Reynolds (1868–1961) was among the first women licensed to practice medicine in
Wisconsin
Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake M ...
(serving the rural communities of Lone Rock and Avoca).
* Emma K. Willits (1869–1965) was believed to be only the third woman to specialize in surgery and the first to head a Department of General Surgery at Children's Hospital in San Francisco, 1921–1934.
*
Alice Hamilton
Alice Hamilton (February 27, 1869Corn, JHamilton, Alice''American National Biography'' – September 22, 1970) was an American physician, research scientist, and author. She was a leading expert in the field of occupational health and a pioneer ...
(1869–1970) was an American physician, research scientist, and author who is best known as a leading expert in the field of
occupational health
Occupational safety and health (OSH), also commonly referred to as occupational health and safety (OHS), occupational health, or occupational safety, is a multidisciplinary field concerned with the safety, health, and welfare of people at wor ...
and a pioneer in the field of industrial toxicology. She was also the first woman appointed to the faculty of
Harvard University
Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of higher le ...
.
*
Vera Gedroitz
Knyaz, Princess Vera Ignatievna Gedroits (russian: Ве́ра Игна́тьевна Гедро́йц, p=ˈvʲɛrə ɪɡˈnatʲjɪvnə ɡʲɪˈdrojts ; 7 April 1870 Old Style and New Style dates, O.S./19 April 1870 N.S. – March 1932, literary p ...
(1870–1932) was the first female professor of surgery in the world, as well as the first female military surgeon in
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
.
*
Maria Montessori
Maria Tecla Artemisia Montessori ( , ; August 31, 1870 – May 6, 1952) was an Italian physician and educator best known for the philosophy of education that bears her name, and her writing on scientific pedagogy. At an early age, Montessori e ...
(1870–1952), renowned educator and one of the first female medical doctors in
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
Croatia
, image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg
, anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, capit ...
n female doctor. She graduated from the Medical School in
Zürich
Zürich () is the list of cities in Switzerland, largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zürich. It is located in north-central Switzerland, at the northwestern tip of Lake Zürich. As of January 2020, the municipality has 43 ...
in 1893, but was not allowed to work in Croatia.
*
Florence Sabin
Florence Rena Sabin (November 9, 1871 – October 3, 1953) was an American medical scientist. She was a pioneer for women in science; she was the first woman to hold a full professorship at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, the first woman el ...
(1871–1953) was the first woman elected to the
United States National Academy of Sciences
The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) and the Nati ...
.
*
Yoshioka Yayoi
was a Japanese physician, educator, and women's rights activist. She founded the Tokyo Women's Medical University in 1900, as the first medical school for women in Japan. She was also known as Washiyama Yayoi.
Biography
Yoshioka was born in what ...
(1871–1959), one of the first women to gain a medical degree in Japan; founded a medical school for women in 1900.
*
Hannah Myrick
Hannah Glidden Myrick (August 31, 1871–October 23, 1973) was the first female physician to receive a medical degree from Johns Hopkins University in 1900, thereby helping to blaze the trail for more women to enter medicine. Prior to Johns ...
(1871–1973) had helped to introduce the use of
X-ray
An X-ray, or, much less commonly, X-radiation, is a penetrating form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 10 picometers to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30&nb ...
s at the
New England Hospital for Women and Children
The New England Hospital for Women and Children was founded by Marie Zakrzewska on July 1, 1862. The Hospitals goal was to provide patients with competent female physicians, educate women in the study of medicine and train nurses to care for the ...
Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
, other_symbol = Great Seal of the State
, other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal
, national_motto = "Fi ...
upon obtaining her medical degree.
*
Marie Equi
Marie Equi (April 7, 1872 – July 13, 1952) was an early American medical doctor in the American West devoted to providing care to working-class and poor patients. She regularly provided birth control information and abortions at a time when bot ...
(1872–1952) was an American doctor and activist for women's access to birth control and abortion.
*
Karola Maier Milobar Karola Maier Milobar (born 1876) became the first female physician to practice in Croatia in 1906. She had graduated from the School of Medicine at Zürich in 1900. She worked at a place on the street called Berislavićeva in Zagreb
Zagreb ( , ...
(born 1876) became the first female physician to practice in
Croatia
, image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg
, anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, capit ...
in 1906.
*
Bertha De Vriese
Bertha De Vriese (26 September 187717 March 1958) was a Belgian physician. When she earned her degree as a doctor of medicine at Ghent University, where she was the first woman to conduct research and the first woman physician to graduate from t ...
(1877–1958) was the first
Belgian
Belgian may refer to:
* Something of, or related to, Belgium
* Belgians, people from Belgium or of Belgian descent
* Languages of Belgium, languages spoken in Belgium, such as Dutch, French, and German
*Ancient Belgian language, an extinct languag ...
woman to obtain a medical degree from
Ghent University
Ghent University ( nl, Universiteit Gent, abbreviated as UGent) is a public research university located in Ghent, Belgium.
Established before the state of Belgium itself, the university was founded by the Dutch King William I in 1817, when the ...
Estonia
Estonia, formally the Republic of Estonia, is a country by the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, a ...
n woman to become a medical doctor.
*
Andrea Evangelina Rodríguez Perozo
Andrea Evangelina Rodríguez Perozo (1879–1947) was the first female medical school graduate in the Dominican Republic.Castro Ventura, Santiago. Evangelina Rodríguez, pionera médica dominicana. Santo Domingo: Ed. Manatí, 2003
Early life
lt ...
(1879–1947) was the first female medical school graduate in the
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic ( ; es, República Dominicana, ) is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean region. It occupies the eastern five-eighths of the island, which it shares wit ...
.Castro Ventura, Santiago. Evangelina Rodríguez, pionera médica dominicana. Santo Domingo: Ed. Manatí, 2003
* Alice Mary Barry (1880–1955) was a doctor and the first woman nominated fellow of the
Royal College of Physicians of Ireland
The Royal College of Physicians of Ireland (RCPI), ( ga, Coláiste Ríoga Lianna na hÉireann) is an Irish professional body dedicated to improving the practice of general medicine and related medical specialities, chiefly through the accredit ...
.
*
Ernestina Paper
Ernestina Paper () was the first female university graduate in modern Italy. She graduated in 1877 in medicine and surgery from the University of Florence.
Early life and education
Ernestina Puritz-Manassè was born in Odesa, Odessa in 1846 ...
(b. unknown, circa mid-1800s) was the first
Italian
Italian(s) may refer to:
* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries
** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom
** Italian language, a Romance language
*** Regional Ita ...
woman to receive an advanced degree (in medicine) in 1877.
* Dr. Ethel Constance Cousins (1882–1944) and Nurse Elizabeth Brodie were the first European women admitted to
Bhutan
Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainous ...
in 1918 as part of a missionary effort to curtail a cholera outbreak.
*
Muthulakshmi Reddi
Muthulakshmi Reddy (also spelled Reddi in some British Indian sources; 30 July 1886 – 22 July 1968) was an Indian medical practitioner, social reformer and Padma Bhushan award recipient.
Muthulakshmi Reddy was appointed to the Madras Legisl ...
(1886–1968) was one of the early female medical doctors in
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
and a major social reformer.
*
María Elisa Rivera Díaz
María Elisa Rivera y León de Díaz (born 1887 in Hatillo, Puerto Rico) was one of the first four women from Puerto Rico to earn a medical degree; the other three were Ana Janer in 1909, Palmira Gatell in 1910, and Dolores Piñero in 1913.
(b. 1887) (1909),
Ana Janer
Ana Janer was one of the first two women from Puerto Rico to earn a medical degree.Dolores Piñero
Dr. Dolores Mercedes Piñero, (1892–1975) was one of the first four Puerto Rican women to earn a medical degree. She was also one of the first civilian doctors, and the first Puerto Rican female doctor to serve under contract in the U.S. Army ...
(1913) were the first women to earn a medical degree in
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and Unincorporated ...
.
María Elisa Rivera Díaz
María Elisa Rivera y León de Díaz (born 1887 in Hatillo, Puerto Rico) was one of the first four women from Puerto Rico to earn a medical degree; the other three were Ana Janer in 1909, Palmira Gatell in 1910, and Dolores Piñero in 1913.
and
Ana Janer
Ana Janer was one of the first two women from Puerto Rico to earn a medical degree.Puerto Rican physicians. download filename: 715-2420-1-PB.pdf"La Mujer en las Profesiones de Salud (1898–1930)"; By: Yamila Azize Vargas and Luis Alberto Aviles; PRHSJ Vol, 9 No. 1
*
Anna Petronella van Heerden
Anna Petronella van Heerden (1887–1975), was the first Afrikaner woman to qualify as a medical doctor. Her thesis, for which she obtained a doctorate in 1923, was the first medical thesis written in Afrikaans. She practiced as a gynecologist, ...
(1887–1975) was the first
Afrikaner
Afrikaners () are a South African ethnic group descended from Free Burghers, predominantly Dutch settlers first arriving at the Cape of Good Hope in the 17th and 18th centuries.Entry: Cape Colony. ''Encyclopædia Britannica Volume 4 Part 2: ...
woman to qualify as a medical doctor in
South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring countri ...
. Her thesis, which she obtained a doctorate on in 1923, was the first medical thesis written in
Afrikaans
Afrikaans (, ) is a West Germanic language that evolved in the Dutch Cape Colony from the Dutch vernacular of Holland proper (i.e., the Hollandic dialect) used by Dutch, French, and German settlers and their enslaved people. Afrikaans gra ...
.
*
Matilde Hidalgo
Matilde Hidalgo de Procel (September 29, 1889 in Loja, Ecuador – February 20, 1974 in Guayaquil, Ecuador) was an Ecuadorian physician, poet, and activist. Matilde Hidalgo was the first woman to exercise the right to vote in Ecuador (and Latin ...
(1889–1974) was the first female doctor in
Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ''Eku ...
.
* Johanna Hellman (1889–1982) was a German physician who specialized in surgery, and the first woman to be a member of the German Society for Surgery.
* Sun Chau Lee (周理信, 1890–1979) was one of the first female Chinese doctors of Western Medicine in China.
* Mabel Wolff (1890–1981) and her sister Gertrude L. Wolff developed the first midwifery training school in
Sudan
Sudan ( or ; ar, السودان, as-Sūdān, officially the Republic of the Sudan ( ar, جمهورية السودان, link=no, Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān), is a country in Northeast Africa. It shares borders with the Central African Republic t ...
in 1930. Mastura Khidir, one of the original students, was awarded a medal from
King George V
George V (George Frederick Ernest Albert; 3 June 1865 – 20 January 1936) was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936.
Born during the reign of his grandmother Que ...
in 1945 for being the last surviving midwife from the first graduating class.
*
Mary Hearn
Mary Ellice Thorn Hearn M.D. F.R.C.P.I. (25 February 1891 – 1969) was a gynaecologist and first female fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland.
Early life and education
Hearn was born on 25 February 1891 to William Edward Ashle ...
(1891–1969) was a
gynaecologist
Gynaecology or gynecology (see American and British English spelling differences, spelling differences) is the area of medicine that involves the treatment of women's diseases, especially those of the reproductive organs. It is often paired with ...
and first woman fellow of the
Royal College of Physicians of Ireland
The Royal College of Physicians of Ireland (RCPI), ( ga, Coláiste Ríoga Lianna na hÉireann) is an Irish professional body dedicated to improving the practice of general medicine and related medical specialities, chiefly through the accredit ...
.
*
Concepción Palacios Herrera
Concepción Palacios Herrera (5 December 1893 – 1 May 1981) born in El Sauce, León, was the first female physician in Nicaragua. Her mother was a midwife and healer and her father was a medical naturalist. She was expelled from school for refusi ...
(1893–1981) was the first female physician in
Nicaragua
Nicaragua (; ), officially the Republic of Nicaragua (), is the largest country in Central America, bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean to the east, Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Managua is the cou ...
.
* Evelyn Totenhofer (1894–1977) became the first (female) resident nurse for
Pitcairn Islands
The Pitcairn Islands (; Pitkern: '), officially the Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands, is a group of four volcanic islands in the southern Pacific Ocean that form the sole British Overseas Territory in the Pacific Ocean. The four isl ...
in 1944.
* Jane Cummins (1899), who possessed a DMRE and DTM&H, was an officer in the WRAF.
* Irene Condachi (1899–1970), who earned her M.D. in 1927, was one of only two practicing female doctors in
Malta
Malta ( , , ), officially the Republic of Malta ( mt, Repubblika ta' Malta ), is an island country in the Mediterranean Sea. It consists of an archipelago, between Italy and Libya, and is often considered a part of Southern Europe. It lies ...
during World War II.
* Ah-hsin Tsai (1899–1990) was colonial
Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
's first female physician.
20th and 21st centuries
*
Marguerite Champendal
Marguerite Champendal (1870-1928) was the first woman from Geneva to obtain her doctorate in medicine at the University of Geneva (1900). She founded a center for distributing pasteurized milk for infants there, as well as an acclaimed nursing sc ...
(1870–1928) was the first woman from
Geneva
Geneva ( ; french: Genève ) frp, Genèva ; german: link=no, Genf ; it, Ginevra ; rm, Genevra is the List of cities in Switzerland, second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaki ...
to earn her
M.D.
Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated M.D., from the Latin ''Medicinae Doctor'') is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the M.D. denotes a professional degree. T ...
at the
University of Geneva
The University of Geneva (French: ''Université de Genève'') is a public research university located in Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded in 1559 by John Calvin as a theological seminary. It remained focused on theology until the 17th centu ...
in 1900.
*
Emily Siedeberg
Emily Hancock Siedeberg-McKinnon (17 February 1873 – 13 June 1968) was a New Zealand medical practitioner and hospital superintendent. She was also the country's first female medical graduate.
Early life
Siedeberg was born in 1873 in Clyde, ...
(1873–1968) became the first female doctor in
New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
in 1896.
Ellen Dougherty
Ellen Dougherty (20 September 1844 – 3 November 1919), a New Zealand nurse, was the first Registered Nurse in the world.
Biography
Ellen Dougherty was born at Cutters Bay, Port Underwood, New Zealand. Ellen was inspired to be a nurse afte ...
(1844–1919) became New Zealand's first registered nurse in 1902 whereas Akenehi Hei (1878–1910) was the first
Māori
Māori or Maori can refer to:
Relating to the Māori people
* Māori people of New Zealand, or members of that group
* Māori language, the language of the Māori people of New Zealand
* Māori culture
* Cook Islanders, the Māori people of the C ...
female to qualify as a nurse in 1908 in
New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
.
* Yu Meide (1874–1960) became the first Chinese
Western medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practice ...
female doctor in
Macau
Macau or Macao (; ; ; ), officially the Macao Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (MSAR), is a city and special administrative region of China in the western Pearl River Delta by the South China Sea. With a pop ...
when she started a medical practice in 1906.
* Oból Voansnac and Sofie Lyberth were the first Western-educated Greenlandic women to train as
midwives
A midwife is a health professional who cares for mothers and newborns around childbirth, a specialization known as midwifery.
The education and training for a midwife concentrates extensively on the care of women throughout their lifespan; con ...
in
Greenland
Greenland ( kl, Kalaallit Nunaat, ; da, Grønland, ) is an island country in North America that is part of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is located between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Greenland is t ...
sometime in the early
20th century
The 20th (twentieth) century began on
January 1, 1901 ( MCMI), and ended on December 31, 2000 ( MM). The 20th century was dominated by significant events that defined the modern era: Spanish flu pandemic, World War I and World War II, nuclear ...
.
* Lilian Grandin (1876–1924) was the first female doctor in
Jersey
Jersey ( , ; nrf, Jèrri, label=Jèrriais ), officially the Bailiwick of Jersey (french: Bailliage de Jersey, links=no; Jèrriais: ), is an island country and self-governing Crown Dependencies, Crown Dependency near the coast of north-west F ...
. In 1907, Eleanor Diaper became the first nurse to work as a District Nurse in
Jersey
Jersey ( , ; nrf, Jèrri, label=Jèrriais ), officially the Bailiwick of Jersey (french: Bailliage de Jersey, links=no; Jèrriais: ), is an island country and self-governing Crown Dependencies, Crown Dependency near the coast of north-west F ...
.
*
Grace Pepe Malemo Haleck
Grace Pepe Malemo Haleck (1894–1987), from American Samoa, was the first nurse in that territory to receive training in the USA. She became American Samoa's chief nurse in 1926. Early life
Grace Pepe Malemo was born at Olesega on the Manu'a is ...
(1894–1987), Initia Taveuveu and Feiloa'iga Iosefa became the first qualified female nurses in
American Samoa
American Samoa ( sm, Amerika Sāmoa, ; also ' or ') is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean, southeast of the island country of Samoa. Its location is centered on . It is east of the International ...
upon completing their training in 1916.
* Dorothy Pantin (1896–1985) was the first woman doctor and surgeon of the
Isle of Man
)
, anthem = "O Land of Our Birth"
, image = Isle of Man by Sentinel-2.jpg
, image_map = Europe-Isle_of_Man.svg
, mapsize =
, map_alt = Location of the Isle of Man in Europe
, map_caption = Location of the Isle of Man (green)
in Europe ...
.
* Deaconess Mette Cathrine Thomsen was the first trained female nurse to work in the
Faroe Islands
The Faroe Islands ( ), or simply the Faroes ( fo, Føroyar ; da, Færøerne ), are a North Atlantic island group and an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark.
They are located north-northwest of Scotland, and about halfway bet ...
from 1897 to 1915.
* Eshba Dominika Fominichna (b. 1897) became the first female doctor in
Abkhazia
Abkhazia, ka, აფხაზეთი, tr, , xmf, აბჟუა, abzhua, or ( or ), officially the Republic of Abkhazia, is a partially recognised state in the South Caucasus, recognised by most countries as part of Georgia, which vi ...
after having returned from earning her medical degree in 1925 at the
Baku State University
Baku State University (BSU) ( az, Bakı Dövlət Universiteti (BDU)) is a public university located in Baku, Azerbaijan. Established in 1919 by the Parliament of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the university started with faculties of history and ...
Turkish
Turkish may refer to:
*a Turkic language spoken by the Turks
* of or about Turkey
** Turkish language
*** Turkish alphabet
** Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group and nation
*** Turkish citizen, a citizen of Turkey
*** Turkish communities and mi ...
woman to have obtained a medical degree.
* Damaye Soumah Cissé, mother of the renowned educator and politician Jeanne Martin Cissé (1926–2017), was one of the first midwives in
Guinea
Guinea ( ),, fuf, 𞤘𞤭𞤲𞤫, italic=no, Gine, wo, Gine, nqo, ߖߌ߬ߣߍ߫, bm, Gine officially the Republic of Guinea (french: République de Guinée), is a coastal country in West Africa. It borders the Atlantic Ocean to the we ...
Bensonhurst, Brooklyn
Bensonhurst is a residential neighborhood in the southwestern section of the New York City borough of Brooklyn. The neighborhood is bordered on the northwest by 14th Avenue, on the northeast by 60th Street, on the southeast by Avenue P and 22nd ...
in
New York City
New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the List of United States cities by population, most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the L ...
. She received the
American Medical Association
The American Medical Association (AMA) is a professional association and lobbying group of physicians and medical students. Founded in 1847, it is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. Membership was approximately 240,000 in 2016.
The AMA's state ...
commendation for 50th Year in Practice. Rera graduated in 1926 with an
M.D.
Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated M.D., from the Latin ''Medicinae Doctor'') is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the M.D. denotes a professional degree. T ...
New York Medical College
New York Medical College (NYMC or New York Med) is a private medical school in Valhalla, New York. Founded in 1860, it is a member of the Touro College and University System.
NYMC offers advanced degrees through its three schools: the School o ...
in
Valhalla, New York
Valhalla is a hamlet and census-designated place (CDP) within the town of Mount Pleasant, in Westchester County, New York, United States, in the New York City metropolitan area. Its population was 3,162 at the 2010 U.S. Census. The name was in ...
).
* Lai Po-cheun was the first female to study and graduate as a medical student at the
Hong Kong University
The University of Hong Kong (HKU) (Chinese: 香港大學) is a public research university in Hong Kong. Founded in 1887 as the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese, it is the oldest tertiary institution in Hong Kong. HKU was also the fir ...
during the 1920s.
* Fatma bint Saada Nassor Lamki became the first female doctor in
Zanzibar
Zanzibar (; ; ) is an insular semi-autonomous province which united with Tanganyika in 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania. It is an archipelago in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of the mainland, and consists of many small islands ...
sometime during the 1920s.
* Kornelija Sertić (b. unknown, circa 1900) was the first woman to graduate from the Medical School in
Zagreb
Zagreb ( , , , ) is the capital (political), capital and List of cities and towns in Croatia#List of cities and towns, largest city of Croatia. It is in the Northern Croatia, northwest of the country, along the Sava river, at the southern slop ...
(which occurred in 1923) .
*
Agnes Yewande Savage
Agnes Yewande Savage (21 February 1906 – 1964) was a Nigerian medical doctor and the first West African woman to train and qualify in orthodox medicine. Savage was the first West African woman to receive a university degree in medicine, gradua ...
(1906–1964) was the first woman in
West Africa
West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Maurit ...
to qualify in medicine
*
Joan Refshauge
Joan Janet Brown Refshauge (3 December 1906 25 July 1979) was a New Guineabased Australian people, Australian medical practitioner, administrator, and schoolteacher. In 1964, she was honored with the Order of the British Empire, OBE and the Cil ...
(1906–1979) was the first female doctor appointed to
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...
by the Australian government in 1947.
* Henriette Bùi Quang Chiêu (1906–2012) was the first female doctor in
Vietnam
Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making i ...
.
*
Sophie Redmond
Jeane Sophie Everdine Redmond (14 January 1907 – 18 September 1955) was a Surinamese physician and activist.
Biography
Sophie Redmond was born in Paramaribo as the daughter of a teacher of the Moravian Church. Her father wanted her to become ...
(1907–1955) became the first female doctor in
Suriname
Suriname (; srn, Sranankondre or ), officially the Republic of Suriname ( nl, Republiek Suriname , srn, Ripolik fu Sranan), is a country on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north ...
after graduating from medical school in 1935.
*
Alma Dea Morani
Alma Dea Morani (1907–2001) was a plastic surgeon. She is widely accepted as being the first female plastic surgeon in the United States and was the first female member accepted into the American Society of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgeons.
...
(1907–2001) was the first woman admitted to the American Society of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgeons.
*
Yvonne Sylvain
Yvonne Sylvain (June 28, 1907 – October 3, 1989) was a Haitian physician who was the first female medical doctor from the country. She was also the first woman accepted into the University of Haiti Medical School, and earned her medical degree ...
(1907–1989) was the first female doctor in
Haiti
Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and ...
. She was the first woman accepted into the medical school of the
University of Haiti
The State University of Haiti (french: Université d'État d'Haïti (UEH)) is one of Haiti's most prestigious institutions of higher education. It is located in Port-au-Prince.
Its origins date to the 1820s, when colleges of medicine and law wer ...
, and earned her medical degree there in 1940.
*
Virginia Apgar
Virginia Apgar (June 7, 1909August 7, 1974) was an American physician, obstetrical anesthesiologist and medical researcher, best known as the inventor of the Apgar Score, a way to quickly assess the health of a newborn child immediately after bir ...
(1909–1974), significant work in
anesthesiology
Anesthesiology, anaesthesiology, or anaesthesia is the medical specialty concerned with the total perioperative care of patients before, during and after surgery. It encompasses anesthesia, intensive care medicine, critical emergency medicine, ...
and
teratology
Teratology is the study of abnormalities of physiological development in organisms during their life span. It is a sub-discipline in medical genetics which focuses on the classification of congenital abnormalities in dysmorphology. The related t ...
; founded field of
neonatology
Neonatology is a subspecialty of pediatrics that consists of the medical care of newborn infants, especially the ill or premature newborn. It is a hospital-based specialty, and is usually practised in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs). The ...
Pearl Dunlevy
Dr Pearl Dunlevy (13 August 1909 – 3 June 2002), was an Irish physician and epidemiologist working on TB and was the first woman president of the Biological Society of the Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland.
Early life and career
Born to Ge ...
(1909–2002) was a physician and epidemiologist and the first female president of the Biological Society of the
Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland
The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) is a medical professional and educational institution, which is also known as RCSI University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ireland's first private university. It was established in 1784 ...
.
*
Isobel Addey Tate
Isobel Addey Tate (1 May 1875 – 28 January 1917) was an Irish medical doctor who served overseas and was the only woman to be included in the Queen's University Belfast Roll of Honour and War memorial for her services in World War I.
Early ...
was one of the first women to die while serving as a doctor overseas during
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
.
* Beatrice Emmeline Simmons, a missionary and nurse, was the first Caucasian (female) formally trained in a health care profession to settle as an educator in
Kiribati
Kiribati (), officially the Republic of Kiribati ( gil, ibaberikiKiribati),Kiribati ''The Wor ...
Nigeria
Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf o ...
.
*
Badri Teymourtash
Badri Teymourtash ( fa, بدری تیمورتاش) (1908–1995) (1287-1374 S.H) was the first female dentist in Iran,http://static1.squarespace.com/static/56cb5012c6fc08547b2b754f/t/574df20e3c44d82a049de343/1464726038010/ExemplaryWomenFromIran.pd ...
(1911–1989) was the first
Iranian
Iranian may refer to:
* Iran, a sovereign state
* Iranian peoples, the speakers of the Iranian languages. The term Iranic peoples is also used for this term to distinguish the pan ethnic term from Iranian, used for the people of Iran
* Iranian lan ...
female dentist, who received her higher education in
Belgium
Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to th ...
.
* Andréa de Balmann (1911–2007) was the first female doctor in
French Polynesia
)Territorial motto: ( en, "Great Tahiti of the Golden Haze")
, anthem =
, song_type = Regional anthem
, song = " Ia Ora 'O Tahiti Nui"
, image_map = French Polynesia on the globe (French Polynesia centered).svg
, map_alt = Location of Frenc ...
.
*
Jane Elizabeth Hodgson
Jane Elizabeth Hodgson (January 23, 1915, Crookston, Minnesota – October 23, 2006, Rochester, Minnesota) was an American obstetrician and gynecologist. Hodgson received a bachelor's degree from Carleton College and her M.D. from the Univer ...
(1915–2006) was a pioneering provider of reproductive healthcare for women and advocate for women's rights.
*
Matilda J. Clerk
Matilda Johanna Clerk (2 March 1916 – 27 December 1984) was a medical pioneer and a science educator on the Gold Coast and later in Ghana as well as the second Ghanaian woman to become an orthodox medicine-trained physician. The first wo ...
(1916–1984) was the first Ghanaian woman to win a scholarship for university education abroad and the second Ghanaian woman to become a physician. She was also the first woman to obtain a postgraduate diploma in colonial
Ghana
Ghana (; tw, Gaana, ee, Gana), officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and To ...
and
West Africa
West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Maurit ...
.
* Mary Malahele-Xakana (1917–1982) was the first black woman to register as a medical doctor in
South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring countri ...
Ghana
Ghana (; tw, Gaana, ee, Gana), officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and To ...
.
* Fatima Al-Zayani (1918–1982) became the first qualified female nurse in
Bahrain
Bahrain ( ; ; ar, البحرين, al-Bahrayn, locally ), officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, ' is an island country in Western Asia. It is situated on the Persian Gulf, and comprises a small archipelago made up of 50 natural islands and an ...
Bahrain
Bahrain ( ; ; ar, البحرين, al-Bahrayn, locally ), officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, ' is an island country in Western Asia. It is situated on the Persian Gulf, and comprises a small archipelago made up of 50 natural islands and an ...
upon her graduating from medical school.
*
Kakish Ryskulova
Kakish Ryskulova, in Kyrgyz language, Kyrgyz: Какиш Рыскулова (15 October 1918) - 26 August 2018) was a medical doctor and politician from Kyrgyzstan, who was an Academician of the Kyrgyz Academy of Sciences. She was the first centra ...
(1918–2018) was the first woman from
Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan,, pronounced or the Kyrgyz Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Asia. Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the south, and the People's Republic of China to the east. ...
to qualify as a surgeon.
*
Salma Ismail
Tan Sri Salma binti Ismail (19 December 1918 – 20 July 2014) was a Malaysian medical doctor and the first Malaysian Malay woman to qualify as a doctor. She became one of the first Malay general practitioners to open a private practice in 1967.
...
(1918–2014) was the first
Malay
Malay may refer to:
Languages
* Malay language or Bahasa Melayu, a major Austronesian language spoken in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore
** History of the Malay language, the Malay language from the 4th to the 14th century
** Indonesi ...
woman to qualify as a doctor.
* Katherine Burdon, wife of the then-Government Administrator, was among the women formally registered as midwives for St. Kitts and
Anguilla
Anguilla ( ) is a British Overseas Territory in the Caribbean. It is one of the most northerly of the Leeward Islands in the Lesser Antilles, lying east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands and directly north of Saint Martin. The territo ...
in 1920.
* Ogotu Head (1920–2001) was the first female nursing graduate from
Niue
Niue (, ; niu, Niuē) is an island country in the South Pacific Ocean, northeast of New Zealand. Niue's land area is about and its population, predominantly Polynesian, was about 1,600 in 2016. Niue is located in a triangle between Tong ...
after having completed her training in
Samoa
Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa; sm, Sāmoa, and until 1997 known as Western Samoa, is a Polynesian island country consisting of two main islands (Savai'i and Upolu); two smaller, inhabited islands (Manono Island, Manono an ...
in 1939.
* Ethna Gaffney (1920–2011) was the first female
RCSI
The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) is a medical professional and educational institution, which is also known as RCSI University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ireland's first private university. It was established in 1784 ...
Professor of Chemistry.
* Estela Gavidia (b. unknown, circa 1920) was the first woman to graduate as a doctor in
El Salvador
El Salvador (; , meaning " The Saviour"), officially the Republic of El Salvador ( es, República de El Salvador), is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south b ...
, which occurred in 1945.
* Gabriela Valenzuela and Froilana Mereles were the first females to graduate with a medical degree in
Paraguay
Paraguay (; ), officially the Republic of Paraguay ( es, República del Paraguay, links=no; gn, Tavakuairetã Paraguái, links=si), is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to th ...
in 1924. Valenzuela, however, is considered Paraguay's first practicing female doctor.
*
Augusta Jawara Hannah Augusta Darling Jawara (''née'' Mahoney; May 1924 – 21 January 1981), was a Gambian nurse, playwright and activist for women's rights. She was the first wife (from 1955 to 1967) of Sir Dawda Jawara, Prime Minister of the Gambia.
Life
Han ...
(1924–1981) was the first female from
The Gambia
The Gambia,, ff, Gammbi, ar, غامبيا officially the Republic of The Gambia, is a country in West Africa. It is the smallest country within mainland AfricaHoare, Ben. (2002) ''The Kingfisher A-Z Encyclopedia'', Kingfisher Publicatio ...
to qualify as a state certified midwife in 1953. She completed her training in
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe b ...
.
* Kula Fiaola (1924–2003) became the first qualified (female) nurse in
Tokelau
Tokelau (; ; known previously as the Union Islands, and, until 1976, known officially as the Tokelau Islands) is a dependent territory of New Zealand in the southern Pacific Ocean. It consists of three tropical coral atolls: Atafu, Nukunonu, a ...
in 1951.
*
Barbara Ball
Barbara Ball MRCS, LRCP, OBE (13 June 1924 – 13 March 2011) was a Bermudian physician, politician and social activist. She was the first woman physician to practice in Bermuda and took both black and white patients, an unusual event in the ...
(1924–2011) was the first female doctor in
Bermuda
)
, anthem = "God Save the King"
, song_type = National song
, song = " Hail to Bermuda"
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, mapsize2 =
, map_caption2 =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name =
, e ...
after having started her practice in 1949.
* Margery Clare McKinnon (1924–2014) became the first female doctor in
Norfolk Island
Norfolk Island (, ; Norfuk: ''Norf'k Ailen'') is an external territory of Australia located in the Pacific Ocean between New Zealand and New Caledonia, directly east of Australia's Evans Head and about from Lord Howe Island. Together with ...
around 1955.
* Jean Lenore Harney (1925–2020) was the first female doctor from St. Kitts,
Nevis
Nevis is a small island in the Caribbean Sea that forms part of the inner arc of the Leeward Islands chain of the West Indies. Nevis and the neighbouring island of Saint Kitts constitute one country: the Federation of Saint Kitts and Ne ...
and
Anguilla
Anguilla ( ) is a British Overseas Territory in the Caribbean. It is one of the most northerly of the Leeward Islands in the Lesser Antilles, lying east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands and directly north of Saint Martin. The territo ...
to study medicine at the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
's
Liverpool University
, mottoeng = These days of peace foster learning
, established = 1881 – University College Liverpool1884 – affiliated to the federal Victoria Universityhttp://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukla/2004/4 University of Manchester Act 200 ...
()
* Kapelwa Sikota (1928–2006) became the first registered nurse in
Zambia
Zambia (), officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern and East Africa, although it is typically referred to as being in Southern Africa at its most cent ...
Ghana
Ghana (; tw, Gaana, ee, Gana), officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and To ...
ian woman to qualify in medicine
* Daphne Steele (1929–2004), a nurse from
Guyana
Guyana ( or ), officially the Cooperative Republic of Guyana, is a country on the northern mainland of South America. Guyana is an indigenous word which means "Land of Many Waters". The capital city is Georgetown. Guyana is bordered by the ...
, became the first Black
Matron
Matron is the job title of a very senior or the chief nurse in several countries, including the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland and other Commonwealth countries and former colonies.
Etymology
The chief nurse, in other words the person ...
in the
National Health Service
The National Health Service (NHS) is the umbrella term for the publicly funded healthcare systems of the United Kingdom (UK). Since 1948, they have been funded out of general taxation. There are three systems which are referred to using the " ...
in 1964.
*
Josephine Nambooze
Josephine Nambooze is a Ugandan physician, public health specialist, academic, and medical researcher. She is an emeritus professor of public health at Makerere University School of Public Health. Nambooze was the first female East African to qu ...
(b. 1930) started her practice as the first female doctor in
Uganda
}), is a landlocked country in East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territor ...
in 1962. Selina Rwashana was the first psychiatric nurse in
Uganda
}), is a landlocked country in East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territor ...
after having completed her training in the United Kingdom during the 1950s.
*
Tu Youyou
Tu Youyou (; born 30 December 1930) is a Chinese pharmaceutical chemist and malariologist. She discovered artemisinin (also known as , ) and dihydroartemisinin, used to treat malaria, a breakthrough in twentieth-century tropical medicine, sav ...
(b.1930), first Chinese
Nobel laureate in physiology or medicine
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine ( sv, Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin) is awarded annually by the Swedish Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska Institute to scientists in the various fields of physiology or medicine. It is one of the ...
and the first female citizen of the
People's Republic of China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
to receive a
Nobel Prize
The Nobel Prizes ( ; sv, Nobelpriset ; no, Nobelprisen ) are five separate prizes that, according to Alfred Nobel's will of 1895, are awarded to "those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind." Alfr ...
in any category (2015).
* Lucie Lods and Jacqueline Exbroyat (1931–2013) were the first female doctors in
New Caledonia
)
, anthem = ""
, image_map = New Caledonia on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg
, map_alt = Location of New Caledonia
, map_caption = Location of New Caledonia
, mapsize = 290px
, subdivision_type = Sovereign st ...
. Lods started her practice in 1938 whereas Exbroyat did so during the 1960s.
* Ayten Berkalp (b. 1933) became the first female doctor in
Northern Cyprus
Northern Cyprus ( tr, Kuzey Kıbrıs), officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC; tr, Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti, ''KKTC''), is a ''de facto'' state that comprises the northeastern portion of the Geography of Cyprus, isl ...
in 1963.
* Lobsang Dolma Khangkar (1934–1989) was the first female doctor in the region of
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
.
* Widad Kidanemariam (1935–1988) became the first female doctor in
Ethiopia
Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
during the 1960s.
* Xhanfize (Frashëri) Basha returned to
Albania
Albania ( ; sq, Shqipëri or ), or , also or . officially the Republic of Albania ( sq, Republika e Shqipërisë), is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is located on the Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea and shares ...
to become the country's first female doctor upon completing her studies at the
University of Philadelphia
Thomas Jefferson University is a private research university in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Established in its earliest form in 1824, the university officially combined with Philadelphia University in 2017. To signify its heritage, the univer ...
in 1937.
*
Edna Adan Ismail
Edna Adan Ismail ( so, Edna Aadan Ismaaciil ama Adna Aadan Ismaaciil) (born 8 September 1937) is a nurse midwife, activist and was the first female Foreign Minister of Somaliland from 2003 to 2006. She previously served as Somaliland's Minister ...
(b. 1937) became
Somaliland
Somaliland,; ar, صوماليلاند ', ' officially the Republic of Somaliland,, ar, جمهورية صوماليلاند, link=no ''Jumhūrīyat Ṣūmālīlānd'' is a ''de facto'' sovereign state in the Horn of Africa, still conside ...
's first nurse midwife during the 1950s upon completing her training at the then-named
Borough Polytechnic
London South Bank University (LSBU) is a public university in Elephant and Castle, London. It is based in the London Borough of Southwark, near the South Bank of the River Thames, from which it takes its name. Founded in 1892 as the Borough Po ...
in the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
.
* Hajah Habibah Haji Mohd Hussain (b. 1937) was among the first women in
Brunei
Brunei ( , ), formally Brunei Darussalam ( ms, Negara Brunei Darussalam, Jawi alphabet, Jawi: , ), is a country located on the north coast of the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Apart from its South China Sea coast, it is completely sur ...
to work as a nurse after finishing nursing school in 1955.
* Marguerite Issembe became the first midwife in
Gabon
Gabon (; ; snq, Ngabu), officially the Gabonese Republic (french: République gabonaise), is a country on the west coast of Central Africa. Located on the equator, it is bordered by Equatorial Guinea to the northwest, Cameroon to the north ...
Palau
Palau,, officially the Republic of Palau and historically ''Belau'', ''Palaos'' or ''Pelew'', is an island country and microstate in the western Pacific. The nation has approximately 340 islands and connects the western chain of the Caro ...
became the first female doctor in
Micronesia
Micronesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, consisting of about 2,000 small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It has a close shared cultural history with three other island regions: the Philippines to the west, Polynesia to the east, and ...
.Glimpses into Pacific Lives: Some Outstanding Women Northwest Regional Educational Lab In 2020, Lara Reklai became the first Palauan female to complete her medical studies in
Cuba
Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...
.
* María Herminia Yelsi and Digna Maldonado de Candía became the first female professional nurses in
Paraguay
Paraguay (; ), officially the Republic of Paraguay ( es, República del Paraguay, links=no; gn, Tavakuairetã Paraguái, links=si), is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to th ...
in 1941.
* Barbara Ross-Lee (b. 1942) was the first African American female dean of a U.S. medical school (1993) Ohio_University_College_of_Osteopathic_Medicine.html" ;"title="Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine">Ohio University College of Osteopathic Medicine">Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine">Ohio University College of Osteopathic Medicine
* Kek Galabru (b. 1942) became the first female doctor in
Cambodia
Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailand t ...
upon obtaining her medical degree in
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
in 1968.
* Choua Thao (b. 1943), at the age of 14, was one of two
Hmong
Hmong may refer to:
* Hmong people, an ethnic group living mainly in Southwest China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand
* Hmong cuisine
* Hmong customs and culture
** Hmong music
** Hmong textile art
* Hmong language, a continuum of closely related ton ...
girls recruited to receive nursing training around the time of the Secret War in Laos.
*
Nancy Dickey
Nancy Dickey (born September 10, 1950) is an American physician. She was the first female president of the American Medical Association (AMA), serving in 1997–98. Previously she had served as chair of the board of trustees of the AMA and cha ...
(b. 1950) was the first female president of the
American Medical Association
The American Medical Association (AMA) is a professional association and lobbying group of physicians and medical students. Founded in 1847, it is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. Membership was approximately 240,000 in 2016.
The AMA's state ...
.
* Rosa Mari Mandicó (b. 1951) became the first qualified female nurse in
Andorra
, image_flag = Flag of Andorra.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Andorra.svg
, symbol_type = Coat of arms
, national_motto = la, Virtus Unita Fortior, label=none (Latin)"United virtue is stro ...
in 1971. In 1991, Concepció Álvarez Martínez, Isabel Navarro Gilabert, Dominica Ramond Punsola, Montserrat Rue Capella, Pilar Serrano Gascón, Purificación Valverde Hernández and Maria Líria Viñolas Blasco were the first nurse graduates in
Andorra
, image_flag = Flag of Andorra.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Andorra.svg
, symbol_type = Coat of arms
, national_motto = la, Virtus Unita Fortior, label=none (Latin)"United virtue is stro ...
.
* Nancy C. Andrews (b. 1958), first female Dean of a top ten medical school in the United States (2007),
Duke University School of Medicine
The Duke University School of Medicine, commonly known as Duke Med, is the medical school of Duke University. It is located in the Collegiate Gothic-style West Campus of Duke University in Durham, North Carolina. The School of Medicine, along wit ...
.
* Alganesh Haregot and Alganesh Adhanom were among the first women to graduate from a formal nursing school in
Eritrea
Eritrea ( ; ti, ኤርትራ, Ertra, ; ar, إرتريا, ʾIritriyā), officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa region of Eastern Africa, with its capital and largest city at Asmara. It is bordered by Ethiopia ...
in 1959.
* Ramlati Ali (b. 1961) became the first female doctor in
Mayotte
Mayotte (; french: Mayotte, ; Shimaore: ''Maore'', ; Kibushi: ''Maori'', ), officially the Department of Mayotte (french: Département de Mayotte), is an overseas department and region and single territorial collectivity of France. It is loc ...
in 1996.
* Anniest Hamilton, the first female doctor in
Turks and Caicos Islands
The Turks and Caicos Islands (abbreviated TCI; and ) are a British Overseas Territory consisting of the larger Caicos Islands and smaller Turks Islands, two groups of tropical islands in the Lucayan Archipelago of the Atlantic Ocean and n ...
, began her healthcare career sometime during the 1960s.
* Under the tutelage of matron Daw Dem, Pem Choden, Nim Dem, Choni Zangmo, Gyem, Namgay Dem and Tsendra Pem became the first nurses in
Bhutan
Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainous ...
Viopapa Annandale-Atherton
Viopapa Annandale–Atherton (also known as Papali'i Dr Viopapa Annandale–Atherton) is a Samoan medical doctor who has worked to improve the health of women and children in the Pacific Islands. She was the first Pacific Island woman to gradua ...
is the first Samoan female to become a doctor upon graduating from
New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
's
University of Otago
, image_name = University of Otago Registry Building2.jpg
, image_size =
, caption = University clock tower
, motto = la, Sapere aude
, mottoeng = Dare to be wise
, established = 1869; 152 years ago
, type = Public research collegiate u ...
in 1964. She later returned to
Samoa
Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa; sm, Sāmoa, and until 1997 known as Western Samoa, is a Polynesian island country consisting of two main islands (Savai'i and Upolu); two smaller, inhabited islands (Manono Island, Manono an ...
in 1993 and started a medical practice.
* Cora LeEthel Christian became the first female doctor in the
United States Virgin Islands
The United States Virgin Islands,. Also called the ''American Virgin Islands'' and the ''U.S. Virgin Islands''. officially the Virgin Islands of the United States, are a group of Caribbean islands and an unincorporated and organized territory ...
upon completing her medical education in the early 1970s.
* Madeline Nyamwanza-Makonese (b. unknown, mid-20th century) was the first female doctor in
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe (), officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in Southeast Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the south-west, Zambia to the north, and Mozam ...
. She was the second African woman to become a doctor and the first African woman to graduate from the
University of Rhodesia
The University of Zimbabwe (UZ) is a public university in Harare, Zimbabwe. It opened in 1952 as the University College of Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Rhodesia and Nyasaland, and was initially affiliated with the University of London. ...
Medical School in 1970.
* Rehana Kausar (b. mid-20th century) became the first woman doctor from
Azad Kashmir
Azad Jammu and Kashmir (; ), abbreviated as AJK and colloquially referred to as simply Azad Kashmir, is a region administered by Pakistan as a nominally self-governing entitySee:
*
*
* and constituting the western portion of the larger Ka ...
to graduate from Medical School in
Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
in 1971.
* Elwyn Chomba became the first female doctor in
Zambia
Zambia (), officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern and East Africa, although it is typically referred to as being in Southern Africa at its most cent ...
in 1973. In 1999, Jacqueline Mulundika-Mulwanda became
Zambia
Zambia (), officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern and East Africa, although it is typically referred to as being in Southern Africa at its most cent ...
's first female surgeon.
* N'Guessan Affoué Christine from
Ivory Coast
Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital is Yamoussoukro, in the centre of the country, while its largest city and economic centre is ...
is the first midwife advisor of the
United Nations Population Fund
The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), formerly the United Nations Fund for Population Activities, is a UN agency aimed at improving reproductive and maternal health worldwide. Its work includes developing national healthcare strategies ...
(UNFPA). She retired from the profession in 2016 after having worked in the field since 1976.
* Zoe Gardner becomes the first woman in 1976 to overwinter with the Australian Antarctic program as a medical officer on sub-
Antarctic
The Antarctic ( or , American English also or ; commonly ) is a polar region around Earth's South Pole, opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole. The Antarctic comprises the continent of Antarctica, the Kerguelen Plateau and other ...
Macquarie Island
Macquarie Island is an island in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, about halfway between New Zealand and Antarctica. Regionally part of Oceania and politically a part of Tasmania, Australia, since 1900, it became a Tasmanian State Reserve in 197 ...
.
* Margaret Allen became the first female heart transplant surgeon in the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
after having performed a transplant performed in 1985
* Desiree Cox became the first (female)
Rhodes Scholar
The Rhodes Scholarship is an international postgraduate award for students to study at the University of Oxford, in the United Kingdom.
Established in 1902, it is the oldest graduate scholarship in the world. It is considered among the world' ...
from
The Bahamas
The Bahamas (), officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an island country within the Lucayan Archipelago of the West Indies in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic. It takes up 97% of the Lucayan Archipelago's land area and is home to ...
in 1987. She became a medical doctor upon earning her MBBS at the
University of Oxford
, mottoeng = The Lord is my light
, established =
, endowment = £6.1 billion (including colleges) (2019)
, budget = £2.145 billion (2019–20)
, chancellor ...
in 1992.
* Marlene Toma became the first Saint Martin female to graduate in midwifery in 1990.
* Kinneh Sogur was the first home-trained female medical doctor to graduate from the
University of the Gambia
The University of the Gambia (UTG) is an institution of higher education located in Sere Kunda, the largest city in the Gambia.
History
The campus was founded in 1998 in Kotu-Kanifing, a suburb of Sere Kunda. It was not until March 1999 that t ...
(UTG) in 2007. The medical school was the first one to be established in the country in 1999.
* Margeret 'Molly' Brown (d. 2008) was the first female doctor in the
Cayman Islands
The Cayman Islands () is a self-governing British Overseas Territory—the largest by population in the western Caribbean Sea. The territory comprises the three islands of Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac and Little Cayman, which are located to the ...
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...
Tonga
Tonga (, ; ), officially the Kingdom of Tonga ( to, Puleʻanga Fakatuʻi ʻo Tonga), is a Polynesian country and archipelago. The country has 171 islands – of which 45 are inhabited. Its total surface area is about , scattered over in ...
n (female) to receive a Nursing PhD in 2012.
* Neti Tamarua Herman became the first
Cook Islands
)
, image_map = Cook Islands on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg
, capital = Avarua
, coordinates =
, largest_city = Avarua
, official_languages =
, lan ...
(female) nurse to earn a doctorate degree in 2015.
* Alice Niragire was the first Rwandan female to graduate with a master's degree in surgery in 2015 since the course was introduced in 2006. In 2018, Claire Karekezi returned to
Rwanda
Rwanda (; rw, u Rwanda ), officially the Republic of Rwanda, is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of Central Africa, where the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa converge. Located a few degrees south of the Equator ...
to become the country's first female
neurosurgeon
Neurosurgery or neurological surgery, known in common parlance as brain surgery, is the medical specialty concerned with the surgical treatment of disorders which affect any portion of the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord and peri ...
.
* Natalie Joyce Brewley (d. 2016) was the first female doctor in the
British Virgin Islands
)
, anthem = "God Save the King"
, song_type = Territorial song
, song = "Oh, Beautiful Virgin Islands"
, image_map = File:British Virgin Islands on the globe (Americas centered).svg
, map_caption =
, mapsize = 290px
, image_map2 = Brit ...
. Stacy Rhymer is considered the first female doctor in the British Virgin Islands'
Virgin Gorda
Virgin Gorda () is the third-largest island (after Tortola and Anegada) and second-most populous of the British Virgin Islands (BVI).
Geography
Located at about 18 degrees, 48 minutes North, and 64 degrees, 30 minutes West, it covers an area o ...
.
* Jin Cody became the first (female) certified nurse-midwife in the
Northern Mariana Islands
The Northern Mariana Islands, officially the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI; ch, Sankattan Siha Na Islas Mariånas; cal, Commonwealth Téél Falúw kka Efáng llól Marianas), is an unincorporated territory and commonw ...
in 2017.
* Elisa Gaspar becomes the first female to lead the Medical Association of
(ORMED) in 2019.
* George Tarer was the first midwife to graduate in
Guadeloupe
Guadeloupe (; ; gcf, label=Antillean Creole, Gwadloup, ) is an archipelago and overseas department and region of France in the Caribbean. It consists of six inhabited islands—Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Marie-Galante, La Désirade, and the ...
.
* Olivia Torres Cruz is the first
Chamorro Chamorro may refer to:
* Chamorro people, the indigenous people of the Mariana Islands in the Western Pacific
* Chamorro language, an Austronesian language indigenous to The Marianas
* Chamorro Time Zone, the time zone of Guam and the Northern Mar ...
female doctor in
Guam
Guam (; ch, Guåhan ) is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States in the Micronesia subregion of the western Pacific Ocean. It is the westernmost point and territory of the United States (reckoned from the geographic cent ...
.
* Errolyn Tungu is the first female obstetrician-gynaecologist in
Vanuatu
Vanuatu ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Vanuatu (french: link=no, République de Vanuatu; bi, Ripablik blong Vanuatu), is an island country located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is east of no ...
.
* Rebecca Edwards became the first
Falkland Islander
Falkland may refer to:
* Falkland, British Columbia, a community in Canada
* Falkland, Nova Scotia, a community in Canada
* Falkland Islands, an archipelago in the south Atlantic Ocean
* Falkland, Fife, a former burgh in Fife, Scotland
** Falklan ...
female to become a doctor after completing her medical training at the
University College London
, mottoeng = Let all come who by merit deserve the most reward
, established =
, type = Public research university
, endowment = £143 million (2020)
, budget = ...
liver
The liver is a major Organ (anatomy), organ only found in vertebrates which performs many essential biological functions such as detoxification of the organism, and the Protein biosynthesis, synthesis of proteins and biochemicals necessary for ...
American Medical Women's Association
The American Medical Women's Association (AMWA) is a professional advocacy and educational organization of women in medicine, women physicians and medical students. Founded in 1915 by Bertha vanhoosen, Bertha Van Hoosen, the AMWA works to advance ...
*
Female education
Female education is a catch-all term of a complex set of issues and debates surrounding education (primary education, secondary education, tertiary education, and health education in particular) for girls and women. It is frequently called girls ...
*
History of medicine
The history of medicine is both a study of medicine throughout history as well as a multidisciplinary field of study that seeks to explore and understand medical practices, both past and present, throughout human societies.
More than just histo ...
*
History of nursing
The word "nurse" originally came from the Latin word "nutrire", meaning to suckle, referring to a wet-nurse; only in the late 16th century did it attain its modern meaning of a person who cares for the infirm.
From the earliest times most cultu ...
*
List of first female pharmacists by country
This is a list of the first qualified female pharmacists to practice in each country, where that is known.
Please note: the list should foremost contain the first female pharmacist with a formal qualification from each country. Historically, it ...
*
List of first female physicians by country
This is a list of the first qualified female physician to practice in each country, where that is known. Many, if not all, countries have had female physicians since time immemorial; however, modern systems of qualification have often commenced a ...
*
List of first women dentists by country
This is a list of the first qualified female dentist to practice in each country, where that is known.
Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
Oceania
See also
* List of first female pharmacists by country
* List of first female physicians by c ...
*
Sexism in medicine
Gender discrimination in health professions refers to the entire culture of bias against female clinicians, expressed verbally through derogatory and aggressive comments, lower pay and other forms of discriminatory actions from predominantly male ...
*
Timeline of women's education
The Timeline of women's education is an overview of the history of education for women worldwide. It includes key individuals, institutions, law reforms, and events that have contributed to the development and expansion of educational opportuni ...
*
Timeline of women in science
This is a timeline of women in science, spanning from ancient history up to the 21st century. While the timeline primarily focuses on women involved with natural sciences such as astronomy, biology, chemistry and physics, it also includes women f ...
* Abram, Ruth Abram., ''Send Us a Lady Physician: Women Doctors in America, 1835–1920''
*
* Blake, Catriona. ''The Charge of the Parasols: Women's Entry to the Medical Profession''
* Borst, Charlotte G. ''Catching Babies: Professionalization of Childbirth, 1870–1920'' (1995), Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
* Elisabeth Brooke, ''Women Healers: Portraits of Herbalists, Physicians, and Midwives'' (biographical encyclopedia)
* Chenevert, Melodie. ''STAT: Special Techniques in Assertiveness Training for Women in the Health Profession''
*
Barbara Ehrenreich
Barbara Ehrenreich (, ; ; August 26, 1941 – September 1, 2022) was an American author and political activist. During the 1980s and early 1990s, she was a prominent figure in the Democratic Socialists of America. She was a widely read and awar ...
and
Deirdre English
Deirdre English (born 1948) is the former editor of ''Mother Jones'' and author of numerous articles for national publications and television documentaries. She has taught at the State University of New York and currently teaches at the Graduate S ...
, ''Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women Healers''
*
Deirdre English
Deirdre English (born 1948) is the former editor of ''Mother Jones'' and author of numerous articles for national publications and television documentaries. She has taught at the State University of New York and currently teaches at the Graduate S ...
and
Barbara Ehrenreich
Barbara Ehrenreich (, ; ; August 26, 1941 – September 1, 2022) was an American author and political activist. During the 1980s and early 1990s, she was a prominent figure in the Democratic Socialists of America. She was a widely read and awar ...
, ''For Her Own Good'' (gendering of history of midwifery and professionalization of medicine)
* Julie Fette, "Pride and Prejudice in the Professions: Women Doctors and Lawyers in Third Republic France," ''Journal of Women's History'', v. 19, no. 3, pp. 60–86 (2007). France, 1870–1940
* Grant, Susan-Mary. "On the Field of Mercy: Women Medical Volunteers from the Civil War to the First World War." ''American Nineteenth Century History'' (2012) 13#2 pp: 276–278.
* Henderson, Metta Lou. ''American Women Pharmacists: Contributions to the Profession''
* Junod, Suzanne White and Seaman, Barbara, eds. ''Voices of the Women's Health Movement, Volume One''Seven Stories Press. New York. 2012. pp 60–62.
* Leneman, Leah. "Medical women at war, 1914–1918." ''Medical history'' (1994) 38#2 pp: 160–177 (PDF) online * Luchetti, Cathy. Medicine Women: The Story of Early-American Women Doctors. New York: Crown,
* Regina Morantz-Sanchez, ''Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine'' (1985 first ed.; 2001)
* More, Ellen S. ''Restoring the Balance: Women Physicians and the Profession of Medicine, 1850–1995''
* Perrone, Bobette H. et al. ''Medicine Women, Curanderas, and Women Doctors'' (1993); cross-cultural anthropological survey of traditional societies
* Pringle, Rosemary. ''Sex and Medicine: Gender, Power and Authority in the Medical Profession''
* Schwirian, Patricia M. ''Professionalization of Nursing: Current Issues and Trends'' (1998), Philadelphia: Lippencott,
* Walsh, Mary Roth. ''Doctors Wanted: No Women Need Apply: Sexual Barriers in the Medical Profession, 1835–1975'' (1977)
Biographies
*
Laurel Thatcher Ulrich
Laurel Thatcher Ulrich (born July 11, 1938) is a Pulitzer Prize-winning American historian specializing in early America and the history of women, and a professor at Harvard University. Her approach to history has been described as a tribute to ...
, ''
A Midwife's Tale
Martha Moore Ballard (February 9, 1735 – June 9, 1812) was an American midwife and healer. Unusually for the time, Ballard kept a diary with thousands of entries over nearly three decades, which has provided historians with invaluable insi ...
: The Life of
Martha Ballard
Martha Moore Ballard (February 9, 1735 – June 9, 1812) was an American midwife and healer. Unusually for the time, Ballard kept a diary with thousands of entries over nearly three decades, which has provided historians with invaluable insi ...
Based on Her Diary, 1785–1812'' (1991)
* Rebecca Wojahn, ''Dr. Kate: Angel on Snowshoes'' (1956)
National Library of Medicine
The United States National Library of Medicine (NLM), operated by the United States federal government, is the world's largest medical library.
Located in Bethesda, Maryland, the NLM is an institute within the National Institutes of Health. Its ...