![Jacques-Louis David - Oath of the Horatii - Google Art Project](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Jacques-Louis_David_-_Oath_of_the_Horatii_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)
The Roman salute, alternatively called the Fascist salute, is a
gesture in which the right arm is fully extended, facing forward, with palm down and fingers touching. In some versions, the arm is raised upward at an angle; in others, it is held out parallel to the ground. In contemporary times, the former is commonly considered a symbol of
fascism
Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian, ultra-nationalist political ideology and movement,: "extreme militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral democracy and political and cultural liberalism, a belief in natural social hierarchy an ...
that had been based on a custom popularly attributed to
ancient Rome
In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC ...
.
[Winkler (2009), p. 2] However, no
Roman text gives this description, and the
Roman works of art that display salutational gestures bear little resemblance to the modern Roman salute.
Beginning with
Jacques-Louis David's painting ''
The Oath of the Horatii'' (1784), an association of the gesture with Roman republican and imperial culture emerged. The gesture and its identification with
Roman culture were further developed in other
neoclassic artworks. In the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
, a similar salute for the
Pledge of Allegiance known as the
Bellamy salute
The Bellamy salute is a palm-out salute created by James B. Upham as the gesture that was to accompany the American Pledge of Allegiance, which had been written by Christian socialist minister, Francis Bellamy. It was also known as the "flag s ...
was created by
Francis Bellamy in 1892. The gesture was further elaborated upon in popular culture during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in plays and films that portrayed the salute as an ancient Roman custom. These included the 1914 Italian
film ''
Cabiria'' whose intertitles were written by the nationalist poet
Gabriele d'Annunzio. In 1919, d'Annunzio adopted the cinematographically depicted salute as a neo-imperial ritual when
he led the occupation of Fiume.
Through d'Annunzio's influence, the gesture soon became part of the rising
Italian Fascist movement's symbolic repertoire. In 1923, the salute was gradually adopted by the Italian Fascist regime. It was then adopted and made compulsory within the
Nazi Party
The Nazi Party, officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party (german: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP), was a far-right political party in Germany active between 1920 and 1945 that created and supported t ...
in 1926, and gained national prominence in the German state when the Nazis took power in 1933. It was also adopted by other fascist,
far right and
ultranationalist
Ultranationalism or extreme nationalism is an extreme form of nationalism in which a country asserts or maintains detrimental hegemony, supremacy, or other forms of control over other nations (usually through violent coercion) to pursue its sp ...
movements.
Since the end of
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...
, displaying the Nazi variant of the salute has been a
criminal offence
In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term ''crime'' does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition,Farmer, Lindsay: "Crime, definitions of", in Ca ...
in Germany, Austria, Czechia, Slovakia, and Poland. Legal restrictions on its use in Italy are more nuanced and use there has generated controversy. The gesture and its variations continue to be used in
neo-fascist,
neo-Nazi, and
Falangist
Falangism ( es, falangismo) was the political ideology of two political parties in Spain that were known as the Falange, namely first the Falange Española de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista (FE de las JONS) and afterwards the Fal ...
contexts.
Early Roman sources and images
The modern gesture consists of stiffly extending the right arm frontally and raising it roughly 135 degrees from the body's vertical axis, with the palm of the hand facing down and the fingers stretched out and touching each other.
According to common perceptions, this salute was based on an ancient Roman custom.
However, this description is unknown in Roman literature and is never mentioned by ancient historians of Rome.
Not a single Roman work of art displays a salute of this kind.
The gesture of the raised right arm or hand in Roman and other ancient cultures that does exist in surviving literature and art generally had a significantly different function and is never identical with the modern straight-arm salute.
The right hand (Lat. ''dextera'', ''dextra''; Gr. δεξιά – ''dexia'') was commonly used in antiquity as a symbol of pledging trust, friendship or loyalty. For example,
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...
reported that
Octavian
Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
pledged an oath to
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, ...
while outstretching his right hand: "Although that youth
he young Caesar Octavianis powerful and has told
Antony off nicely: yet, after all, we must wait to see the end. But what a speech! He swore his oath with the words: 'so may I achieve the honours of my father!', and at the same time he stretched out his right hand in the direction of his statue."
![Statue-Augustus](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Statue-Augustus.jpg)
Sculptures commemorating military victories such as those on the
Arch of Titus
The Arch of Titus ( it, Arco di Tito; la, Arcus Titi) is a 1st-century AD honorific arch, located on the Via Sacra, Rome, just to the south-east of the Roman Forum. It was constructed in 81 AD by the Emperor Domitian shortly after the death of ...
, the
Arch of Constantine, or on the
Column of Trajan are the best known examples of raised arms in art from this period.
[Winkler (2009), pp. 17] However, these monuments do not display a single clear image of the Roman salute.
The images closest in appearance to a raised arm salute are scenes in Roman sculpture and coins which show an ''
adlocutio'', ''
acclamatio'', ''
adventus'', or ''
profectio''.
[Winkler (2009), p. 20] These are occasions when a high-ranking official, such as a general or the Emperor, addresses individuals or a group, often soldiers. Unlike modern custom, in which both the leader and the people he addresses raise their arms, most of these scenes show only the senior official raising his hand.
[Winkler (2009), pp. 20–21] Occasionally it is a sign of
greeting
Greeting is an act of communication in which human beings intentionally make their presence known to each other, to show attention to, and to suggest a type of relationship (usually cordial) or social status (formal or informal) between indiv ...
or benevolence, but usually it is used as an indication of power.
An opposite depiction is the ''salutatio'' of a ''diogmites'', a military police officer, who raises his right arm to greet his commander during his ''adventus'' on a relief from 2nd-century
Ephesus.
An example of a salutational gesture of imperial power can be seen in the statue of
Augustus of Prima Porta
Augustus of Prima Porta ( it, Augusto di Prima Porta) is a full-length portrait statue of Augustus Caesar, the first emperor of the Roman Empire. The marble statue stands tall and weighs . The statue was discovered on April 20, 1863, during archa ...
which follows certain guidelines set out by oratory scholars of his day.
In ''
Rhetorica ad Herennium
The ''Rhetorica ad Herennium'' (''Rhetoric for Herennius''), formerly attributed to Cicero or Cornificius, but in fact of unknown authorship, sometimes ascribed to an unnamed doctor, is the oldest surviving Latin book on rhetoric, dating from the ...
'' the anonymous author states that the orator "will control himself in the entire frame of his body and in the manly angle of his flanks, with the extension of the arm in the impassioned moments of speech, and by drawing in the arm in relaxed moods".
Quintilian states in his ''Institutio Oratoria'': "Experts do not permit the hand to be raised above the level of the eyes or lowered beneath the breast; to such a degree is this true that it is considered a fault to direct the hand above the head or lower it to the lower part of the belly. It may be extended to the left within the limits of the shoulder, but beyond that it is not fitting."
18th–19th centuries France
![Le Serment du Jeu de paume](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Le_Serment_du_Jeu_de_paume.jpg)
Beginning with
Jacques-Louis David's painting ''
The Oath of the Horatii'' (1784), an association of the gesture with Roman republican and imperial culture emerged.
[Winkler (2009), p. 55 ''The raised arm, first stretched out as a symbol of righteous fervor-as the Horatii evince it-and later as a symbol of political allegiance and religious-political unity between a people and its leader, becomes an important part of the iconography of new societies. In addition to its specific contemporary use the gesture comes to express, in a fashion that appears timeless and even mystical, an appeal to a higher being and to a heroic ancient past that had served as a model for most of Western civilization for centuries, although often in ways not supported by historical fact. David's Oath of the Horatii provided the starting point for an arresting gesture that progressed from oath-taking to what will become known as the Roman salute.''] The painting shows the three sons of Horatius swear on their swords, held by their father, that they will defend Rome to the death.
It is based on a historical event described by
Livy
Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in ...
(Book I, sections 24-6) and elaborated by
Dionysius in ''Roman Antiquities'' (Book III).
However, the moment depicted in David's painting is his own creation.
[Winkler (2009), p. 44] Neither Livy nor Dionysius mention any oath taking episode.
Dionysius, the more detailed source, reports that the father had left to his sons the decision to fight then raised his hands to the heavens to thank the gods.
Dominating the center of ''The Oath of the Horatii'' is the brothers' father, facing left. He has both hands raised.
His left hand is holding three swords, while his right hand is empty, with fingers stretched but not touching.
The brother closest to the viewer is holding his arm almost horizontally.
The brother on the left is holding his arm slightly higher, while the third brother holds his hand higher still.
While the first brother extends his right arm, the other two are extending their ''left'' arms. The succession of arms raised progressively higher leads to a gesture closely approximating the style used by fascists in the 20th century in Italy, albeit with the "wrong" arms.
Art historian
Albert Boime
Albert Boime (March 17, 1933 – October 18, 2008), was an American art historian and author of more than 20 art history books and numerous academic articles. He was a professor of art history at the University of California, Los Angeles for thr ...
provides the following analysis:
After the
French Revolution
The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in coup of 18 Brumaire, November 1799. Many of its ...
of 1789, David was commissioned to depict the formation of the revolutionary government in a similar style. In the ''
Tennis Court Oath'' (1792) the
National Assembly are all depicted with their arms outstretched, united in an upward gesture comparable to that of the Horatii, as they swear to create a new constitution. The painting was never finished, but an immense drawing was exhibited in 1791 alongside the ''Oath of the Horatii''.
As in the ''Oath of the Horatii'', David conveys the unity of minds and bodies in the service of the patriotic ideal.
But in this drawing, he takes the subject further, uniting the people beyond just family ties and across different classes, religions, and philosophical opinions.
![Ave Caesar Morituri te Salutant (Gérôme) 01](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Ave_Caesar_Morituri_te_Salutant_%28G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me%29_01.jpg)
After the
republican government was replaced by
Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
's
imperial régime, David further deployed the gesture in ''
The Distribution of the Eagle Standards'' (1810).
[Winkler (2009), p. 51] But unlike his previous paintings representing republican ideals, in ''Eagle Standards'' the oath of allegiance is pledged to a central authority figure, and in imperial fashion.
Boime sees the series of oath pictures as "the coding of key developments in the history of the Revolution and its culmination in Napoleonic authoritarianism".
The imperial oath is seen in other paintings, such as
Jean-Léon Gérôme
Jean-Léon Gérôme (11 May 1824 – 10 January 1904) was a French painter and sculptor in the style now known as academicism. His paintings were so widely reproduced that he was "arguably the world's most famous living artist by 1880." The ra ...
's ''
Ave Caesar! Morituri te salutant (Hail, Caesar, those who are about to die salute you)'' of 1859.
[Winkler (2009), p. 40] In this painting, the
gladiators
A gladiator ( la, gladiator, "swordsman", from , "sword") was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gla ...
are all raising their right or left arms, holding
tridents and other weapons.
Their salutation is a well-known
Latin phrase quoted in
Suetonius, ''
De Vita Caesarum'' ("The Life of the Caesars", or "The Twelve Caesars"). Despite becoming widely popularised in later times, the phrase is unknown in Roman history aside from this isolated use, and it is questionable whether it was ever a customary salute, as is often believed. It was more likely to be an isolated appeal by desperate captives and criminals condemned to die.
19th–20th centuries United States
![Students pledging allegiance to the American flag with the Bellamy salute](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Students_pledging_allegiance_to_the_American_flag_with_the_Bellamy_salute.jpg)
On October 12, 1892, the
Bellamy salute
The Bellamy salute is a palm-out salute created by James B. Upham as the gesture that was to accompany the American Pledge of Allegiance, which had been written by Christian socialist minister, Francis Bellamy. It was also known as the "flag s ...
was demonstrated as the
hand gesture
A hand is a prehensile, multi-fingered appendage located at the end of the forearm or forelimb of primates such as humans, chimpanzees, monkeys, and lemurs. A few other vertebrates such as the koala (which has two opposable thumbs on each "han ...
to accompany the
Pledge of Allegiance in the United States. The inventor of the saluting gesture was James B. Upham, junior partner and editor of ''The Youth's Companion''.
Bellamy recalled Upham, upon reading the pledge, came into the posture of the salute, snapped his heels together, and said "Now up there is the flag; I come to salute; as I say 'I pledge allegiance to my flag,' I stretch out my right hand and keep it raised while I say the stirring words that follow."
As fascism took hold in Europe, controversy grew over the use of the Bellamy salute given its similarity to the Roman Salute. When war broke out in 1939, the controversy intensified. School boards around the country revised the salute to avoid the similarity. There was a counter-backlash from the United States Flag Association and the
Daughters of the American Revolution, who felt it inappropriate for Americans to have to change the traditional salute because aliens had later adopted a similar gesture.
On June 22, 1942, at the urging of the
American Legion and the
Veterans of Foreign Wars, Congress passed
Public Law 77-623, which codified the etiquette used to display and pledge allegiance to the flag. This included use of the Bellamy salute, specifically that the pledge "be rendered by standing with the right hand over the heart; extending the right hand, palm upward, toward the flag at the words ‘‘to the flag’’ and holding this position until the end, when the hand drops to the side." Congress did not discuss or take into account the controversy over use of the salute. Congress later amended the code on December 22, 1942, when it passed
Public Law 77-829. Among other changes, it eliminated the Bellamy salute and replaced it with the stipulation that the pledge "be rendered by standing with the right hand over the heart."
Early 20th century in theatre and film
The gesture, already established in the United States through the Bellamy salute, has been traced to the
Broadway
Broadway may refer to:
Theatre
* Broadway Theatre (disambiguation)
* Broadway theatre, theatrical productions in professional theatres near Broadway, Manhattan, New York City, U.S.
** Broadway (Manhattan), the street
**Broadway Theatre (53rd Stree ...
production of the play ''
Ben-Hur''.
[Winkler (2009), p. 70] The play, based on
Lew Wallace
Lewis Wallace (April 10, 1827February 15, 1905) was an American lawyer, Union general in the American Civil War, governor of the New Mexico Territory, politician, diplomat, and author from Indiana. Among his novels and biographies, Wallace is ...
's book ''
Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ'', opened on Broadway in November 1899 and proved to be a great success.
[Winkler (2009), p. 71] Photographs show several scenes using the gesture, including one of Ben-Hur greeting a seated sheik and another of a small crowd so greeting Ben-Hur in his chariot.
[Winkler (2009), p. 73] Neither Wallace's novel nor text for the theatrical production mentions a raised arm salute.
The salute was evidently added in keeping with the exaggerated style of acting in 19th century theater, which in turn influenced acting in the silent cinema.
[Winkler (2009), p. 75]
The salute frequently occurs in early 20th century films set in antiquity, such as the American
''Ben-Hur'' (1907) and the Italian ''
Nerone'' (1908), although such films do not yet standardize it or make it exclusively Roman.
In ''Spartaco'' (1914), even the slave
Spartacus
Spartacus ( el, Σπάρτακος '; la, Spartacus; c. 103–71 BC) was a Thracian gladiator who, along with Crixus, Gannicus, Castus, and Oenomaus, was one of the escaped slave leaders in the Third Servile War, a major slave uprisin ...
uses it.
Later examples appear in ''
Ben-Hur'' (1925) and in Cecil B. DeMille's ''
Sign of the Cross'' (1932) and ''
Cleopatra'' (1934), although the execution of the gesture is still variable.
Of special note is the use in
Giovanni Pastrone's colossal epic ''
Cabiria'' (1914).
[Winkler (2009), pp. 94–95] Its intertitles, character names, and movie title were attributed to Italian nationalist
Gabriele d'Annunzio, who was known as the "poet-warrior". Inspired by the
Italo-Turkish War
The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War ( tr, Trablusgarp Savaşı, "Tripolitanian War", it, Guerra di Libia, "War of Libya") was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ottoman Empire from 29 September 1911, to 18 October 1912. As a result o ...
, in which Italy conquered the North African
Ottoman province of
Tripolitania, Pastrone pursued a politically volatile issue.
The film highlights Italy's Roman past and the "monstrous" nature of
Carthaginian society, which is contrasted with the "nobility" of Roman society. ''Cabiria'' was one of several films of the period that "helped resuscitate a distant history that legitimized Italy's past and inspired its dreams" and which "delivered the spirit for conquest that seemed to arrive from the distant past", thereby presaging the "political rituals of fascism", "thanks ... to its prime supporter and apostle, Gabriele d'Annunzio."
Variations on the salute occur throughout ''Cabiria'' on the part of Romans and Africans.
[Winkler (2009), p. 99] Scipio uses the gesture once.
Fulvius Axilla, the story's fictitious hero, twice employs it as a farewell greeting to his hosts.
The
Numidian
Numidia (Berber: ''Inumiden''; 202–40 BC) was the ancient kingdom of the Numidians located in northwest Africa, initially comprising the territory that now makes up modern-day Algeria, but later expanding across what is today known as Tunisi ...
king
Massinissa
Masinissa ( nxm, , ''MSNSN''; ''c.'' 238 BC – 148 BC), also spelled Massinissa, Massena and Massan, was an ancient Numidian king best known for leading a federation of Massylii Berber tribes during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), ult ...
, guest of the Carthaginian Hasdrubal, raises his right hand and is so greeted in return, once by the strongman
Maciste.
Princess
Sophonisba
Sophonisba (in Punic, 𐤑𐤐𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋 Ṣap̄anbaʿal) (fl. 203 BC) was a Carthaginian noblewoman who lived during the Second Punic War, and the daughter of Hasdrubal Gisco. She held influence over the Numidian political landscape, con ...
and King
Syphax mutually greet each other by raising their hands and declining their bodies.
The diversity of the gesture and the variety of nationalities who use it in ''Cabria'' is seen as further evidence that the salute is a modern invention, used in the film to highlight the exotic nature of antiquity.
Adoption during the 20th century
Italy
D'Annunzio, who had written the subtitles for the silent movie epic
Cabiria, appropriated the salute when he occupied
Fiume in 1919.
[Falasca-Zamponi (2000), p. 110] D'Annunzio has been described as the
John the Baptist
John the Baptist or , , or , ;Wetterau, Bruce. ''World history''. New York: Henry Holt and Company. 1994. syc, ܝܘܿܚܲܢܵܢ ܡܲܥܡܕ݂ܵܢܵܐ, Yoḥanān Maʿmḏānā; he, יוחנן המטביל, Yohanān HaMatbil; la, Ioannes Bapti ...
of
Italian Fascism,
[Leeden (2001), p. xiii] as virtually the entire ritual of Fascism was invented by D'Annunzio during his occupation of Fiume and his leadership of the "
Italian Regency of Carnaro".
Besides the Roman salute, these included the balcony address, the cries of ''"
Eia, eia, eia! Alalà!"'', the dramatic and rhetorical dialogues with the crowd, and the use of religious symbols in new secular settings.
Like other neo-Imperial rituals used by D'Annunzio, the salute became part of the
Italian fascist movement's symbolic repertoire.
On January 31, 1923, the Ministry of Education instituted a ritual honoring the flag in schools using the Roman salute.
In 1925, as Mussolini began his fascitization of the state, the salute was gradually adopted by the regime, and by December 1, 1925, all state civil administrators were required to use it.
Achille Starace, the Italian
Fascist Party secretary, pushed for measures to make the use of the Roman salute generally compulsory, denouncing
hand shaking as
bourgeois. He further extolled the salute as "more hygienic, more aesthetic, and shorter." He also suggested that the Roman salute did not imply the necessity of taking off the hat unless one was indoors. By 1932, the salute was adopted as the substitute for the handshake.
On August 19, 1933, the military was ordered to use the salute whenever an unarmed detachment of soldiers was called on to render military honors for the King or Mussolini.
The symbolic value of the gesture grew, and it was felt that the proper salute "had the effect of showing the fascist man's decisive spirit, which was close to that of ancient Rome".
[Falasca-Zamponi (2000), pp. 110–111] The salute was seen to demonstrate the fascist's "decisive spirit, firmness, seriousness, and acknowledgment and acceptance of the regime's hierarchical structure".
[Falasca-Zamponi (2000), pp. 112–113] It was further felt that the correct physical gesture brought forth a change in character.
[Falasca-Zamponi110 (2000), pp. 113] A joke claimed, however, that the Fascist salute used one hand because Italians were tired of raising both hands to surrender during
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
.
The handshake was supposed to disappear from the view of Italians and not contaminate their daily life. In 1938, the party abolished handshaking in films and theater, and on November 21, 1938, the
Ministry of Popular Culture issued orders banning the publishing of photographs showing people shaking hands. Even official photographs of visiting dignitaries were
retouched to remove the image of their handshaking.
Germany
In Germany, the salute, sporadically used by the
Nazi Party
The Nazi Party, officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party (german: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP), was a far-right political party in Germany active between 1920 and 1945 that created and supported t ...
(NSDAP) since 1923, was made compulsory within the movement in 1926.
[Kershaw (2001), p. 26] Called the
Hitler
Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 188930 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Nazi Germany, Germany from 1933 until Death of Adolf Hitler, his death in 1945. Adolf Hitler's rise to power, He rose to power as the le ...
salute (''Hitlergruß''), it functioned both as an expression of commitment within the party and as a demonstrative statement to the outside world.
[Tilman (2009), p. 55] Yet in spite of this demand for the outward display of obedience, the drive to gain acceptance did not go unchallenged, even within the movement.
Early objections focused on its resemblance to the Roman salute employed by Fascist Italy, and hence on it not being
Germanic.
In response, efforts were made to establish its pedigree and invent a proper tradition after the fact.
The compulsory use of the Hitler salute for all public employees followed a directive issued by Reich
Minister of the Interior Wilhelm Frick
Wilhelm Frick (12 March 1877 – 16 October 1946) was a prominent German politician of the Nazi Party (NSDAP), who served as Reich Minister of the Interior in Adolf Hitler's cabinet from 1933 to 1943 and as the last governor of the Protectorate ...
on July 13, 1933, one day before the ban on all non-Nazi parties.
[Kershaw (2001), p. 60] The
Wehrmacht
The ''Wehrmacht'' (, ) were the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the ''Heer'' (army), the '' Kriegsmarine'' (navy) and the ''Luftwaffe'' (air force). The designation "''Wehrmacht''" replaced the previo ...
refused to adopt the Hitler salute and was able for a time to maintain its own customs.
[Tilman (2009), pp. 80–82] The military were required to use the Hitler salute only while singing the
Horst Wessel Lied and
German national anthem, and in non-military encounters such as greeting members of the civilian government.
Only after the
July 20 Plot
On 20 July 1944, Claus von Stauffenberg and other conspirators attempted to assassinate Adolf Hitler, Führer of Nazi Germany, inside his Wolf's Lair field headquarters near Rastenburg, East Prussia, now Kętrzyn, in present-day Poland. The ...
in 1944 were the military forces of the Third Reich ordered to replace the standard military salute with the Hitler salute.
[Tilman (2009), p. 82]
Elsewhere
Similar forms of salutes were adopted by various groups. Its use in France dates back to the revolution. It will be used also by the ''
Jeunesses Patriotes
The ''Jeunesses Patriotes'' ("Young Patriots", JP) were a far-right league of France, recruited mostly from university students and financed by industrialists founded in 1924 by Pierre Taittinger. Taittinger took inspiration for the group's creat ...
(Patriotic Youth)'', a movement led by
Pierre Taittinger
Pierre-Charles Taittinger (4 October 1887 – 22 January 1965) was the founder of the Taittinger family, Taittinger champagne house and chairman of the municipal council of Paris in 1943–1944 during the German occupation of France during ...
, would give the fascist salute at meetings while shouting "Dictatorship!".
Marcel Bucard
Marcel Bucard (7 December 1895 – 13 March 1946) was a French Fascist politician.
Early career
A decorated soldier who earned a reputation for bravery in World War I, Bucard became active in politics after 1918, initially as a member of '' ...
's ''
Mouvement Franciste,'' founded in September 1933, adopted the salute as well as donning blue shirts and blue berets. ''
Solidarité Française Solidarité Française ("French Solidarity") was a French far-right league founded in 1933 by perfume manufacturer François Coty (1874-1934) as a "Parti national corporatif républicain".
After Coty's death, it was commanded by Major Jean Renau ...
'' used the salute as well, though its leaders denied the movement was fascist. By 1937, rivalry amongst French right wing parties sometimes caused confusion over salutes. The
Parti Populaire Français, generally regarded as the most pro-Nazi of France's
collaborationist parties, adopted a variant of the salute that distinguished itself from others by slightly bending the hand and holding it at face level.
In the early 1930s, the salute was used by members of the Estonian nationalist right wing
Vaps Movement, as well as the
Brazilian Integralist Action, who used to salute by raising one arm. The Brazilian form of the Salute was called "Anauê" – a word used as a salutation and as a cry by the Brazilian indigenous
Tupi people
A subdivision of the Tupi-Guarani linguistic families, the Tupi people were one of the largest groups of indigenous Brazilians before its colonization. Scholars believe that while they first settled in the Amazon rainforest, from about 2,900 ...
, meaning "you are my brother".
In Greece in 1936, when
Ioannis Metaxas
Ioannis Metaxas (; el, Ιωάννης Μεταξάς; 12th April 187129th January 1941) was a Greek military officer and politician who served as the Prime Minister of Greece from 1936 until his death in 1941. He governed constitutionally for t ...
and his
4th of August Regime
The 4th of August Regime ( el, Καθεστώς της 4ης Αυγούστου, Kathestós tis tetártis Avgoústou), commonly also known as the Metaxas regime (, ''Kathestós Metaxá''), was a totalitarian regime under the leadership of Gener ...
took power, an almost identical salute was adopted – first by the
National Youth Organization and later by the government as well as common people – and used even while fighting against Italy and Germany in WW2.
In Spain, in the early 1930s,
CEDA
The Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas (, CEDA), was a Spanish political party in the Second Spanish Republic. A Catholic conservative force, it was the political heir to Ángel Herrera Oria's Acción Popular and defined itself in te ...
, the ''Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas'' ("Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups") adopted a form of the Roman salute. Then, on April 27, 1937, after General
Francisco Franco took over the fascist ''
Falange Española de las JONS
The Falange Española de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista (FE de las JONS; ), was a fascist political party founded in Spain in 1934 as merger of the Falange Española and the Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista. FE de las JON ...
'' party and merged it with the
Carlist, monarchist, and ultracatholic
Traditionalist Communion
The Traditionalist Communion ( es, Comunión Tradicionalista, CT) was one of the names adopted by the Carlist movement as a political force since 1869.
History
In October 1931, Carlist claimant to the Spanish throne Duke Jaime died. He was su ...
, creating the
FET y de las JONS (''Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista'', lit. 'Traditionalist Spanish Phalanx of the Councils of the National Syndicalist Offensive"), he formally approved the salute in a decree which made it the official salutation to be used by all except the military, who would continue to use the traditional military salutes. This was repealed in September 1945. When the Franco regime restored "
Marcha Real" as the Spanish national anthem in 1942 and established unofficial
new lyrics for it, the first stanza referred to the fascist salute: "Alzad los brazos, hijos del pueblo español" ("Raise your arms, sons of the Spanish people"). These lyrics remained part of the Spanish national anthem until 1978.
After a meeting with Mussolini, in December 1937,
Yugoslav Prime Minister
Milan Stojadinović and chairman of
Yugoslav Radical Union adopted a version of the salute as he took to styling himself as ''Vođa (Leader)''.
On January 4, 1939, the salute by raising one arm was adopted in Romania under a statute promulgating the
National Renaissance Front
The National Renaissance Front ( ro, Frontul Renașterii Naționale, FRN; also translated as ''Front of National Regeneration'', ''Front of National Rebirth'', ''Front of National Resurrection'', or ''Front of National Renaissance'') was a Romani ...
.
In Slovakia, the
Hlinka Guard Hlinka (feminine Hlinková) is a Czech and Slovak surname. Notable people with the surname include:
*Andrej Hlinka
Andrej Hlinka (born András Hlinka; 27 September 1864 – 16 August 1938) was a Slovak Catholic priest, journalist, banker, po ...
's ''
Na stráž!'' (On guard!) consisted of a half-hearted compromise between a friendly wave and a salute with a straight raised arm.
Post World War II
Italy
The salute has been used many times by prominent individuals as well as groups of people since the war. Famed poet
Ezra Pound used the salute in praise of his adopted country of Italy when he returned in 1958 after being released from an insane asylum in the United States.
The salute was on display in the 1968 funeral for Mussolini's youngest daughter, Anna Maria Mussolini Negri. When the
Italian Social Movement had its greatest electoral gains since the Second World War in June 1971, crowds at the party headquarters cheered and gave the outstretched arm salute. On July 29, 1983, on the 100th anniversary of Mussolini's birth, thousands of black-shirted supporters chanted "Duce! Duce!" with their arms raised in the fascist salute on a march from his native village of
Predappio in
Romagna to the cemetery where he was buried. On the eve of
Silvio Berlusconi
Silvio Berlusconi ( ; ; born 29 September 1936) is an Italian media tycoon and politician who served as Prime Minister of Italy in four governments from 1994 to 1995, 2001 to 2006 and 2008 to 2011. He was a member of the Chamber of Deputies f ...
's election victory in 1994, young supporters of
Gianfranco Fini
Gianfranco Fini (born 3 January 1952) is an Italian politician who served as the president of the Italian Chamber of Deputies from 2008 to 2013. He is the former leader of the far-right Italian Social Movement, the conservative National Allianc ...
made the fascist salute while chanting "Duce! Duce!"
In 2005, Italian
footballer
A football player or footballer is a sportsperson who plays one of the different types of football. The main types of football are association football, American football, Canadian football, Australian rules football, Gaelic football, rugby ...
Paolo Di Canio
Paolo Di Canio (born 9 July 1968) is an Italian former professional footballer and manager. During his playing career he made over 500 league appearances and scored over one hundred goals as a forward. He primarily played as a deep-lying forward ...
created controversy by twice using the gesture to salute
S.S. Lazio fans, first in a match against archrivals
A.S. Roma
' (''Rome Sport Association''), commonly referred to as Roma (), is a professional football club based in Rome, Italy. Founded by a merger in 1927, Roma has participated in the top tier of Italian football for all of its existence, except for ...
and then against
A.S. Livorno Calcio
Unione Sportiva Livorno 1915 (formerly A.S. Livorno Calcio, commonly known as Livorno), is a semi-professional Italian football club based in Livorno, Tuscany. They compete in Serie D, the top tier of semi-professional Italian football after t ...
(a club inclined to leftist politics).
Di Canio received a one match game ban after the second event and was fined 7,000 euros, after which he was quoted as saying "I will always salute as I did because it gives me a sense of belonging to my people
..I saluted my people with what for me is a sign of belonging to a group that holds true values, values of civility against the standardisation that this society imposes upon us."
[ ] His salute featured on unofficial merchandise sold outside
Stadio Olimpico
The Stadio Olimpico (English: ''Olympic Stadium'') is the largest sports facility in Rome, Italy, seating over 70,000 spectators. It is located within the Foro Italico sports complex, north of the city. The structure is owned by the Italian Na ...
after the ban.
Di Canio has also expressed admiration for
Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (; 29 July 188328 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist who founded and led the National Fascist Party. He was Prime Minister of Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 until his deposition in 194 ...
.
In June 2009,
Michela Vittoria Brambilla
Michela Vittoria Brambilla (born 26 October 1967) is an Italian politician and businesswoman. On 12 May 2008 she was nominated undersecretary (Tourism) in the Berlusconi IV Cabinet; on 8 May 2009 she was appointed Minister of Culture and Tourism ...
, an Italian politician and businesswoman commonly described as a possible successor to
Silvio Berlusconi
Silvio Berlusconi ( ; ; born 29 September 1936) is an Italian media tycoon and politician who served as Prime Minister of Italy in four governments from 1994 to 1995, 2001 to 2006 and 2008 to 2011. He was a member of the Chamber of Deputies f ...
for leadership of the Italian right, was caught in a controversy over her alleged use of the Roman salute, with calls for her to step down.
She denied the accusation, stating "I've never either done or thought of doing any gesture that is an apology of fascism, something toward which I've never showed any indulgence, let alone sympathy. And why should I have made a public display of such a despicable gesture shortly after I've been made a minister?"
A video of the event was posted on the Web site of the newspaper ''La Repubblica'' that showed Brambilla extending her right arm upward in what appears to be a fascist salute.
Brambilla said she was just greeting the crowd.
Germany
Use of the salute and accompanying phrases has been forbidden by law in Germany since the end of World War II.
Section 86a of the German Penal Code provides for punishment of up to three years in prison for anyone using the salute, unless it is used for artistic, scientific, or educational purposes.
[Tilman (2009), p. 94–95]
Greece
The Greek nationalist party
Golden Dawn used the Roman salute unofficially. Golden Dawn was accused by its opponents of being neo-Nazi, but the party denies this and claims that the salute was ancient Greek or Roman, and that it was used as a tribute to
Ioannis Metaxas
Ioannis Metaxas (; el, Ιωάννης Μεταξάς; 12th April 187129th January 1941) was a Greek military officer and politician who served as the Prime Minister of Greece from 1936 until his death in 1941. He governed constitutionally for t ...
and his
4th of August Regime
The 4th of August Regime ( el, Καθεστώς της 4ης Αυγούστου, Kathestós tis tetártis Avgoústou), commonly also known as the Metaxas regime (, ''Kathestós Metaxá''), was a totalitarian regime under the leadership of Gener ...
which led Greece against the foreign occupation forces in WWII.
Syria and Lebanon
The salute employed by certain groups and their supporters, like
Hezbollah
Hezbollah (; ar, حزب الله ', , also transliterated Hizbullah or Hizballah, among others) is a Lebanese Shia Islamist political party and militant group, led by its Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah since 1992. Hezbollah's parami ...
, pro-Assad
NDF and Assad supporters, the
Syrian Social Nationalist Party
The Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP) or is a Syrian nationalist party operating in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. It advocates the establishment of a Greater Syrian nation state spanning the Fertile Crescent, including present ...
, and the
Kataeb Party
The Kataeb Party ( ar, حزب الكتائب اللبنانية '), also known in English as the Phalanges, is a Christian political party in Lebanon. The party played a major role in the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990). In decline in the lat ...
, have often been confused with the Roman/Nazi salute, even though in many cases the salute is performed by a closed fist rather than the Roman/Nazi extended palm. Opposition fighters in Syria have also been filmed and documenting using it, or a variance thereof, on multiple occasions.
[Rocklandtimes.com](_blank)
/ref> However, the oath of allegiance by the Lebanese army, and the salute to the flag uses the Roman salute – possibly influenced by Vichy France shortly before independence was officially gained in 1943 – still continues to be used by the state today.[Archived a]
Ghostarchive
and th
Wayback Machine
Portugal
In Portugal the salute is still used today by the military to take their oath to the national flag, when they successfully complete the first phase of military instruction. Formed in front of the highest symbol of national sovereignty, the military raise their right arm pointed towards the flag and take their oath.
South Africa
The Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging
The Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (), meaning "Afrikaner Resistance Movement", commonly known by its abbreviation AWB, is an Afrikaner nationalist paramilitary organisation in South Africa. Since its founding in 1973 by Eugène Terre'Blanche and ...
, a neo-Nazi political party and paramilitary force known for its advocacy of an all-white Afrikaner ''Volkstaat
The concept of a Volkstaat (, "People's State"), also called a Boerestaat, is a proposed view to establish an all-white Afrikaner homeland within the borders of South Africa, most commonly proposed as a fully independent Boer/Afrikaner natio ...
'', has used Nazi-style uniforms, flags, insignia, and salutes at meetings and public rallies. Hundreds of supporters in 2010 delivered straight-arm salutes outside the funeral for its founder and former leader Eugène Terre'Blanche
Eugène Ney Terre'Blanche (, 31 January 1941Terre'Blanche's year of birth is alternately given as 1941 or 1944. The majority of sources indicates 1941; sources that claim 1944 as his year of birth includ''The Star''
Red Hand of Ulster
The Red Hand of Ulster ( gle, Lámh Dhearg Uladh), also known as the Red Hand Uí Néill, is a symbol used in heraldry to denote the Irish province of Ulster and the Northern Uí Néill in particular. However, it has also been used by other Ir ...
. It is used by some Rangers F.C.
Rangers Football Club is a Scottish professional football club based in the Govan district of Glasgow which plays in the Scottish Premiership. Although not its official name, it is often referred to as Glasgow Rangers outside Scotland. The fou ...
fans to show an affinity with the Loyalist cause. Its similarity to the Nazi salute has caused offence and the football
Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball to score a goal. Unqualified, the word ''football'' normally means the form of football that is the most popular where the word is used. Sports commonly c ...
club and its supporters' association have asked them not to use it.
[
]
[
]
In popular culture
A large number of films made after World War II made the Roman salute a visual stereotype of a proto-fascist ancient Roman society.[Winkler (2009), p. 151] In the 1951 film ''Quo Vadis
''Quō vādis?'' (, ) is a Latin phrase meaning "Where are you marching?". It is also commonly translated as "Where are you going?" or, poetically, "Whither goest thou?"
The phrase originates from the Christian tradition regarding Saint Pete ...
'', Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...
's repeated use of the salute at mass rallies explicitly presents the Roman Empire as a fascist military state.[Winkler (2009), p. 143–145] The movie provided other filmmakers of the time a model, with notable examples including '' Ben-Hur'',[Winkler (2009), p. 155] ''Spartacus
Spartacus ( el, Σπάρτακος '; la, Spartacus; c. 103–71 BC) was a Thracian gladiator who, along with Crixus, Gannicus, Castus, and Oenomaus, was one of the escaped slave leaders in the Third Servile War, a major slave uprising ...
'', ''Cleopatra
Cleopatra VII Philopator ( grc-gre, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ}, "Cleopatra the father-beloved"; 69 BC10 August 30 BC) was Queen of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt from 51 to 30 BC, and its last active ruler.She was also a ...
'', and ''Caligula
Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), better known by his nickname Caligula (), was the third Roman emperor, ruling from 37 until his assassination in 41. He was the son of the popular Roman general Germanicu ...
''. Not until ''Gladiator
A gladiator ( la, gladiator, "swordsman", from , "sword") was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gla ...
'' did the Roman epic return to the cinema.[Winkler (2009), p. 164] In this movie, the salute is notably absent in most scenes, for example when Commodus
Commodus (; 31 August 161 – 31 December 192) was a Roman emperor who ruled from 177 to 192. He served jointly with his father Marcus Aurelius from 176 until the latter's death in 180, and thereafter he reigned alone until his assassination. ...
enters Rome or when the Senate salutes the Emperor by head-bowing.
Variations on the salute also appear in neo-fascist contexts. For example, The Christian Falangist Party, founded in 1985, uses a " pectoral salute", in which the right arm, bent at the elbow, is extended from the heart, palm down.[Winkler (2009), p. 6] This gesture was used in François Truffaut
François Roland Truffaut ( , ; ; 6 February 1932 – 21 October 1984) was a French film director, screenwriter, producer, actor, and film critic. He is widely regarded as one of the founders of the French New Wave. After a career of more tha ...
's 1966 film ''Fahrenheit 451
''Fahrenheit 451'' is a 1953 dystopian novel by American writer Ray Bradbury. Often regarded as one of his best works, ''Fahrenheit 451'' presents an American society where books have been personified and outlawed and "firemen" burn any that ar ...
''.[Winkler (2009), p. 176] The film portrays a futuristic totalitarian society modeled after the fascist state, including black uniforms, book burning
Book burning is the deliberate destruction by fire of books or other written materials, usually carried out in a public context. The burning of books represents an element of censorship and usually proceeds from a cultural, religious, or politi ...
s, and thought control. In the ''Star Trek
''Star Trek'' is an American science fiction media franchise created by Gene Roddenberry, which began with the eponymous 1960s television series and quickly became a worldwide pop-culture phenomenon. The franchise has expanded into vari ...
'' episode " Mirror, Mirror", the salute begins with the right fist being placed over the heart, as in a pectoral salute, and then the arm is stretched out (usually up) before the body, open palm down, as in a traditional Roman salute.[Winkler (2009), p. 169] In the episode, Captain Kirk
James Tiberius Kirk is a fictional character in the '' Star Trek'' media franchise. Originally played by Canadian actor William Shatner, Kirk first appeared in '' Star Trek'' serving aboard the starship USS ''Enterprise'' as captain. Kirk lea ...
and members of his crew are transported to a parallel universe in which the United Federation of Planets
In the fictional universe of ''Star Trek'' the United Federation of Planets (UFP) is the interstellar government with which, as part of its space force Starfleet, most of the characters and starships of the franchise are affiliated. Commonly refe ...
has been replaced by an empire characterized by sadistic violence and torture, genocide, and unquestioning obedience to authority. A modified Roman salute is commonly used in the British-American series ''Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus (legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
''.[Winkler (2009), p. 174] Here the salute avoids similarity to the Fascist salute, as the series seeks not to depict these Romans as stereotypical conquerors. Therefore, the salute is not the familiar straight arm salute but rather resembles a pectoral salute, with the right hand is placed over the heart and then extended to the front of the body.
See also
* ''Ave
''Alta Velocidad Española'' (''AVE'') is a service of high-speed rail in Spain operated by Renfe, the Spanish national railway company, at speeds of up to . As of December 2021, the Spanish high-speed rail network, on part of which the AVE s ...
''
* Ave Imperator, morituri te salutant
''Avē Imperātor, moritūrī tē salūtant'' ("Hail, Emperor, those who are about to die salute you") is a well-known Latin phrase quoted in Suetonius, '' De vita Caesarum'' ("The Life of the Caesars", or "The Twelve Caesars"). It was reported ...
* Bellamy salute
The Bellamy salute is a palm-out salute created by James B. Upham as the gesture that was to accompany the American Pledge of Allegiance, which had been written by Christian socialist minister, Francis Bellamy. It was also known as the "flag s ...
* ''Bras d'honneur
A (), Iberian slap,, ; pt, manguito; ca, botifarra, . forearm jerk, Italian salute,, . or Kozakiewicz's gesture, or . is an obscene gesture that communicates moderate to extreme contempt, and is roughly equivalent in meaning to " fuck you", "s ...
''
* '' Heil og sæl''
* Olympic salute
* Pledge of Allegiance to the Mexican Flag
* Quenelle (gesture)
The () is a gesture created and popularized by French comedian Dieudonné M'bala M'bala. He first used it in 2005 in his sketch entitled "1905" about French secularism, and has used it since in a wide variety of contexts. The quenelle became ...
* Raised fist
* Zogist salute
The Zogist salute (), or the nationalist Albanian salute, is a military salute of Albania since used by civilians in other countries. The salute is a gesture whereby the right hand is placed over the heart, with the palm facing downwards.
The sal ...
References
Citations
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
Former President of Republic of China (Taiwan) Ma Ying Jeou giving Roman salute
Former President of Republic of China (Taiwan) Chen Shui Bian giving Roman salute
Officials in the Republic of China (Taiwan) being sworn in with Roman Salute
Photograph
an
"cartoon view" explanation
of Trajan's Column
Trajan's Column ( it, Colonna Traiana, la, Columna Traiani) is a Roman triumphal column in Rome, Italy, that commemorates Roman emperor Trajan's victory in the Dacian Wars. It was probably constructed under the supervision of the architect Ap ...
, from McMaster University
McMaster University (McMaster or Mac) is a public research university in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. The main McMaster campus is on of land near the residential neighbourhoods of Ainslie Wood and Westdale, adjacent to the Royal Botanical Ga ...
Humanities department
*. Poster from 1924 Olympics depicting Olympic salute
{{DEFAULTSORT:Roman Salute
Greetings
Fascist symbols
Hand gestures
Gestures of respect
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